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1 


m 


THE 


MISCELLANEOUS  DOCUMENTS 


OF   THE 


HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES 


FOR  THE 


FIEST  SESSION  OF  THE  FIFTY-FIRST  CONGRESS. 


1889-'90. 

Is" 

IN   FORTY-SEVEN   VOLUMES. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1891. 


INDEX  TO  HOUSE  MISCELLANEOUS  DOCUMENTS. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOLUMES. 


VoL  1 . .Nos.  1  to  76,  inclusive,  except  Nos.  4, 5, 6, 
41,  44,  and  45. 

Vol".  3"v«  U  Hellion  .Records,  VoL  24,  parts 

VoL  4 

Vol.  5 

VoL  6 

VoL  7 

VoL  8 

VoL  9 


Vol.  10 
Vol.  11 
Vol.  12 
Vol.13 

Vol.  14 
Vol.15 
Vol.  16 


Vol.17. 

Vol.  18. 
Vol.  19. 
Vol.20. 
VoL  21. 
Vol.22. 
Vol.  23. 
Vol.  24. 


.No.  44  ?  Rebellion  Records,  VoL  25,  parts 

.No.  45$     land  2. 

.Nos.  77  to  175,  inclusive,  except  Nos.  105, 

106, 146, 147, 148. 

.No.  105  ?  Rebellion  Records,  VoL  26,  parts 
.No.  106  5     land  2. 

-§°-  }J5  \  Rebellion  Records,  VoL  27,  parts 

..No.  147  >     i   o  nnj  o 

.No.  148  5     1'2'and3- 

.No.  176,  Tariff  Hearings. 

.Nos.  177  to  260,  inclusive,  except  Noa.  194, 
211,  223,  224,  228,  229,  231,  232,  233,  234, 
237,  238,  239,  240,  241,  243,  244,  245,  246, 
247,  248.  249,  257. 

.No.  194,  Monograph  VoL  1,  Geological  Sur- 
vey. 

.Nos.  211  and  261,  Fish  Bulletins,  etc. 

.No.  223,  Rebellion  Records,  VoL  28,  part  1. 

Jo!  lit  p£t  2  }  SmithsonianR^port,  1889. 
.No.  228,  Rebellion  Records,  Vol.  28,  part  2. 
.Nos.  229,  243, 262,  263,  264,  265,  266. 
.No.  231,  Consular  Reports,  105  to  107$. 


VoL 25.. Nos. 232  and  233,  Consular  Reports  108  to 
111,  and  index  to  vols.  18  to  31. 

VoL  26.  .No.  ?34,  Consular  Reports  112  to  115. 

VoL  27.. No.  237,  Opinions  of  Attorneys-General, 
VoL  17. 

VoL 28.. No  238, Opinions  of  Attorneys-General, 
VoL  18. 

VoL 29.. No.  239,  Opinions  of  Attorney-General, 
VoL  Id. 

Vol.  30.  .No.  240  ?  Rebellion  Records,  VoL  29,  parts 

Vol.  31.. No.  241  5     land  2. 

VoL  32.. No.  244,  Bulletins  55-01  Geological  Sur- 
vey. 

VoL  33.. No.  245) 

VoL  34.  .No.  246  (Rebellion  Records,  VoL  30,  parts 

Vol.  35. .No.  247  f     1, 2, 3,  and  4. 

Vol.  36.. No.  248 J 

VoL 37.. No. 249,  Monograph  Vol.  16,  Geological 
Survey. 

VoL  38.  .No.  257,  Observations,  1885. 

Vol.  39.. No. 267,  Consular  Reports  116  to  119. 

VoL  40.  .No.  268,  Special  Consular  Reports. 

VoL  41 .  .No.  269,  Fifth  Report  Entomological  Com- 
mission. 

Vol. 42.. No. 270,  Animal  Industry,  1889-'90. 

Vol.  43.  .No.  271,  Hayden's  Volume  13,  Scudder. 

Vol. 44.. No. 272,  part  1  ?  American    Ethnology, 

Vol.  45.. No.  272,  part  25      VoL  2,  Gatschet. 

Vol.  46. .No.  273,  American  Ethnology,  Vol.  6. 

VoL  47.  .No.  274,  Fish  and  Fisheries,  1888. 


Subject. 


No. 


Vol. 


A. 

Alaska,  report  on  the  salmon  aud  salmon  rivers  of,  etc 211  18 

Resolution  requesting  the  Secretary  of  the  State  to  report  to  House 
all  correspondence  between  the  Government  of  the  United  States  and 
foreign  governments  concerning  the  seizure  of  vessels, for  violation 

of  seal  fisheries  laws 54  1 

Alfrey,  A.  H. ,  findings  of  the  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 132  9 

Allen,  Lewis  D.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 34  1 

Anderson,  Anna  M.,  and  others,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of..  78  9 

Anderson,  Allen  E.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214  16 

Anderson,  William  H.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 151  9 

Appropriations,  conference  report  on  riverand  harbor  bill 250  16 

Architect  of  the  Capitol,  letter  from  the,  transmitting  estimate  of  the 

cost  of  erecting  a  basement  story  under  the  National  Museum 126  9 

Arrears  of  Pensions,  estimate  of  the  probable  cost  of  the  repeal  of  the..  196  16 

A.skew,  Allie  V.,  administratrix,  findings  of  Court  of  .Claims  in  case  of..  71  1 
Attorneys-General  of  the  United  States: 

Official  Opinions  of  (vol.17) 237  27 

Official  Opinions  of  (vol.  18) 238  28 

Official  Opinions  of  (vol.  19) 239  29 

B. 

Badeaux,  Ulger  V.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214  16 

Bailey,  J.  J.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 212  16 

Ballot-box  forgery,  resolution  for  appointment  of  committee  to  investi- 
gate alleged  27  1 

Banks,  Charles,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 216  16 

Barksdale,  Thomas  M.,  findings  of  court  of  Claims  in  case  of 40  1 

ill 


573594 


IV 


INDEX   TO   HOUSE   MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


Subject. 


No. 


Beard,  Daniel,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 153 

Beard,  J.  D.,  and  others,  resolution  to  refer  claims  to  Court  of  Claims..  175 

Beard,  J.  D.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 212 

Beauchamp,  Stephen  E.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims. ..  213 

Belt,  Alfred  M.,  and  others,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 67 

Billingslea,  Walter  R.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Bishop,  Clarissa,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Blackiuan,  M.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Blue  Book.     (See  Official  Register.) 

Borders,  William  H.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 36 

Briant,  Mrs.  E.  H.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Brig  Juno,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 61 

Brig  Polly  and  brig  Little  Sam,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  cases 

of 74 

Brooks,  Moses,  findings  of  the  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 131 

Brown,  Thomas,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214 

Brown,  Thomas  J.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 235 

Bryan,  Ella,  administratrix,  findings  of  Court  of -Claims  in  case  of 98 

Burditt,  Augustus  P.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 236 

Bureau  of  Labor,  annual  report  of  expenditures  of 30 

Burnett,  Chesley,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 93 

Butler,  Hannah  B.,  administratrix,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court 

of  Claims 213 

C. 

California,  resolution  of  the  Legislature  relative  to  the  improvement  of 

the  Sacramento,  San  Joaquin,  and  Feather  Rivers 135 

Canada,  resolution  relative  to  reciprocity  with 195 

Canada  and  United  States,  resolution  relative  to  northwestern  bound- 
ary between 253 

Carlin,  Mary,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 213 

Carlin,  Mary,  heirs  of  and  others,  resolution  to  refer  claims  to  Court  of 

Claims 174 

Carter,  Robert,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 170 

Chairs,  Calvin,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 183 

Chambers,  Smiley  N.,  resolution  for  appointment  of  a  special  committee 
to  investigate  the  conduct  of  United  States  district  attorney  and  others 
of  the  State  of  Indiana,  in  connection  with  charges  against  W.  W. 

Dudley 47 

Chinese  laborers,  resolution  of  inquiry  relative  to  immigration  of,  from 

Canada  and  Mexico 202 

Choice,  J.  H.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims _ .  171 

Claims,  list  of,  submitted  to  the  Court  of  Claims  under  the  Bowman 

Act 56 

Clarke,  Maria  T.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Clerk's  office,  House  of  Representatives: 

Report  of  expenditures  by  the  Clerk  of  the  House,  on  account  of 

the,  for  1889 13 

Report  of  Clerk  of  House  showing  expenditures  from  July  1,  1889, 

to  December  2,  1889 14 

Inventory  of  public  property  in  the  possession  of  the 10 

Cloud,  A.  M.,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 128 

Coal.    (See  iron  and  manufacturers  of.) 

Coleman,  James  E.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 20 

Columbia  Institution  for  the  Deaf  and  Dumb : 

Report  of  receipts  and  disbursements  of .172 

Columbian  Centennial  Exposition,  resolutions  relative  to 254 

Cornan,  Broussais,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 25 

Commissioner  of  the  Freedman's  Savings  and  Trust  Company,  annual 

report  of  the 33 

Commissioner  of  Labor : 

Annual  report  of,  of  expenditures  of  Bureau  of  Labor 30 

Concurrent  resolution  authorizing  the  printing  of  additional  copies  • 

of  the  first  and  second  annual  reports  of  the 121 


INDEX   TO   HOUSE    MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


Subject. 


No. 


Vol. 


Committees,  list  of  standing  and  select,  of  House  of  Representatives, 

Fif'ty-firstCongress,  first  session 2 

Committee  on  Public  Buildings  and  Grounds.    Resolution  instructing 
the,  to  report  as  to  the  practicability  of  constructing  an  elevator  at 

the  main  entrance  of  the  Capitol 107 

Committee  on  Ways  and  Means.     Hearings  before  the 176 

Congress,  list  of  contests  for  seats  in  the  Fifty-first 82 

Con nell,  Hiram  D.,  and  others,  resolutions  to  refer  claims  to  Court  of 

Claims 259 

Consular  reports,  1889 : 

Volume  30  (Nos.  105  to  107*) '. 231 

Volume  31  (Nos.  108  to  111  and  index  to  vols.  18  to  31) •  232 

Volume  32  (Nos.  112  to  115) 234 

Volumes  18  to  31,  index  to 233 

Contested  seats,  letter  from  Clerk  of  House  of  Representatives  trans- 
mitting list  of  contests  for  seats  in  Fifty-first  Congress 82 

Corn,  resolution  instructing  the  Committee  on  Merchant  Marine  and 
Fisheries  to  investigate  the  subject  of  allowing  subsidies  to  ships  to 

pay  each  farmer  for  each  bushel  of,  produced 140 

Coulter,  Charles,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214 

Court  of  Claims : 

List  of  claims  submitted  to  the,  under  the  Bowman  Act 56 

List  of  judgments  rendered  by  the 9 

Findings  in  cases  of— 

Alfrey,A.H 132 

Allen,  Lewis  D 34 

Anderson,  Anna  M.,  and  others 78 

Anderson,  William  H 151 

Askew,  Allie  V.,  administratrix 71 

Barksdale,  Thomas  M 40 

Beard,  Daniel,  administrator 153 

Belt.Alfred  M.,and  others 67 

Borders,  William  H 36 

Brig  Juno 61 

Brig  Polly  and  brig  Little  Sam 74 

Brooks,  Moses 131 

Bryan,  Ella,  administratrix 98 

Burditt,  Augustus? 236 

Burnett,  Chesley 93 

Cloud,  A.  M.,  administrator 128 

Coleman,  James  S 20 

Coman,  Broussias 25 

Davidson,  William  C 97 

Davis,  F.  M.  and  JosiahE 29 

Davis,  George  A.,  administrator 130 

Davis,  William  G.,  administrator 94 

Dooley,  Mary  J 141 

Eakle,Elias 21 

Eminert,  Leonard Ill 

Experience,  the  brig 164 

Flinn,  James  M I  169 

Foltz,  Samuel  M I 

Gloyd,  Jacob  A.  and  Samuel  S.,  executors 155 

Gloyd,  SamuelS 35 

Grantham,  Joseph .•. 80 

Grantham,  William  J 108 

Graves,  Ann  E.,  administratrix,  etc 23 

Gruber,  Isaac,  executor _ 149 

Holloway,  John  G.,  executor  of 177 

Holt,  Benjamin 129 

Hopkins,  John  W 15 

Hughey,  Harrison  H 189 

Johnston,  J.  L 37 

Jones,  John  T.,  and  others 57 

Keedy,  Jacob  H 91 

Kenuey,  Benjamin 188 


VI 


INDEX   TO   HOUSE   MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


Subject. 


No. 


Court  of  Claims— Continued. 
Findings  in  cases  of: 

Kilmer,  Robert  and  Dennis 22 

Kimbrough,  John  W.,  administrator .. 39 

Knuckolls,  William 95 

Leary,  John  S.  and  MathewM.Jr 90 

Lovell,  Albert  G.,  executor 154 

McDonald,  Roberts 187 

McGhee,  John  B 58 

Mclnty re,  Patrick ., 204 

Marr,  Duncan 90 

Marsh,.  Samuel 81 

Metteallary,  E 137 

Miller,Lydia 85 

Montgomery,  R.  W.,  guardian 38 

Moore,  William  F 143 

Mullett,  Alfred  B 218 

Murdock,  John 110 

Newcomer,  Victor  H.,  executor 16 

Osborne,  John 117 

Owens.  William,  administrator,  and  others 68 

Pamais,  Pierre,  administrator 127* 

Parker,  William  C.,  administrator 208 

Poffinberger,  Alfred 19 

Posey,  William  P 109 

Prewitt,M.W.  and  J  K.  Gates,  executors 102 

Priddy,  Piety 100 

Reaves,  John  R.,  administrator 89 

Reilly,  Betty  B 65 

Resley,  James 156 

Robinson,  J.  W.B.,  administrator 186 

Robinson,  William 120 

Rogers,  Benjamin  P 217 

Rogers,  Melinda 92 

Routzahan,  Herman  L.,  administrator 112 

Rouzer,  Reuben .,   151 

St.  Amand,  Joseph,  executor 150 

Salmon,  Robert  D.,  and  others 7 62 

Schooner  Commerce 60 

Shiner,  William 17 

Shreve,  Charles  W 79 

Sloops  Union  and  Packet 66 

Smith,  John  Hoffman....*. 118 

Sneuffer,A.T 59 

Snively,  Hiram  B.,  executor 154 

Spoliation  claims 69 

Stewart,  Thomas 26 

Sydenstricker,  Mary 18 

Tearney,  Ed  ward,  administrator,  and  others 70 

Thurman,  Oliver  M 16! 

Tilghman,  Hilliary,  jr 24 

Travis,  W.C.M 179 

Vietch,  Fletcher  R.,  and  others 139 

Wade,  Watson  J.,  administrator 94 

Walters,  Luther 84 

Ward,  Enoch  P'. 210 

Webber,W.R 101 

Wood,CharlesW "       63 

Wording,CharlesH 7 

Wyndham,  Thornton  O 64 

Resolution  to  refer  claims  to — 
Claims  of— 

Badeaux,Ulger  V.,  and  others 214 

Banks,  Charles 216 

Beard,  J.D.,  and  others j  212 


INDEX    TO    HOUSE    MISCELLANEOUS    DOCUMENTS. 


VII 


Subject. 


No. 


Vol. 


Court  of  Claims— Continued. 
Resolution  to  refer  claims  to — 
Claims  of— 

Brown,  Thomas  J 235 

Carlin,  Mary,  and  others <  £13 

Carter,  Robert 170 

Chairs,  Calvin 183 

Choice,  J.H 171 

Connell,  Hiram  D.,  and  others -..  259 

Dowdy,  LucyE 183 

Farrar,  C.,  administrator 183 

Galloway,  W.  A 183 

Gibson,William  F 226 

Goude,  Charles  F.,  and  others 203 

Greer,J.S.O.G.,  and  others 242 

Haigh.A.  V 235 

Henkel,  Philip 201 

Hobbs,  Thomas  M.,  and  others 205 

Hundley,  William  T 192 

Judkins,  James  H.  and  William  T 116 

McElmore,  Sarah  C.,  administrator 183 

Meath,  Patrick  G 256 

Moore,  Stephen,  administrator 225 

Morat,  L.  F 183 

Parham,R.H.,  administrator 183 

Rice,  Jamison  W.,and  others 258 

Richmond,  Charles,  children  of 200 

St.  Charles  College,  of  St.  Charlea,  Mo 220 

SuavS,  Peter 251 

Tomlinson,  E.  G.,  administrator 183 

Urquhart,  C.  Aagusta,  and  others 221 

Vallean,  Sarah  J.,  and  others 215 

Vance,  George  T.  and  Guy  P.,  executors 167 

Courts  of  the  United  States,  substitute  for  resolution  to  investigate 

the  practice  of  certain  district,  and  other  officers  in  criminal  cases..  124 

Cox,  Samuel  Sullivan,  eulogies  upon.    Death  of 243 

Davidson,  William  C.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 97 

Davis,  F.  M.  and  Josiah  E.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 29 

Davis,  George  A. ,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of. .  130 

Davis,  William  G.,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of.  99 

Dent,  Warren  R.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Department  of  Agriculture,  bibliography  of  important  contributions  to 
American  economic  entomology,  prepared  by  the  authority  of  the 

Secretary  of  Agriculture 133 

Di  Brazza,  Cora  A.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 221 

Disabled  Volunteer  Soldiers,  letter  from  the  president  of  board  of  mana- 
gers National  Home  for,  submitting  deficitsncy  estimate  in  appropria- 
tions for  expenses  of  disabled  soldiers  in  State  Homes 48 

District  of  Columbia: 

Resolution  to  print  500  extra  copies  of  the  report  of  the  health  offi- 
cer of 166 

Report  relati  ve  to  fast  dri  ving,  etc. ,  in  the  streets 209 

Rock  Creek  Park,  assessed  valuation  of  property  within  bounds  of.  184 
Document  room,  House  of  Representatives,  resolution  for  necessary 

shelving  lor  the _ 181 

Dooley,  Mary  J.,  findings  of  the  Court  of  Claims  in  the  case  of 141 

Doorkeeper,  House  of  Representatives : 

Report  from  the,  of  sales  of  waste  paper 11 

List  of  public  property  in  possession  of 12 

Dougherty,  Mary  A.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 212 

Dowdy,  Lucy  E.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 183 

Dudley,  William  W.,  resolution  for  appointment  of  a  special  committee 
to  investigate  the  official  conduct  of  Smiley  N.  Chambers,  U.  S.  dis- 
trict attorney,  and  others  of  the  State  of  Indiana,  in  connection  with 

charges  against... ,, . 47 


VIII 


INDEX   TO   HOUSE   MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


Subject. 


No. 


E. 

Eakle,  Elias,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  ease  of 21 

Elevator  at  main  entrance  of  Capitol,  resolution  instructing  Committee 
on  Public  Buildings  and  Grounds  to  report  upon  the  practicability  of 

constructing 107 

Eleventh  census,  resolution  of  inquiry  relating  to  the 46 

Emmert,  Leonard,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of Ill 

Entomology,   bibliography  of  important    contributions  to  American 

economic 133 

Eulogies  upon  death  of: 

Samuel  Sullivan  Cox '243 

William  D.  Kelly 229 

Executive  Departments,  disposition  of  useless  papers  in  the 207 

Resolution  relative  to  telephones  in 180 

Experience,  the  brig,  findings  of  the  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 164 

F. 

Fagot,  Emilie,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 213 

Farrar,  C.    C.,  administrator,  resolution  to    refer  claim    to  Court  of 

Claims 188 

Panic-oner,  John  H.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 220 

Fifteen-cent  silver  coin,  petition  in  favor  of  the  coinage  of  a 104 

Flinn,  James  M.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 169 

Folding  room,  House  of  Representatives,  list  of  public  documents  in  the.  8 

Foltz,  Samuel  M.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  caseof 86 

Fort  Douglas,  Utah,  resolution  relative  to  military  reservation  at 173 

Freedinan's  Savings  and  Trust  Company,  annual  report  of  the  commis- 
sioner of  the 33 

Fuller,  Chief  Justice,  address  of,  inauguration  of  George  Washington  as 

the  first  President  of  the  United  States , 168 

G. 

Galland,  Washington,  resolution  requesting  appropriation  to  pay  claim 

of 191 

Galloway,  W.  A.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 183 

Garrett,  W.  T.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Geological  Survey : 

Monograph  (vol.  1) 194 

Monograph  (vol.  16) 249 

Bulletins  Nos.  55-61 244 

Georgetown  and  Tennallytown  Railway  Company,  statement  of  the  con- 
dition of  the,foryear  1889 125 

Gibson,  William  F.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 226 

Gloyd,  Jacob  A.  and  Samuel  S.,  executors,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims 

in  case  of 155 

Gloyd,  Samuel  S.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  caseof 25 

Goodrich,  E.  A.  and  M.  E.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims.  213 
Goude,  Charles  F.  and  others,  resolution  to  refer  claims  of  to  Court  of 

of  Claims 203 

Grantham,  Joseph,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 80 

Grautham,  William  J.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 108 

Graves,  Ann  E.,  administratrix,  etc.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  iu 

case  of 23 

Great  Britain  and  Mexico,  resolution  relating  to  negotiations  with 198 

Greer,  J.  S.  O.  G.  and  others,  resolution  to  refer  claims  to  Court  of 

Claims 242 

Gruber,  Isaac,  executor,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 149 

H. 

Haigh,  A.  V.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 235 

Hartlove,  Wesley,  heirs  of,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims  221 

Henkel,  Philip,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 201 


INDEX    TO    HOUSE    MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


IX 


Subject. 


Higgins,  Richard,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 212  16 

Hill,  Joshua,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214  16 

Hobbs,  Thomas  M.  and  others,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of 

Claims 205  16 

Holland,  Mrs.  Mattie  S.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  of,  to  Secretary  of 

War 206  16 

Holloway,  John  G.,  executors  of,  findings  of  Conrt  of  Claims  in  case  of ..  177  16 

Holt,  Benjamin,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 129  9 

Holt,  John  M.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215  16 

Hopkins,  John  W.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 15  1 

House  of  Representatives : 

Alphabetical  list  of  Members  and  Delegates  and  committees  of 

which  they  are  members 3  1 

List  of  Members  arranged  by  States 1  1 

List  of  standing  and  select  committees 2  1 

Report  of  expenditures  by  Clerk  of,  for  1889 $        Jj|     j       1 

Report  of  public  property  in  possession  of  the  Clerk  of 10  1 

Rules  of  the,  proposed  by  Committee  on  Rules 87  9 

Code  of  rules  of  the,  as  reported  by  Committee  on  Rules  and  ordered 

printed 88  9 

Resolution  for  appointment  of  committee  to  investigate  alleged 

forgery  of  ballot-box  contract 27  1 

Resolution  of  inquiry  relating  to  the  Eleventh  Census. 46  1 

Resolution  to  pay  Harry  B.  Keffer  as  messenger  in 178  16 

Resolution  to  print  annual  message  of  the  President 28  1 

Resolution  for  amendment  of  the  rules  of  the,  in  respect  to  appro- 
priations   32  1 

Resolution  to  provide  additional  shelving  for  document  room 181  16 

Resolution  authorizing  the  Sergeant-at-Arms  of  the  House  to  offer 
a  reward  for  the  arrest  of  Craven  E.  Silcott,  absconding  cashier  of 

late  Sergeant-at-Arms 31  1 

Hnghey,  Harrison  H.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 189  16 

Hundley,  William  T.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 192  16 

I. 

Immigration: 

Concurrent  resolution  instructing  the  Senate  Committee  on  Immi- 
gration and  House  Committee  on  Immigration  and  Naturalization 

to  investigate  jointly  the  subject  of 103  9 

Resolution  of  inquiry  relative  to  Chinese 202  16 

Import  duties : 

Resolution  Iowa  legislature  relative  to  placing  on  the  free  list  jute 

and  sisal  grass 190  16 

Resolution  relative  to  duty  on  lead  ores 42  1 

Hearings  before  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means 176          15 

Petition  of  proprietors  of  woolen  manufactories  in  relation  to  duties 

on  wool 49  1 

Petition  of  Jesse  Metcalf  and  others  for  removal  of  duties  on  raw 

wool 52  1 

International  arbitration,  concurrent  resolution  to  invite,  as  to  differ- 
ences between  nations 113  9 

International  Marine  Conference,  concurrent  resolution  to  print  the  pro- 
ceedings and  final  acts  of  the 119  9 

Interstate  Commerce  Commission,  annual  report  of  the 50  1 

Iowa: 

Memorial  of  legislature  in  favor  of  a  law  compelling  the  nse  of  auto- 
matic couplers  and  automatic  air  brakes  by  railroads  on  freight 

trains 142  9 

Resolution  of  legislature  of,  relative  to  Hennepin  Canal 157  9 

Resolution  of  Iowa  legislature  relative  to  arrears  of  pensions 158  9 

I       159  9 

Resolutions  of  the  legislature  of,  relative  to  adulteration  of  lard. {160  9 

I      163  9 

Resolution  of  the  legislature  of,  to  place  iute  and  sisal  grass  on  the 
free  list.  190  16 


No. 


Vol. 


INDEX   TO    HOUSE   MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


Subject. 


No. 


Iron  and  manufactures  of,  preliminary  report  on  the  cost  of  production 
of  pig-iron,  steel  ingots,  steel  rails,  coal,  coke,  iron  ore,  and  limestone. 

J. 


222 


Jacksonville,  St.  Augustine,  and  Halifax  River  Railway  Company,  re- 
port of  Chief  of  Engineers  in  relation  to  bill  (H.  R.  5972)  granting 

right  of  way  to  the,  across  St.  Augustine  military  reservation 136 

Jeffrey,  Rosa  Vertner,  reference  of  claim  to  Secretary  of  War 227 

Johnson,  Fannie  T.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214 

Johnston,  J.  L.  (guardian),  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 37 

Jones,  John  T.,  and  others,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 57 

Judgments,  list  of,  rendered  by  the  Court  of  Claims 9 

Judkins,  James  H.  and  William  T.,  resolution  referring  claim  of,  to 

Court  of  Claims 
Jute  and  sisal  grass.    See  Import  duties. 

K. 

Keedy,  Jacob  H.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 91 

Keegan,  Mary  E.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214 

Keffer,  Harry  B.,  resolution  relative  to  salary  of 178 

Kelley,  William  D.,  eulogies  upon  death  of 229 

Kenney,  Benjamin,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 188 

Kennedy,  Lenora  J.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Kilmer,  Robert  and  Dennis,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 22 

Kimbrough,  John  W.,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in 

case  of 

Knuckolls,  William,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 95 

L. 

/  i  rq 

Lard,  concurrent  resolutions  of  Iowa  legislature  relative  to  adulter-  > 

ation  of }  163 

Lannaux,  Adele,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 213 

Lawrence,  L.  J.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Lead  ores,  resolution  relative  to  duty  on 42 

Leary,  John  S.  and  Mathew  N.,  jr.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case 

of 90 

Ledett,  Henry  E.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims    214 

Leedom,  J.  P.,  testimony  in  relation  to  the  investigation  of  the  office 

of  Sergeant-at-Arms  under 55 

Leedom,  John  P.,  preamble  and  resolution  relating  to  sums  of  money 

due  from,  to  members  of  the  House 73 

Leiper,  John,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214 

Letter  carriers,  resolution  relative  to  increase  in  pay  of 197 

Light-house,  Detroit  River,  letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury 

declining  to  recommend  an  appropriation  for 138 

Long,  Henry  W.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 

Lovell,  Albert  G.,  executor,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 154 

M.      . 

McDonald,  Robert  S.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 187 

McElmore,  Sarah  C.,  administrator,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court 

of  Claims 183 

McGhee,  John  B.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 58 

Mclntyre,  Patrick,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 204 

Mclntosh,  Janet,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 213 

Marr,  Duncan,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 96 

Marsh,  Samuel,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 81 

Massachusetts,  resolution  of  legislature  of,  relative  to  guard-rails  on  top 

of  box  and  stock  freight  cars 185 

Massich,  Francis,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 213 

Meat  products,  resolution  relative  to  transportation  and  sale  of 199 


INDEX    TO   HOUSE    MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


XI 


Subject. 


No. 


Vol. 


Meath,  Patrick  G.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 256  16 

Mexico  and  Great  Britain,  resolution  relative  to  negotiations  with 198  16 

Mette,  Mary  E. ,  findings  of  the  Court  of  Claims  in  the  case  of 137  9 

Members  and  Delegates  of  the  House  of  Representatives,  alphabetical 

list  of . 3  1 

Miller,  Lydia,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 85  9 

Mineral  resources  of  the  United  States,  statistical  report  of,  for  1888.. .  230  16 
Mississippi,  memorial  of  legislature  in  favor  of  compelling  railroads  to 

equip  their  cars  with  automatic  couplers  and  power  automatic  brakes.  145  9 
Mottatt,  Hon.  Seth  C.,  response  of  Public  Printer  to  resolution  of  House 

relative  to  the  delay  in  printing  eulogies  on 83  9 

Monahan,  Mary  E.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 212  16 

M  outgomery ,  R.W.,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of.  38  1 
Moore,  Stephen,  administrator  of  William  Hopper,  deceased,  resolution 

to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 225  16 

Moore,  William  F.,  findings  of  the  Court  of  Claims  in  the  case  of 143  9 

Morat,  L.  P. ,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 183  16 

Mullett,  Alfred  B.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 218  16 

Mnrdock,  John,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 110  9 

N. 

National  Home  for  Disabled  Volunteer  Soldiers: 

Estimate  of  president  of  board  of  managers  of  the,  of  deficiency  in 
appropriations  for  expenses  of  disabled  soldiers  in  State  Homes..       48  1 

Report  of  board  of  managers  of  the,  for  year  1889 77  9 

National  Museum,  estimate  of  Architect  of  the  Capitol  of  the  cost  of 

erecting  a  baseement  story  under  the 126  9 

National  Museum  and  North  American  Ethnology,  report  of  the  Secre- 
tary of  Smithsonian  Institution  of  expenditures  for  international 

exchanges  for v 43  1 

Newcomer,  Victor  H.,  executor,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of..       16  1 

O. 

Officers  of  United  States  district  courts,  substitute  for  resolution  to  in- 
vestigate the  practices  of 124  9 

Official  register  of  the  United  States,  containing  list  of  officers  )  pp     .    .,    ,    41 
and  employe's  in  the  civil,  military,  and  naval  service  on  >  *-    'ion    < 

Ott'utt,  George  C.,  administrator,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of 
Claims 214          16 

Ogdeu,  Utah  T.,  memorial  of  the  governor  and  legislature  in  favor  of 

an  appropriation  for  public  building  at 144  9 

Ohio  River,  etc.,  resolution  relative  to  obstruction  to  navigation  in 260          16 

Oklahoma,  resolution  for  appointment  of  select  committee  to  investigate 
the  action  of  United  States  officers  in  connection  with  the  opening  of 

theTerritory  of 123  9 

Osborne,  John,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 117  9 

Owens,  William,  and  others,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  cases  of 68  1 


P. 

Pamais,  Pierre,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of... 

run-American  Congress,  concurrent  resolution  requesting  the  President 

to  invite  the  king  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands  to  select  delegates  to  the. 

Parham,  R.  H.,  administrator,  resalution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of 

Claims ,. 

Parker,  William  C.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 

Pensions: 

Arrears,  estimate  of  the  probable  cost  of  the  repeal  of  arrears  lim- 
it at  ion 

Arrears  of,  resolution  of  Iowa  legislature  to  repeal  limitation  clause. 
Resolution  calling  upon  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  for  certain  in- 
formation in  relation  to... 


127 
114 

183 

208 


196 
158 

122 


9 
9 

10 
10 


XII 


INDEX    TO    HOUSE    MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


Subject. 


Pension  Office,  resolution  requesting  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior  to 
furnish  the  House  with  the  evidence  taken  by  the  committee  to  in- 
vestigate the  management  of  the,  under  the  late  Commissioner  Tanner. 
Pig  Iron.  (See  Iron.) 

Poffinberger,  Alfred,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 

Posey,  William  P.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 

Postal  service,  resolution  relative  to  increase  pay  of  letter  carriers 

Powell,  Sarah  E.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 

President  of  the  United  States: 

Resolution  to  print  annual  message  of 

Concurrent  resolution  requesting  the,  to  invite  the  King  of  the 
Hawai  i  an  Islands  to  select  delegates  to  the  Pan-American  Congress . 
Prewitt,  M.  W.,  and  J.  K.  Gates,  executors,  findings  of  the  Court  of 

Claims  in  case  of 

Priddy,  Piety,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 

Public  Buildings : 

Ogden,  Utah  T.,  memorial  of  the  governor  and  legislature,  in  favor 

of  an  appropriation  for , 

Salt  Lake  City,  UtahT.,  memorial  of  the  governor  and  legislature  of 

the  Territory  of  Utah,  in  relation  to  appropriation  for 

Public  documents : 

List  of,  in  folding-room  of  the  House  of  Representatives 

Resolution  to  print  extra  copies  of  report  of  health  officer  of  the 

District  of  Columbia.. 

Resolution  to  print  annual  message  of  the  President 

Resolution  to  print  5,000  additional  copies  of  the  report  of  the  gov- 
ernor of  Wyoming  Territory  for  1889 

Public  officers,  list  of  annual  reports  to  be  made  by,  during  the  first 

session  of  the  Fifty-first  Congress 

Public  Printer: 

Response  of  the,  to  inquiry  of  House  relative  to  the  delay  in  printing 

eulogies  on  the  late  Hon.  Seth  C.  Moffatt 

Response  to  resolution  of  House  requesting  information  respecting 
the  delay  in  printing  the  report  of  Chief  of  Engineers  relating 

to  the  improvement  of  rivers  and  harbors 

Public  property : 

Inventory  of,  in  the  possession  of  the  Clerk  of  the  House  of  Rep- 
resentatives   

List  of,  in  possession  of  the  Doorkeeper  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives  

R. 
Railroads : 

Memorial  of  the  legislature  of  Iowa  in  favor  of  a  law  compelling 

the  use  of  automatic  couplers  and  air  brakes  on  freight  trains 

Resolution  of  legislature  of  Massachusetts  relative  to  guard  rails 

on  top  of  box  and  stock  freight  cars 

Memorial  of  the  legislature  of  Mississippi  ou  the  subject  of  the  adop- 
tion and  use  of  automatic  couplers  and  power  automatic  brakes 

on 

Statement  of  the  Georgetown  and  Tennallytown  Railway  Company 

for  year  1889 

Railway  Mail  Service,  report  of  the  General   Superintendent  of  the, 

urging  passage  of  bill  for  the  reclassifi cation  of  postal  clerks 

Reaves,  John  R.,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of.. 

Rebecca,  resolution  relative  to  the  seizure  of  the  schooner 

Reciprocity  treaties,  resolution  relative  to 

Reciprocity  with  Canada,  resolution  relative  to 

Reilly,  Betty  B.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 

Reports,  list  of,  to  be  made  to  Congress  during  the  first  session  of  the 

Fifty-first  Congress 

Revision  of  the  tariff,  hearings  before  the  Committee  on  Ways  and 

Means 

Rice,  Jamison  W.,  and  others,  resolution  to  refer  claims  to  Court  of 
Claims 


INDEX   TO   HOUSE   MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


XIII 


Subject. 


No. 


Vol. 


Resley,  James,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 156  9 

Richmond,  Charles,  children  of,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of 

Claims 200  16 

Rivers  and  harbors : 

Conference  report  on  appropriation  bill 250  16 

Response  of  Public  Printer  to  resolution  of  House  inquiring  in  re- 
lation to  the  delay  in  pritting  the  report  of  the  Chief  of  Engi- 
neers relating  to  improvement  of '. 75  1 

Resolution  relative  to  obstructions  to  navigation  in  the  Ohio  River, 

etc 260  16 

Resolution  of  Iowa  legislature  asking  liberal  appropriations  for  con- 
struction of  the  Heunepin  Canal 157  9 

Robinson,  J.  W.  B.,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of      186          16 

Robinson,  William,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 120  9 

Rock  Creek  Park,  assessed  valuation  of  property  within  bounds  of 184  16 

Rogers,  Benjamin  P.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 217          16 

Rogers,  Melinda,  administratrix,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of. .       92  9 

Routzahn,  Herman  S.  administrator,  findings  of  the  Court  of  Claims  in 

case  of 112  9 

Rouzee,  Reuben,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 152  9 

Ruebling,  Adam,  representatives  of,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of 

Claims 220          16 

Rules  of  House  of  Representatives : 

Resol  utioii  for  amendment  of  the,  in  respect  to  appropriations 32  1 

Code  of,  as  reported  by  Committee  on  Rales  and  ordered  to  be  printed        88  9 

Code  of,  proposed  by  Committee  on  Rules 87  9 

S. 

Sacramento,  San  Joaquin  and  Feather  Rivers,  California,  resolution  of 

the  legislature  of  California  relative  to  the  improvement  of 135  9 

St.  Augustine  military  reservation,  report  of  Chief  of  Engineers  in  re- 
lation to  bill  (H.  R.  5972),  granting  right  of  way  to  the  Jacksonville, 

St.  Augustine  and  Halifax  River  Railway  Campany  across  the 136  9 

St.  Amand,  Joseph,  executor,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of....      150  9 

St.  Charles  College,  of  St.  Charles,  Mo.,   resolution  to  refer  claim  to 

Court  of  Claims 220  16 

Salmon  and  salmon  rivers  of  Alaska,  report  on 211  18 

Salmon,  Robert  D.,  and  others,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of  ..       62  1 
Salt  Lake  City,  Utah,  memorial  of  the  governor  and  legislature  of  the 
Territory  of  Utah,  protesting  against  reduction  of  the  amount  hereto- 
fore asked  for  public  building  at 134            9 

Sanderson,  W.  F.,  administrator,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of 

Claims 213  16 

Schooner  Commerce,  findings  of  Court,  of  Claims  in  case  of 60  1 

Scott,  William  E. ,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214  16 

Seal  fisheries,  resolution  requesting  the  Secretary  of  State  to  report  to 
House  all  correspondence  relating  to  seizure  of  vessels  for  violation 

of  laws  regulating  the 54  1 

Secretary  of  the  Interior,  resolution  calling  upon  the,  for  certain  infor- 
mation touching  matters 122  9 

Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  letter  from  the,  transmitting 

report  of  the  Zoological  Park  Commission 72  1 

Secretary  of  State,  resolution  requesting  the,  to  transmit  to  House 

copies  of  papers,  relative  to  damage  claim  of  S.  F.  Tolsma 53  1 

Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  communications  from,  light-house,  Detroit 

River,  declining  to  recommend  an  appropriation  for 138  9 

Sergeant-at-Arms,  House  of  Representatives : 

Resolution  authorizing  the,  to  offer  a  reward  for  the  arrest  of 

Craven  E.  Silcott,  absconding  cashier  of  the  late 31  1 

Testimony  in  relation  to  the  investigation  of  the  office  of,  under 

J.  P.  Leedom,  late ., 55  1 

Preamble  and  resolution  relative  to  sums  of  money  due  to  certain 

members  of  the  House  by  John  P.  Leedom,  late 73  1 

Shifler,  William,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 17  1 

Shre  ve,  Charles  W.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 79  9 


XIV 


INDEX   TO   HOUSE    MISCELLANEOUS   DOCUMENTS. 


Subject. 


No. 


Silcott,  Craven  E.,  resolution  authorizing  the  Sergeant-at-Arms  of  the 
House  to  offer  a  reward  for  the  arrest  of,  absconding  cashier  of  the 

late  Sergeant-at-Arms 31 

Slave  trade  in  Africa,  memorial  of  Indiana  "Friends,"  asking  co- 
operation against 255 

Sloops  Union  and  Packet,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case 66 

Smith,  John  Hoffman,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 118 

Smithsonian  Institution : 

Annual  Report  for  1889,  part  1 224 

Annual  Report  for  1889,  part  2  (National  Museum) 224 

Report  of  the  Secretary  of  the,  of  expenditures  for  "International 
exchanges  for  National  Museum  and  North  American  Ethnology  "       43 

Snively,  Hiram  B.,  executor,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 154 

Spelling,    resolution  directing   the    Public    Printer    to    adopt    short 

method  of 76 

Snoliation  claims,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  certain  cases  of 69 

Sneuffer,  A.  T. ,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 59 

Steel  ingots.     (See  Iron  and  manufactures  of.) 

Stewart,  Thomas,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 26 

Stowers,  Mary  A.  and  Samuel,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of 

Claims 212 

Suave",  Peter,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 251 

Subsidies,  resolution  instructing  the  Committee  on  Merchant  Marine 
and  Fisheries  to  report  on  the  subject  of  granting,  to  ships,  to  pay 

each  farmer  for  each  bushel  of  corn  produced 140 

Sydenstricker,  Mary,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 18 

T. 

Tanner,  late  Commissioner  of  Pensions,  resolution  requesting  the 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  to  furnish  the  House  with  evidence  taken  by 
the  committee  to  investigate  the  management  of  the  Pension  Office 

under 51 

Tearney,  Edward,  administrator,    and  others,  findings    of  Court  of 

Claims  in  cases  of _. 70 

Telephones,  resolution  relative  to,  in  Executive  Departments..... 180 

Thurman,  Oliver  M.,  findingsof  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 162 

Tilghman,  Hilliary,  jr.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 24 

Tolsma,  S.  F.,  resolution  requesting  the  Secretary  of  State  to  transmit 

copies  of  papers  relative  to  damage  claim  of 53 

Tomlinson,  E.  G.,  administrator,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of 

Claims 183 

Travis,  W.  C.  M. ,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 179 

Trotter,  Nathan,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Tucker,  T.  M.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 214 

U. 

Union  Pacific  Railroad,  resolution  in  reference  to  the  lands  of  the 252 

Urquhart,  C.  Augusta,  and  others,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of 
Claims 221 

V. 

Vallean,  Sarah  J.,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

Vance,  George  T.  and  Guy  P.,  executors,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to 

Court  of  Claims 167 

Veitch,  Fletcher  R.,  and  others,  findings  of  the  Court  of  Claims  in  the 

case  of 139 

Vignes  Polona,  resolution  to  refer  claim  to  Court  of  Claims 215 

W. 

Wade,  Watson  J.,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of.        94 
Walten,  Luther,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 84 


INDEX    TO    HOUSE    MISCELLANEOUS    DOCUMENTS. 


XV 


Subject. 


No. 


Vol. 


War  of  the  Rebellion,  official  records  of: 

Series  1, vol.  24,partl 4  2 

Series  l.vol.  24,  part  2 5  3 

Series  l,vol.  24,  part  3 6  4 

Series  l,voL  25,partl 44  7 

Series  1, vol.  25,part2 45  8 

Series  l,vol.  26,  part  1 105  10 

Series  1, vol.  26,part2 106  11 

Series  l,vol.  27,  part  1 146  12 

Series  1, vol.  27,part2 147  13 

Series  1,  vol.  27,  part  3 148  14 

Series  1,  vol.  28,partl 223  19 

Series  1,  vol.  28,  part  2 228  22 

Series  1,  vol.  29,  part  1 240  30 

Series  1,  vol.  29,  part  2 241  31 

Series  l,vol.  SO.part  1 245  33 

Series  1, vol.  30,part2 246  34 

Series  1,  vol.  30,  part  3 247  35 

Series  1, vol.  30,part4 248  36 

Ward,  Enoch  P.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 210  16 

Washington  and  Georgetown  Railroad  Company,  annual  report  of 161  9 

Washington,  George,  address  of  Chief  Justice  Fuller  in  commemoration 

of  the  inauguration  of 168  9 

Waste  paper,  report  from  the  Doorkeeper  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  sales  of 11  1 

Ways  and  Means,  hearings  before  the  Committee  on 176  15 

Webber,  W.  R. ,  administrator,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of. .  101  9 

Wood,  Charles  W.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 63  1 

Wool: 

Petition  of  manufacturers  relative  to  the  duty  on 49  1 

Petition  of  Jesse  Metcalf  and  others,  for  the  removal  of  duties  on 

raw 52  1 

Wording,  Charles  H., findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  case  of 7  1 

Wyndham,  Thornton  O.,  findings  of  Court  of  Claims  in  .case  of 64  1 

Wyoming,  resolution  to  print  5,000  additional  copies  of  the  report  of 

the  governor  of,  for  1889 182  16 

z. 

Zoological  Park  Commission,  report  of  the 72  1 


51ST  CONGRESS,  )    HOUSE  OF  EEPRESENTATIVES.  i  Mis.  Doc. 

1st  Session.      ]  \    Xo.  268. 


SPECIAL 


CONSULAR  REPORTS. 


Volume    I. 


ARRANGEMENT. 

Page. 

1.  COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 1-238 

2.  FILES  IN  SPANISH  AMERICA 239-268 

3.  CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.  .  269-324 

4.  MALT  AND  BEER  IN  SPANISH  AMERICA 325-390 

5.  FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 39I-937 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT     PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1890. 


REPORTS. 


COTTON   TEXTILES 


IN 


FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


REPORTS,  FROM  THE  CONSULS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  ON 

THE  COTTON  TEXTILES  IMPORTED  INTO  THEIR 

SEVERAL  DISTRICTS,   ETC. 


I>SI-ED  FROM  THE  BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS,  DEPARTMENT  OF 

STATE.     ALL  REQUESTS  FOR  THESE  REPORTS  SHOULD 

BE  ADDRESSED  TO  THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING   OFFICE. 
1890. 


CONTENTS. 


CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 

Page. 
British  Africa : 

Cape  Colony 5-7 

Sierra  Leone 8-10 

Kgy  pt 16 

Liberia 11 

Morocco 11 

Portuguese  Africa : 

Cape  Verde  Islands 12 

Madeira 12 

St.  Paul  de  Londa 13 

Zanzibar 14 

CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 
British  North  America: 

Gray  Cotton  Manufactures  of  Canada 15, 16 

British  Columbia 17-19 

Ontario : 

Fort  Erie 19 

Nova  Scotia : 

Windsor 20,21 

Newfoundland: 

St.  John's 22 

Quebec : 

Quebec 22, 23 

Prince  Edward  Island 24-27 

Mexico : 

GuayimiH 28, 29 

Talcahnano 29-31 

Central  America : 

Costa  Rica 31,32 

Guatemala 33,34 

Salvador 34,35 

South  America: 

Argentine  Republic 36-44 

Brazil: 

Bahia 44-51 

Para 51 

Pernambuco •     51, 52 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul 53-56 

British  Guiana 56,  57 

Dutch  Guiana ">7 

Chili 58 

Peru 59 

608A 1  i 


II  CONTENTS. 

Page. 
South  America— Continued. 

Republic  of  Colombia : 

Barranquilla 59-62 

Carthagena - 62-64 

•       Panama ...-, , 65-67 

Venezuela : 

La  Guayra 67,  Ik* 

Puerto  Cabello 69-72 

West  Indies: 

British.  West  Indies : 

Antigua 73 

Anguilla 74 

Bahamas 75-77 

Bermuda 77 

Dominica 78 

Jamaica 78-81 

Danish  West  Indies 81,82 

French  West  Indies 83-85 

San  Domingo 85, 86 

Spanish  West  Indies: 

Cienfngos 86,87 

Santiago j 88-95 

CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 
British  Asia : 

British  India : 

Calcutta 95-126 

Bombay ..  127-129 

Ceylon 129 

Hong-Kong 133 

China: 

Ohin-Kiang 130 

Foo-Chow 130-133 

Ningpo 134-136 

Province  of  Kwang-Tung  (Canton) 136-141 

Shanghai 141-145 

Siam 145,140 

Spanish  Asia : 

Philippine  Islands : 146-152 

Turkey  in  Asia : 

'Palestine fc         153 

Syria 154-159 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Fiji  159,160 

New  Zealand 160-162 

New  South  Wales 163-168 

CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 

Austria- Hungary  (Trieste) 169, 170 

Denmark 171,172 

Belgium  (Antwerp) 173-176 

France : 

Havre 176 

M  arseilles .  176-179 


CONTENTS.  Ill 


Germany  : 

Hamburg  .............................................................  179-181 

Sr.ttin  ...............................................................  181,182 

Holland  .................  .  ......  .  ....................  .....................  183-185 

Italy  (Rome  and  all  Italy)  ................................................  185-199 

Catania  ...................................................   .........  199-202 

Florence:  ..............................................................  202-205 

Genoa  ...........  .....................................................  206-208 

M.-ssiua  ..............................................................  208-211 

Naples  ................................................................  211-218 

Palermo  ..............................................................  218,219 

Venice  ...............................................................  220 

Portugal: 

Azores  ...............................................................  221,222 

Lisbon  ............  ...................................................  223,224 

Spain  .....................................................................  224-231 

Switzerland  ..............................................................  232-234 

United  Kingdom  : 

London  .............................................................  235 

Li  verpool  .............................................................  235 

Leith  ...............................................................  236 

Gibraltar..  236 


DEPARTMENT  CIRCULAR. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE, 

Washington,  May  27, 1889. 

GENTLEMEN  :  You  are  directed  to  prepare,  at  your  earliest  conven- 
ience, reports  upon  the  cotton  textiles  imported  into  your  districts, 
covering  the  following  points  : 

1.  Quantity  and  kind  imported,  per  annum. 

2.  Weight  per  yard. 

3.  How  purchased. 

4.  Place  of  manufacture  and  whence  imported. 

5.  Duties  charged  thereon. 

It  being  represented  to  the  Department  that  reports  upon  these 
points  will  be  of  great  value  to  the  cotton  manufacturers  of  the  United 
States,  you  are  expected  to  give  the  fullest  information  thereupon  ob- 
tainable. 

I  am,  gentlemen,  your  obedient  servant, 

WILLIAM  F.  WHARTON, 

Assistant  Secretary. 
The  CONSULAR  OFFICERS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

3 


SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 

BRITISH   AFRICA. 
CAPE   COLONY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  HOLLIS. 

Having  given  much  time  and  attention  to  this  subject,  as  directed  in 
the  circular  of  the  Department  of  May  27, 1  regret  exceedingly  that  the 
report  submitted  is  so  unsatisfactory. 

QUANTITY    AND  KIND  IMPORTED  PER  ANNUM. 

During  the  year  1888  there  was  imported  into  this  colony  cotton  text- 
iles to  the  value  of  £543,888  ($2,647,000),  distributed  as  follows : 

Blankets £75,500 

Piece  goods 368,088 

Hosiery 100,300 

WEIGHT  PER   YARD. 

To  this  question  I  am  unable  to  give  any  satisfactory  reply,  for  the 
reason  that  no  weight  is  shown  or  indicated  upon  the  cotton  goods  im- 
ported from  the  United  Kingdom,  and  therefore  to  determine  the  weight 
it  would  be  necessary  to  weigh  each  bale  of  the  various  kinds  and  qual- 
ities and  thus  calculate  the  weight  per  yard,  a  procedure  manifestly  out 
of  the  question.  Importers  informed  me  that  they  paid  no  attention  to 
the  weight,  as  that  could  be  much  affected  by  sizing,  and  their  opinions 
of  the  value  of  goods  was  based  entirely  on  the  evidence  of  examina- 
tion. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Goods  are  purchased  almost  entirely  through  commission  houses 
either  after  an  inspection  of  samples,  or,  more  generally,  by  ordering 
well  known  goods,  such  as  had  been  previously  furnished. 


TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
PLACE  OF  MANUFACTURE  AND   WHENCE   IMPORTED. 

The  places  of  manufacture  were  as  follows: 

Piece  goods : 

United  Kingdom £367,642 

Germany 200 

United  States ; 246 

Blankets : 

United  Kingdom 75,000 

All  other  countries 500 

Hosiery : 

United  Kingdom 100,000 

All  other  countries * 300 

DUTIES  CHARGED  THEREON. 

The  value  of  the  goods  imported  are  declared  at  the  customs  at  the 
cost  price  at  the  place  of  purchase,  with  the  addition  of  the  usual  charges, 
commissions,  etc.,  as  in  the  United  States,  and  a  duty  is  levied  thereon, 
12  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

Some  four  or  five  years  ago  no  inconsiderable  amount  of  cotton  goods 
was  sold  here,  the  product  of  the  United  States.  At  the  present  time 
it  will  be  seen  that  a  relatively  small  amount  is  imported  from  the  United 
States.  One  importer  informed  me  that  he  was  forced  to  dispose  of  the 
last  of  his  stock  of  unbleached  goods  at  a  loss.  One  of  the  largest  im-' 
porters  of  cotton  goods  in  Gape  Town  informed  me  that  he  had  recently; 
gone  so  far  as  to  get  out  samples  of  nearly  all  descriptions  of  cotton 
fabrics,  such  as  duck,  denims,  bleached  and  unbleached  cottons,  cotton-' 
ades,  and  prints,  and  had  established  his  private  telegraph  code.  Upon 
comparing  his  line  of  samples  with  his  goods  in  stock  of  English  manu- 
facture he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  he  could  get  better  value  by  the 
purchase  of  the  latter.  I  made  an  exhaustive  examination  of  the  sam- 
ples, comparing  them  with  like  quality  of  English  goods.  I  could  not, 
of  course,  argue  the  question  as  an  expert,  and,  though  the  admission 
was  made  that  the  American  goods  were  of  high  quality,  they  could  not 
compete  in  price  with  the  English.  . 

These  samples  were  furnished  by  a  New  York  commission  house,  and 
embraced  the  product  of  many  mills,  from  Maine  to  Georgia.  Whether 
the  prices  quoted  were  unduly  enhanced  by  excessive  cominissioifrcharges 
I  have  no  means  of  knowing. 

GEO.  F.  HOLLIS, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Cape  Town,  July,  1889. 

PORT  ELIZABETH. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  CHABAUD. 

1.  It  is  impossible  to  give  quantity — the  Government,  as  will  be  seen 
from  annexure  A  (customs  comparative  returns),  only  give  the  value — 
to  wit,  for  the  year  1888,  £230,360,  and  keep  no  record  of  quantity  or 
kind.  From  the  principal  importing  merchant  of  cotton  goods  in  this 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FORKIGX    COUNTRIES.  7 

town  I  have  ascertained  that  the  kinds  imported  are  cords,  calicoes 
(gray  and  white),  prints,  blankets  for  natives,  in  short,  cotton  fabrics  of 
all  descriptions. 

2.  Can  not  give  weights.     Manufacturers  alone  can  give  this. 

3.  Indent  sent  from  here  to  London  house  who  negotiate. 

4.  Great  Britain  and  Germany  supply  the  goods.     Larger  quantity 
from  Manchester.     A  small  proportion  of  colored  prints  from  Germany. 

5.  The  imported  goods  are  simply  declared  at  the  local   customs  at 
English  cost.     The  duty  payable  thereon  to  30th  June  1889,  was  15  per 
cent,  ad  valorem.    From  1st  July  1889,  this  duty  has  been  reduced  to 
12  per  cent,  ad  valorem.    I  annex  pro  forma  bill  of  entry  B,  applicable 
to  an  entry  for  such  goods. 

JOHN  A.  CHABAUD, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Port  Elizabeth,  July  24,  1889. 


B. — Pro  forma  bill  of  entry. — For  payment  of  duty. 

[Sadler  &  Co.,  importers,  in  the  steam-ship  Garth  Cattle,  whereof  Webster  is  master,  from  London, 
British  ship.] 


Nos. 
pack- 
ages. 

Particulars  of  the  quality  and  quantity  of  al 
tained  in  the  several  packages,  and  whether 
the  produce  or  manufacture  of  the  United 
some  British  possession  or  not. 

the  goods  con- 
such  goods  are 
Kingdom,  or  of 

Quan- 
tity. 

Current 
value  of 
goods  at  the 
jortwhence 
imported. 

Duty. 

39i 

Cotton  piece  goods 

bales 

3 

£ 
86 

£  ».  d. 

394 

Woolen  piece  goods  .   ... 

.  .        do. 

1 

34 

395 

do 

cases 

1 

53 

396-8 

Haberdashery 

do 

3 

104 

399 

Oil-baize  

do 

1 

3 

400-1 

Haberdashery 

do 

2 

46 

402 

Wrapping  paper  .....  .. 

bales 

1 

2 

403-6 

do 

4 

2t>    0 

407 

Mats  . 

do 

1 

3    0 

408 

Woolen  clothing 

cases 

1 

23    0 

409 

Cotton  clothing  

do.. 

1 

25    0 

410 

Woolen  clothing 

do 

1 

24    0 

Charges  

1    0 

Wharfage,  £1  13*.  lid. 

430    0 
21  10 

Total  

20 

451  10 

67  14    8 

I,  E.  G.  Palmer,  for  Sadler  <fc  Co.,  for  importers,  do  hereby  declare  that  the  current 
value  of  the  articles  mentioned  in  this  entry,  and  contained  in  the  packages  specified, 
at  the  port  whence  the  same  are  imported  is  £430. 

Duty  £07  14s.  6d. 

Place  within  the  port  where  the  goods  are  to  be  unladen  and  landed:  Jetty. 

Witness  my  hand  the  22d  day  of  July,  1889. 

The  above  declaration  signed  the  22d  day  of  July,  1889,  in  the  presence  of . 


To  the  EXAMINING  OFFICER. 


Subcollector,  No.  — . 


N.  B.— This  form  must  be  filled  up  on  one  side  only  of  the  paper  whereon  it  is 
written. 


8         COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

SIERRA  LEONE. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  MAT. 

The  importation  of  cotton  textiles  into  the  district  of  Sierra  Leone  is 
of  an  extensive  character.  The  country  is  tropical,  and  the  garments 
of  the  people  are  largely  made  up  of  this  material  in  almost  every  shape, 
and  worn  nearly  all  the  year  round.  Cotton  textiles  are  much  more 
used  than  woolen  fabrics.  In  Freetown,  the  capital  of  Sierra  Leone, 
cotton  textiles  is  one  of  the  principal  articles  offered  for  sale.  In  the 
largest  mercantile  houses  and  in  the  smallest  trading  shanties  is  ex- 
posed to  the  view  of  the  buyer  this  important  commercial  article.  Large 
trading  caravans,  from  the  vast  interior  countries  outlying  the  penin- 
sula, visit  periodically  the  city,  and  bring  with  them  gold-dust,  ivory, 
india-rubber,  hides,  bees- wax,  camwood,  benne  seed,  and  other  African 
produce,  which  are  bartered  for  cotton  textiles,  principally,  and  rum  and 
tobacco.  Merchants,  not  being  content  to  await  the  slow  and  tedious 
progress  of  these  periodical  trading  visitors,  have  themselves  pene- 
trated the  interior  countries  and  established  factories  in  the  midst 
of  the  people,  thus  carrying  to  their  very  doors  their  immediate  wants. 
A  flourish  ing  trade  is  known  to  be  done  in  these  countries  and  particu- 
larly in  cotton  textiles.  So  valuable  is  one  yard  of  cotton  cloth  to  the 
eyes  of  an  aborigine  in  the  interior  that  he  is  prepared  to  exchange 
any  quantity  of  his  produce  for  this  coveted  treasure.  Near  to  Sierra 
Leone,  however,  the  people  have  more  light  through  the  frequent  visits 
of  merchants  and  traders,  and  demand  value  for  value. 

The  quantity  and  kind  imported  is  considerably  varied.  The  follow- 
ing list,  however,  furnished  by  one  of  the  large  mercantile  firms  in  this 
country,  will  help  to  give  an  idea  of  such  variety  needed  for  the  market. 

Gray  Cotton.— (I)  T  cloth  or  abetter  class  of  cotton.  (2)  Domestics  and 
Mexicans.  (3)  Massachusetts  cotton  (Manchester  imitation).  (4)  Silk 
finished  and  scoured.  (5)  Delver  and  Osnaburg. 

Bleached  Cotton. — (1)  Pure  shirtings.  (2)  Imperial  shirtings.  (3) 
Wigan  shirtings.  (4)  Horrocks  long  cloth.  (5)  Drills.  (6)  White  lawn. 

(7)  Brocade.     (8)  Brilliant.     (9)  Herringbone  stripe.     (10)  Wftite  satin 
stripe.     (11)  Tape  checks. 

Dyed  Cotton.— (I)  India  poudicherry  bafts.  (2)  Manchester  bafts.  (3) 
Turkey.  (4)  Ked  twills.  (5)  Succatoons.  (6)  Colored  lawn.  (7)  Crapes. 

(8)  Cotton  velvets. 

Printed  Cotton.— (1)  Pink  pads.  (2)  Purple  pads.  (3)  White  ground 
prints.  (4)  Waste  scarves.  (5)  Crape  cloth.  (6)  Muslins.  (7)  Satel- 
lites. (8)  Linneas.  (9)  Reversible.  (10)  Handkerchiefs.  (11)  Fancy 
printed. 

Woven  Cotton.— (I)  Oxfords.  (2)  Ginghams.  (3)  Zephyrs.  (4)  Noil. 
(5)  St.  Jago.  (6)  Bantis.  (7)  Madras  handkerchiefs.  (8)  Imitation 
Madras  handkerchiefs.  (!))  Denims.  (10)  Native  cloth. 


COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Fancy  Cotton.— (I)  Towels.     (3)  Jacquard.     (3)  Damasks.     (4)  Quilts. 

No  actual  idea  can  be  formed  of  the  weight  per  yard  of  cotton,  so 
varied  is  the  quantity  and  texture,  from  fine  muslin  to  maddapolum. 

It  is  purchased  in  bales  in  the  following  manner: 

Ordinary  cottons  in  bales  containing  from  80,  100,  to 250  pieces  of  7, 
8,  10,  12,  18,  24.  36  and  40  yards. 

Imitation  of  American  cotton  sheeting  costs  in  Manchester  (place  of 
manufacture)  from  3  to  5  cents  per  yard. 

Osnaburg  in  pieces  of  30  to  50  yards  cost  13s.  per  40  yards.  Shirt- 
ings in  bales  of  100  to  300  pieces  of  6,  7,  8, 10, 12, 24,  30,  and  40  yards, 
cost  from  2  to  6  cents  per  yard. 

Bafts  in  bales  of  200  to  300  pieces  of  8, 10, 12, 14  yards,  cost  4  to  8  cents 
per  yard. 

India  bafts  or  pondicherry,  bales  of  80  pieces  from  13  to  14  yards. 

Checks  in  bales  of  150  to  300  pieces  of  8, 10, 12  yards,  from  3  to  10  cents 
per yard. 

Prints  in  bales  of  50  to  250  pieces  of  8, 10, 12  yards,  from  3  to  8  cents 
per  yard. 

Madras  handkerchiefs  in  bales  of  200  to  400  pieces  of  8  to  12  hand- 
kerchiefs, cost  from  3*.  to  18s.  per  dozen. 

Cotton  handkerchiefs  in  cases  and  bales  of  250  to  500  pieces,  from  Is. 
9d.  to  2s.  6d.  per  dozen  handkerchiefs. 

Muslin  in  cases  of  200  pieces  of  10  and  12  yards,  cost  2s.  3d.  to  3s.  per 
12  yards. 

Pagnes  in  pieces  of  1  pair  in  bales  of  150  to  250  pieces,  cost  from  Is.  3d. 
to  7s.  per  pair. 

Cottons  are  generally  imported  from  Manchester,  Lancashire,  Eng- 
land. 

The  following  table  will  show  quantity,  description,  and  customs  value 
of  cotton  imported  into  the  colony  of  Sierra  Leone  from  1879  to  1888. 

Cotton  goods  imported  into  the  colony  of  Sierra  Leone  from  1879->88. 

I  Description :  (1)  Gray  or  unbleached  cottons.  <2)  White  cottons,  such  as  shirtings,  etc.  (3)  Blue 
balta.  (4)  Striped  or  printed  cottons. 


Years. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Tears. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1879       

Package*. 
6  086 

£         8.     d. 
156  097    2    8 

1886 

Packages. 
4  068 

SL       ».    d. 

93  621  14    7 

1880  

6  959 

179  539  16    8 

1887 

7  368 

143  411  18    0 

1881  

6,540 

153  404  10    3 

1888 

4  584 

88  713  12    7 

1882    

6  634 

161  599    8  11 

1883  

8  461 

194  537    4    4 

1884 

7  264 

171  936    9    7 

62  723 

1  447  970  IS    3 

1885  

4  759 

105  108    9    8 

6*  272* 

144  797    1    3 

Duty  is  not  levied  on  cotton  goods  by  quantity.  By  ordinance  No. 
13,  of  December  30,  1887,  cotton  goods  are  made  subject  to  an  ad  val- 
orem duty  of  5  per  cent,  in  addition  to  wharfage  duty  at  the  rate  of  10s. 
per  ton. 


10 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


Measurement  or  weight,  whichever  mode  of  computation  shall  in 
each  case  be  capable  of  yielding  the  larger  wharfage  duties. 

The  falling  offin  both  quantity  and  value  in  1883  is  owing  to  a  larger 
importation  about  the  close  of  1887  to  escape  the  new  duties  in  pros- 
pective. 

CORNS.  MAY, 

Vice-  Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Sierra  Leone,  October  16,  1889. 


EGYPT. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  SCHUYLER,  OF  CAIRO. 

The  trade  in  foreign  cotton  textiles  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
British  importing  houses  at  Alexandria,  who  are  very  jealous  of  com- 
petition. I  had  hoped  to  obtain  some  information  from  a  friend  con- 
nected with  one  of  these  merchants,  but  he  had  at  last  to  confess  to  me 
his  inability  to  give  me  what  I  wished,  as  he  was  "  flouted  and  jeered 
at,  and  accused  of  being  unpatriotic,  and  of  taking  part  in  the  con- 
spiracy to  substitute  American  for  British  goods  in  the  Egyptian 

market.*7 

EUGENE  SCHUYLER, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  AGENCY  AND  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Cairo,  November  29,  1889. 

Note  by  the  Department :  The  exports  of  British  cottons  to  Egypt  were  as  follows  during  the 

year  1888 : 


Description. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Price. 

pounds.  . 

4,  499,  000 

$890,  000 

Cents. 
per  lb.,  19.78 

Piece  goods,  unbleached  

yards.. 
„.   yards 

55,  621,  000 
46,  800,  000 

2,  072,  000 
2,  265,  000 

per  yd.,  3.73 
per  yd*,  4.84 

Piece  goods!  printed  and  dyed  

yards.. 

19,  956.  705 

1,  429,  000 
37,  000 

per\d.,   7.16 

All  other 

243  000  J 

Total 

6  930  000 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES.  11 

LIBERIA. 

REPORT  XY  CONSUL-GENERAL   SMITH,   <>F  MONROVIA. 
COTTON  TEXTILES  IMPORTED  INTO  LIBERIA. 

(1)  During  the  fiscal  year  ending  September  30,  1885,  there  were  iin- 
pcwted  into  the  Republic  971,615  yards  of  cotton  textiles,  valued  at 
$73,114.08,  of  which  there  were  imported  from — 


Countries. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Great  Britain  ...        .          ...                 -  

Yards. 
420  840 

$38  40?  53 

218  659 

17  353  51 

United  States 

56  744 

3  643  29 

Holland  .          

175  372 

13  714  75 

Total          .                                                                              

73  114  08 

In  1886  the  total  imports  from  the  above-mentioned  countries,  and 
from  Belgium,  amounted  to  923,289  yards  of  cotton  textiles  valued  at 
$71,201.40.  These  years  may  be  taken  as  fair  sample  years  of  the  im- 
port of  cotton  textiles,  comprising  the  following  kinds  of  cotton  goods : 
Printed  calicoes,  shirtings,  sheetings,  bleached  and  unbleached  cottons, 
denims,  tickings, domestics,  printed  and  dyed  handkerchiefs,  muslins,  etc. 

In  the  customs  returns  they  are  not  classified,  but  simply  given  as 
cotton  goods. 

(2)  In  Liberia,  imported  cotton  textiles  are  not  tested  by  weight. 

(3)  They  were  purchased  in  exchange  for  products  of  the  country,  viz: 
Palm-oil,  palm  kernels,  camwood,  ivory,  gold,  rubber,  sugar,  ginger, 
coffee,  and  a  small  portion  in  remittances  of  cash  and  bills. 

(4)  They  were  manufactured  in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  the  United 
States,  Holland,  and  Belgium,  and  imported  from  the  same  countries. 

(5)  An  ad  valorem  duty  of  10  per  cent,  is  charged  upon  these  goods. 

B.  E.  SMITH, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE  GENERAL, 

Monrovia,  Liberia,  August  26,  1889. 


MOROCCO. 

Quantity  and  kind  imported  per  annum  :  11,981  bales,  manufactured. 

"Weight  per  yard :  From  4  to  5  ounces. 

Purchased  by  commission  agents. 

Manufactured  in  and  imported  from  Great  Britain. 

Duties,  10  per  cent. 

WM.  REED  LEWIS, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Tuxpan,  September  19,  1889. 


12 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


PORTUGUESE,  AFRICA. 

CAPE  VERD  ISLANDS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PEASE,  OF  SANTIAGO. 

Statement  showing  the  imports  of  cotton  textiles  into  the  Cape  Verd  Colony  for  the  year 
ended  December  ',51,  1888,  and  the  countries  from  which  imported. 

[Quantities  converted  into  avoirdupois  pounds;  duties  into  United  States  currency.] 


Description. 

Portugal. 

United  States. 

England. 

Total. 

Quantity. 

Duty  per 
pound. 

Quantity. 

Duty  per 
pound. 

Quantity. 

Duty  per 
pound. 

Pounds. 
48,  157 
28.  097 
953 
55,000 
7,000 

Cents. 
5.3 
9.5 
35.4 
17.1 
14.0 

Pounds. 
32,  000 
18,  250 
1,100 
28,  000 
43,  000 

Cents. 
7.4 
12.3 
39.2 

Pound*. 

35.  290 
19,  870 
3,  222 
40,  000 

Cents. 
7.4 
2.3 
39.2 

Pounds. 
115,  447 
66,  217 
5,245 
123,  000 
50,  000 

Bleached  cottons  - 

Colored  cottons  and  prints. 

20.0 

20.0 

Total 

139,  177 

122,  350 

98,  382 

359,  909 

I  have  to  state  that  owing  to  the  method  of  accounting  for  cotton 
goods  in  the  different  custom-houses  of  this  colony  the  desired  informa- 
tion required  by  the  circular  is  unobtainable. 

HENRY  PEASE, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Santiago,  Cape  Verd,  October  20,  1889. 


MADEIRA. 

REPORT  P.Y  CONSUL  JONES,  OF  PUNCH AL. 

In  answer  to  your  circular  in  regard  to  the  importation  of  cotton  tex- 
tiles into  this  district,  I  beg  to  hand  you  the  inclosed  report. 

These  tables  were  made  for  me  by  the  officer  of  customs.  * 

The  largest  importation  into  this  city  is  from  Lisbon,  and  as  no  Gov- 
ernment duty  is  charged  on  this  no  accounts  are  kept  by  the  customs- 
officer. 

One  piece  calico,  manufactured  in  Manchester,  36  inches  wide,  60 
yards  in  length,  13  pounds  per  piece,  cost  7  cents  per  yard ;  discount, 
7J  per  cent. ;  weight  per  yard,  0.108  pound  ;  duties  and  other  taxes  per 
pound,  24  cents;  duties  per  yard  2.5  cents. 

One  piece  of  unbleached  calico,  from  Manchester,  28  inches  wide,  81 
yards  in  length ;  weight  per  piece,  22  pounds  ;  cost  per  yard,  3  cents ; 
discount,  1 J  per  cent. ;  weight  per  yard,  0.136  pound  ;  duties  and  other 
taxes  per  pound,  17.8  cents  ;  duties  per  yard,  2.5  cents. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COl'NTKIKS. 


13 


Freight  and  expenses  average  6  to  10  per  cent,  on  the  first  cost. 
As  a  rule  these  goods  are  bought  on  a  credit  of  three  months. 

t'ntton  tf.rtiles  \mp6rh-d  tluriny  the  year  1889. 


Articles. 

Duties 
per 
pound. 

Total 
imports. 

Value. 

Articles. 

Duties 
per 
pound. 

Total 
imports. 

Value. 

Cotton,      wool,     and 

Cents. 
Hi 

Pounds. 

3  >l>  6 

$610  00 

Calico        

Cents. 
91 

Pounds. 
82  516.6 

$23  888  00 

111 

29 

8.00 

"Work  ed  calico 

Twisted  cotton  ..... 

tffi 

17,  347.  4 

7,  91  h  60 

(towels)  

134 

281.8 

301.50 

8? 

IT)  4 

015.  70 

T  willin^  and  drill  .. 

16i 

7,644.4 

2,  661.  00 

Crinoline 

13i 

999.4 

228.  30 

Printed  cotton  

26? 

30,  970.  6 

11,969.40 

N't  tt 

59 

1  220  8 

1  013  20 

Ribbons 

30 

6,  341.  2 

1  068  50 

Faucv  net 

58.'. 

17 

59.00 

Handkerchiefs  

32 

2,  388.  8 

1,378.20 

Ill 

23  4 

29  50 

Wicks 

28i 

217  4 

194  10 

45 

719  6 

864  80 

Knitting            

5»f 

1,  618.  6 

2  159.  10 

Worked  cambric  
Blankets  

67i 
262 

12 
33 

30.00 
22.00 

Cotton  fancy  lace  .  .  . 
Twilling    and   drill 

38 

1,  055.  6 

743.00 

Canvas 

6 

142 

52.60 

workf  d  

24f 

634 

943.80 

g 

188  769 

25  *?95  30 

Total 

go  076  60 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Funchal,  November,  1889. 


THOMAS  C.  JONES, 

Consul. 


ST.  PAUL  DE  LOANDA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  NEWTON. 

(1)  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  quantity  imported,  etc.,  as  this  is 
more  or  less  regulated  by  the  prospective  crop  of  coffee  in  each  year. 
As  the  crop  is  expected  to  be  large  this  year,  a  large  quantity  of  cotton 
goods  of  all  descriptions  has  been  imported. 

(2)  The  weight  varies  according  to  the  styles  of  cloth,  of  which  there 
are  so  many  varieties  to  suit  the  different  markets  and  articles  of  pro- 
duce that  no  reliable  weight  can  be  stated. 

The  principal  kinds  are  in  the  following  sizes,  of  yard,  length  and 
inches  width: 

Grey  domestics :  10  yards,  21  inches;  12  yards,  21  inches ;  12  yards, 
15  inches  ;  30  yards,  22  inches  ;  20  yards,  21  inches  ;  20  yards,  27  inches; 
30  yards,  28  inches;  average  cost,  4  to  5  cents  per  yard  ;  other  sizes  in 
proportion. 

Striped  and  checked  domestics:  7  yards,  21  inches;  12 yards, 27  inches; 
18  yards,  27  inches;  18  yards,  40  inches  ;  18 yards,  22inches  ;  18 yards,  29 
inches ;  4J  to  6J  cents  per  yard  ;  other  sizes  in  proportion. 

Prints :  12  yards,  24  inches ;  23  yards,  28  inches ;  5  to  7  cents  per 
yard  ;  other  sizes  in  proportion. 

Satin  stripes:  12 yards,  24  inches  ;  3J  to  4  cents  per  yard. 

Blue  baftas  :  18  yards,  38  inches  ;  18  yards,  40  inches  ;  good  heavy 
cloth  ;  12  to  14  cents  per  yard. 

Handkerchiefs  of  all  sorts  and  sizes. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Moreens :  24  yards.  28  inches  ;  24  yards,  35  inches ;  7  to  9  cents  per 
yard. 

(3)  Usually  all  purchased  in  Lisbon  from  agents  established  there 
by  Manchester  houses,  and  also  in  Manchester  itself. 

(4)  Manufactured  principally  in  Manchester  and  Glasgow  and  shipped 
to  Lisbon, where  they  pay  a  small  duty  and  are  afterwards  classified  as 
Portuguese  goods,  and  coming  by  Portuguese  steamers  pay  only  70 
per  cent,  of  the  full  duties.    No  cotton  goods  come  in  vessels  under 
foreign  flags,  otherwise  they  would  pay  full  duties. 

(5)  The  full  duties  on  cotton  goods  are : 

Cents. 

Plain  cotton Per  kilogram..  16 

Prints do 43£ 

Stripes  and  checks do 43£ 

Bluebaftas do 43| 

Moreens do 27 

...  43* 

...  21f 

...  76 

...  43* 


Handkerchiefs do. 

Colored  cotton  blankets do. 

Woolens ...  ...  do , 


Baize  blankets do 

KOBT.  S.  NEWTON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

8t.  Paul  de  Loanda,  August  15,  1889. 


ZANZIBAR. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PRATT,  OF  ZANZIBAR. 
Cotton  textiles  imported. 


Description. 

Average  quan- 
tity   imported 
per  annum. 

How  pur- 
chased. 

Place  of  manu- 
facture    and 
whence   im- 
ported. 

Duties 
charged 
thereon. 

Unbleached  shirtings  28  inches 

Sales. 
]  250 

United  States 

Per   cent. 
5 

Unbleached  sheetings  36  inches.     ...... 

2  000 

.    do 

do                1 

5 

Unbleached  d  tills  30  inches  

800 

....do  

..    do  

5 

Unbleached  shirtings  ) 

rln 

Unbleached  sheetings  (of  all  sorts)  5 
Bleached  goods  (limited  quantity  of  va- 

do 

5 

rious  kinds). 

United  States. 

In  former  times  America  supplied  this  market  with  cotton  goods. 
But  within  the  past  twelve  years,  the  products  of  the  Bombay  mills, 
while  in  no  sense  being  an  imitation,  have  by  their  remarkable  cheap- 
ness taken  possession  of  the  markets. 

SETH  C.  PRATT, 

Consul 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Zanzibar,  September  2,  1889, 


CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 

BRITISH    NORTH    AMERICA. 

GRAY  COTTON  MANUFACTURES  OF   CANADA. 
EEPORTS  BY  CONSUL  TANNER,  OF  PIOTOU,  NOVA  SCOTIA. 

The  manufacturers  in  Canada  of  gray  cotton  recently  held  a  conven- 
iton  for  the  benefit  of  that  industry  in  the  Dominion.  Delegates  from 
all  the  mills  in  Canada  were  present,  including  an  agent  of  a  New  York 
commission  house  with  factors  in  China  who  have  hitherto  been  the 
chief  purchasers  of  cheap  Canadian  manufactured  cotton  goods  for  the 
Celestial  markets. 

Owing  to  the  present  condition  of  the  trade  in  Canada  it  was  proposed 
that  prices  should  be  augmented  and  terms  modified. 

After  some  discussion  and  objections  on  the  part  of  small  mill  owners 
this  proposition  was  postponed  until  the  quarterly  meeting  in  March 
next  when  it  is  confidently  expected  an  advance  in  prices  will  take  place 
and  terms  be  reduced  to  sixty  days  and  a  discount  of  2  per  cent,  for 
cash. 

The  trade  with  China,  owing  to  the  presence  of  Mr.  Frazon,  formed  a 
principal  subject  of  discussion. 

It  appeared  that  the  total  capacity  of  Canadian  mills  working  on 
gray  cotton  is  35,000  to  37,000  bales  per  annum,  and  that  the  home 
consumption  absorbs  almost  30,000  bales  of  this.  How  to  get  rid  of 
surplus  has  been  a  problem  to  the  Canadian  manufacturers  for  some 
years  past. 

Communication  with  South  America  was  more  difficult  than  with 
China,  hence  the  latter  country  offered  a  better  field,  and  after  many 
efforts  successful  negotiations  with  selling  agents  were  effected  and 
special  arrangements  were  also  made  with  carrying  companies  at  ex- 
ceedingly low  rates  which  enabled  the  manufacturers  hereto  send  their 
goods  half  around  the  globe  at  rates  that  would  enable  them  to  com- 
pete to  advantage  with  manufacturers  in  the  United  States. 

An  inferior  quality  of  goods  as  well  as  goods  at  a  low  price  are  an 
essential  to  trade  in  China,  and  those  requisites  seem  to  be  met  in  the 
productions  in  Canada.  This  will  readily  appear  when  the  fact  is  un- 
derstood that  Canadian  goods  which  cost  from  26  to  28  cents  per  pound 
to  manufacture  are  sold  to  the  trade  here  at  23  cents,  and  the  cloth 
consumed  by  the  Chinese  can  be  manufactured  for  10  to  17  cents  per 

15 


16  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

pound.    The  prices  realized  on  the  latter  in  Chinese  market  are  from 
17£  to  19  cents  per  pound,  which  will  net  a  slight  margin  of  profits. 

It  can  be  seen  by  the  prices  quoted  above  that  the  profits  are  so  small 
that  the  carrrying  rates  must  be  next  to  nothing,  and  it  is  this  one  fac- 
tor that  in  all  probability  enables  Canadian  manufacturers  to  enter  the 
field  as  competitors  in  any  class  of  manufactured  cotton,  and  pocket  a 
small  profit. 

The  advantage  of  long  runs  in  the  manufacture  of  textile  goods  is 
well  known.  The  goods  required  for  the  Chinese  market  are  low  and  of 
coarse  quality,  and  the  amounts  secured  from  their  sale  is  equitably 
divided  among  the  different  mills,  each  agreeing  to  confine  its  produc- 
tions of  these  goods  to  15  per  cent,  of  its  capacity,  but  with  the  option 
of  keeping  the  same  proportion  of  machinery  at  a  standstill. 

The  total  exportation  of  Canadian  gray  cottons  to  China  during  the 
past  year  was  8,000  bales,  and  from  recent  demands  there  is  not  much 
probability  that  this  will  be  decreased.  On  the  other  hand,  the  exporta- 
tion from  England  in  the  same  time  into  China  shows  a  falling  off'  of 
105,000,000  yards,  and  a  total  falling  off  of  150,000,000  yards,  the  United 
States  bemg  the  next  greatest  sufferer  with  England.  This  deserves 
attention  from  our  manufacturers. 

Stock  on  hand  in  China  at  the  present  time  is  not  one-half  of  what  it 
was  at  a  corresponding  period  of  last  year.  This  stock  was  estimated 
very  recently  to  amount  to  4,980  bales,  while  the  orders  on  hand 
amounted  to  4,505  bales,  or  that  the  supply  is  not  in  proportion  to  the 
demand,  and  this  was  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  discussion  of  an  ad- 
vance in  prices  on  the  part  of  Canadian  manufacturers,  alluded  to  at 
the  outset  of  this  dispatch.  The  position  of  the  Canadian  consumer  is 
improved  from  that  of  ten  years  ago,  when  the  change  in  the  tariff 
gave  such  an  impetus  to  their  cotton  industry.  At  that  time  stuff'  that 
had  to  pay  30  cents  a  pound  for  the  same  goods  can  now  be  purchased 
at  22  cents.  The  mill-owners  complain,  however,  of  discouragingly 
small  profits,  but  reap  some  satisfaction  from  the  fact  that  the  u  Yan- 
kee" suffered  as  well  as  themselves. 

This  dispatch  it  is  hoped  will  be  of  some  value  to  our  manufacturers 
of  the  class  of  goods  spoken  of  therein  by  showing  them  in  ^hat  way 
Canada  can  enter  the  competitive  field  with  them.  In  my  opinion  the 
ability  to  do  so  hinges  on  the  low  rates  of  carriage  effected  with  steam-ship 
lines  (lines  which,  in  my  opinion,  are  subsidized  by  the  Government)  and 
organization  and  judicious  co-operation  among  the  manufacturers  of 
cotton  goods  in  Canada. 

The  Canadian  manufacturer  learned  at  once  how  to  cater  to  Chinese 
prejudices.  The  Chinaman  must  have  his  gray  cotton  exactly  40  yards 
long,  it  must  be  exactly  36  inches  wide,  and  the  bale  must  be  fastened 
with  8  ropes,  no  more  no  less. 

GEO.  C.  TANNER, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul 

j  Dwmber  26, 1889, 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  17 


BRITISH  COLUMBIA. 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL  STETEXS,  OF  VICTORIA. 

GENERAL  TRADE  OF  THE  PROVINCE. 

In  replying,  under  instructions  conveyed  in  circular  of  May  27,  1889, 
concerning  importation,  into  tbis  consular  district,  of  cotton  textiles, 
it  is  proper  in  explanation  of  the  meager  matter  set  forth  that  I  should 
give  a  brief  description  of  the  business  of  this  place  and  the  commercial 
scope  of  the  consulate. 

This  town,  situated  on  the  southern  extremity  of  the  island  of  Van- 
couver, is  the  principal  port  of  entry,  and  mainly  the  distributing  point 
of  the  province.  The  town  of  Vancouver,  on  the  mainland,  at  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Kail  way,  which  has  been  built  within  the 
last  three  years,  consequent  upon  the  completion  of  the  railway,  and  is 
now  nearly  as  populous  as  this,  and  fast  increasing,  of  late  somewhat 
divides  the  business. 

Neither  of  these  towns  has  cotton  manufactories.  The  general  mer- 
chandising business  of  this  town  is  not  systemized.  Besides  the  Hud- 
son's Bay  Company's  store,  in  which  almost  everything  can  be  pur- 
chased, there  are  some  seven  other  principal  firms  carrying  on  business 
in  the  same  manner,  and  combining  a  shipping  business.  These  two 
towns,  Victoria  and  Vancouver,  are  the  principal  towns  of  the  province. 
Nanaimo  is  not  much  more  than  a  coal  port,  and  New  Westminster,  on 
the  Fraser  River,  is  as  yet  comparatively  unimportant ;  the  interior 
towns  are  unimportant  and  remote. 

During  the  last  fiscal  year  ten  vessels,  bringing  a  total  of  11,812  tons 
of  freight,  arrived  in  this  port  from  the  United  Kingdom.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  this  was  assorted  merchandise  from  London  and  Liver- 
pool, and  a  part  of  it  naval  stores  for  the  station  at  Esquimalt. 

Add  to  this  constant  arrivals  by  regular  packets,  from  San  Francisco 
principally,  from  the  ports  on  Puget  Sound  and  other  ports,  and  the 
total  imports  cf  last  year  were  $2,922,395  in  value,  upon  which  $748,- 
613.98  duty  was  paid. 

A  certain  quantity  of  such  goods,  of  which  no  record  is  obtainable, 
may  be  received  at  a  town,  small  and  remote,  along  and  near  the  line  of 
the  railway  which  spans  the  width  of  the  province,  as  well  as  at  the  ter- 
minal town  of  Vancouver. 
608A 2 


38         COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 
IMPORTS  OF  COTTON  TEXTILES. 

The  following  from  the  Dominion  revenue-books  shows  the  imports 
of  cotton  textiles  for  the  last  fiscal  year,  entered  principally  at  Victoria: 


Articles  and  whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Duty. 

Bleached  and  unbleached  sheetings,  drills,  ducks,  not  stained, 
painted,  nor  printed  : 

27  620 

$2  5£1 

$665  30 

United  States  *         "  do 

31  954 

5  719 

1  177  39 

Ginghams  or  plaids  dyed  or  colored  : 
Great  Britain  .   .             .  .       .                do 

'    906 

102 

33  37 

"United  States  do  .  . 

7  136 

741 

253  95 

Denims,  drillings,  bed-tickings,  Canton  flannels,  ducks,  and  drills, 
dyed  or  colored,  checked  and  striped  shirtings,  cottonades,  etc. 

23  393 

2  741 

679  01 

United  States  do 

75  984 

14*  183 

3  847  14 

Printed  or  dyed  cotton  fabrics,  not  elsewhere  specified: 
Great  Britain  yards 

163  074 

13  019 

4  206  38 

United  States                                                                        do 

75  059 

5  016 

1  630  20 

France      .     ..      .                 .            do 

*119 

54 

17  55 

China                                                                                     do 

917 

57 

18  5C 

Japan                   ....             .                           do 

310 

16 

5  20 

Damask  of  cotton  bleached,  unbleached,  or  colored  : 
Great  Britain                                                                        do 

17  337 

1  410 

352  50 

United  States  -           do 

4  716 

*378 

94  50 

Handkerchiefs,  plain  or  printed,  in  the  piece  or  otherwise  : 
Great  Britain  do 

4  228 

1  057  00 

United  States  do    . 

134 

33  5C 

Shirts,  of  cotton  : 

292 

1  702 

802  50 

United  States      ...                                                              do 

116 

1  063 

434  9ft 

China  .   .                do 

9 

50 

24  00 

Bed  comforters  or  quilts,  not  including  woven  quilts  or  counter- 
panes : 

300 

904 

314.  15 

United  States        -  -           .        .      .  .  do 

13 

43 

15  05 

29 

85 

29  75 

Clothing,  or  other  material  not  otherwise  provided  for,  including 
corsets  and  similar  articles  made  up  by  seamstress  or  tailor  ; 
also  tarpaulin,  plain  or  coated  with  oil,  paint,  tar,  or  other  com- 
position : 
Great  Britain  

9  447 

3  297  61 

United  States         

9  967 

3  488  45 

Fiance  

483 

169  05 

China  

823 

288  05 

Japan  

91 

31  85 

Clothing  not  otherwise  provided  for  : 
Great  Britain  

73 

21  90 

United  States  

201 

60  45 

China  ... 

g 

2  40 

Colored  fabrics,  woven,  of  dyed  or  colored  cotton  yarn,  or  part 
jute  and  part  cotton,  or  other  material,  except  silk  : 
Great  Britain                                                                      yards 

177 

45 

11  25 

United  States                                                           ..           do 

240 

37 

9  25 

Cotton  bags,  made  up  by  the  use  of  the  needle,  not  elsewhere 
specified  : 
Great  Britain  

3 

1  05 

United  States 

605 

211  70 

Lamp-  wicks: 
United  States  

264 

279  20 

China  

13 

3  90 

Prunella,  for  boots  and  shoes  : 
Great  Britain  .                   . 

72 

7  20 

Parasols,  umbrellas,  and  sun-shades  : 
Great  Britain.  

3  731 

1  119  30 

United  States  

119 

35  70 

Japan  .  .  . 

4 

1  20 

Shawls: 
Great  Britain  

123 

30  75 

United  States  

2 

50 

Socks  and  stockings: 
Great  Britain  pounds.. 
United  States  do 

4,825 
430 

4,295 
293 

1,  768.  79 
130  90 

Germany                                                                                do 

224 

133 

62  30 

China  do 

461 

322 

142  70 

Towels  : 
Great  Britain  

2,715 

668  75 

United  States  

75 

28  85 

China  

11 

2.75 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


19 


Articles  and  whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Viilm-. 

Duty. 

Velveteens  and  cotton  velvets  : 
Great  Britain          .          ... 

yards 

8  3°5 

$2  450 

$491  00 

United  States 

,  do 

166 

66 

14.  20 

Winceys  of  all  kinds,  not  elsewhere  specified  : 
Great  Britain 

yards 

10  543 

741 

166  6 

Winceys,  checked,  striped,  or  fancy  cotton  winceys,  n< 
25  inches  wide  : 

)t  over 
yards 

717 

57 

22  89 

All  other  manufactures  of  cotton,  not  elsewhere  specified 
Great  Britain                                                      .  .     ...   . 

9  002 

1  800  40 

United  States 

1*906 

381  67 

China 

'     3 

60 

Total 

10°  416 

30  245  17 

It  is  almost  impossible  to  arrive  at  a  practical  estimate  of  the  quan- 
tity of  cotton  textiles  imported  from  eastern  Canada  annually.  One  of 
the  dealers,  the  most  intelligent  and  the  heaviest,  puts  it  at  $100,000 
value ;  others,  again,  place  it  at  a  less  figure,  and  most  of  them  can 
give  no  statement. 

ROBT.  J.  STEVENS, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Victoria,  June  27,  1889. 


ONTARIO. 

FORT  ERIE. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WHELAN. 

The  importation  of  cotton  fabrics,  of  which  entry  is  made  at  the  port 
of  Fort  Erie,  is  insignificant  (as  this  is  not  a  distributing  point),  and  con- 
sists of  small  quantities  brought  in  from  the  United  States  by  a  few 
retail  dealers  and  by  families  for  private  use.  Such  goods  coming  into 
Canada  at  this  point  go  through  in  bond,  and  entry  is  made  at  Hamil- 
ton, Brantford,  London,  St.  Thomas,  and  other  interior  ports  of  entry. 
The  cotton  textiles  of  which  entry  is  made  here  are  manufactured  in 
the  United  States  and  are  imported  from  Buffalo.  There  are  no  direct 
importations  from  any  other  country,  dealers  being  supplied  from  Ham- 
ilton, Toronto,  and  Montreal. 

The  following  tables  show  the  kind,  quantity,  and  value  of  manufact- 
ures of  cotton  imported  aud  entered  at  Fort  Erie  for  the  fiscal  years  ended 
June  30, 1886, 1887, 1888,  aud  1889,  and  the  rate  of  duty  charged  thereon  : 


Articles  and  year  of  importation. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Duty. 

Bleached  and  unbleached  sheetings,  drills,  ducks,  etc., 
not  stained  or  printed  : 
1886  ..  

Yard*. 
2  968 

$195 

1887  .  .  . 

2  487 

201 

and  15  per  cent. 
Do 

1888  

2  260 

176 

Do 

1889... 

2.091 

170 

Do. 

20 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Articles  and  year  of  importation.                       Quantity. 

Value. 

Duty. 

Ginghams,  plaida,  drillings,  etc 
1886  .     

,  dyed  or  colored  : 

Yards. 
2,195 

1,007 
943 
597 

2,204 
5,620 
3,389 
3,432 

$205 

122 
156 

65 

431 
364 

213 
222 

$644 
608 
379 
372 

644 
608 
379 
372 

647 
97 

103 
50 

2  cents  per  square  yard 
and  15  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

27*  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

25  per  cent. 

30  per  cent. 
20  per  cent. 

1887            

1889                  

Printed  or  dyed  cotton  fabrics, 
1886                  

not  elsewhere  specified  : 

1887                                   -     - 

1888                

1889 

Towels  : 
1886 

1887          .          

1888 

1889 

Clothing,  or  other  material  made  up  by  the  tailor  or  seam- 
stress, including  corsets,  lace  collars,  and  similar  arti- 
cles: 
1886                   -     

1887 

1888 

1889      

All  other  manufactures  of  cotton,  not  elsewhere  specified: 
1886 

1887          

1888 

1889                          

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Fort  Erie,  Ontario,  July  30,  1889. 


JAMES  WHELAN, 

Consul. 


NOVA  SCOTIA. 

WINDSOR. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  YOUNG,  OF  WINDSOR. 

I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  following  statement  of  the  imports  of 
cotton  textiles  into  this  consular  district,  of  which  Windsor  is  the  chief 
port  of  entry : 

QUANTITY  AND  KIND  IMPORTED. 

Imported  during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1889. 


Articles. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Rate  of  duty. 

Printed  or  dyed  yards.. 
Other  cotton  goods: 
Cotton  cloth  in  <r  ...         ..          ..        ... 

5,127 

$430 
252 

32J  per  cent. 
35  per  cent. 

Handkerchiefs  

73 

25  per  cent. 

Batting  or  wadding  pounds  .  . 
Unenuraerated  

516 

72 
125 

2  cents  per  pound  and  15  per  cent. 
20  per  cent. 

As  some  small  packages  that  came  by  mail  are  not  included  in  the 
foregoing,  the  collector  of  customs  estimates  the  total  importation  of 
cotton  goods  during  the  fiscal  year  at  not  in  excess  of  $1,000. 

WEIGHT  PER  YARD  OF  TEXTILES  IMPORTED. 

As  white  and  unbleached  cotton  goods  are  manufactured  in  Canada, 
the  weight  of  those  that  are  printed  or  dyed  is  unknown. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


21 


HOW  PURCHASED. 

Chiefly  through  agents  of  the  foreigii  manufacturers  iu  Europe  resi- 
dent in  Montreal,  and  through  dealers  in  Boston  of  goods  manufact- 
ured in  the  United  States. 

PLACES  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

Chiefly  England,  some  fine  goods  of  French  make,  and  a  small  part 
made  in  the  United  States. 

DUTIES  CHARGED  THEREON. 

The  rates  of  duty  on  the  cotton  goods  imported  are  given  in  the  fore- 
going statement.  The  duties  that  prevent  the  importation  of  cotton 
textiles  manufactured  in  the  United  States  are  chiefly  as  follows : 


Classification. 

Kates  of  duty. 

(jray  or  unbleached  and  bleached  cotton,  sheetings,  drills, 
ducks,  cotton  flannels,  not  stained  or  printed. 
All  cottons,   denim*,    drillings,    plaids,    ginghams,  dyed  or 
colored,  Kentucky  jeans. 
White  cotton  jeans'  and  coutilles                      

1  cent    per    square   yard  and 
cent,  ad  valorem. 
2  cents  per  square    yard    and 
cent. 
20  per  cent. 

15  per 
15  per 

15  per  cent. 

4°  inches  wide  and  over  for  enameled  cloth           

15  per  cent. 

27J  per  cent. 

The  duty  of  1  cent  per  square  yard  and  15  per  cent,  ad  valorem, 
is  sufficient  to  prevent  the  importation,  from  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain,  of  cotton  textiles  subject  to  that  rate.  'Consequently, 
under  the  "protective"  tariff  of  Canada,  cotton  factories  have  been 
established  in  various  parts  of  the  Dominion,  manufacturing  unbleached 
cottons  chiefly.  There  is  but  one  in  this  consular  district,  that  owned 
by  "  The  Windsor  Cotton  Company,  limited,"  the  sole  production  of 
which  consists  of  unbleached  cottons,  varying  in  weight  from  two  and 
a  half  to  six  yards  per  pound. 

That  the  tariff  prevents  the  importation  of  heavy  cotton  goods  is 
shown  by  the  fact  that  in  a  recent  year  the  whole  importation  into  the 
Dominion  of  u  unbleached  and  unbleached  cottons,  sheetings,  drills, 
ducks  for  vessels'  sails,"  etc.,  amounted  to  only  2,510,000  yards,  valued 
at  $301,450,  averaging  only  about  one-half  yard  for  each  inhabitant. 

EDWARD  YOUNG, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Windsor,  N.  &,  August  21,  1889. 


22 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


NEWFOUNDLAND. 

SAINT  JOHN'S. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MOLLOY, 

The  customs  department  does  not  keep  a  very  accurate  account  of  cot- 
ton importations.  From  merchants  I  have  called  upon  I  find  that  there 
is  about  $150,000  worth  cotton  duck  imported,  paying  a  duty  of  10  per 
cent.  These  goods  are  principally  shipped  at  New  York  and  Boston, 
purchased  for  cash  and  at  three  months. 
Piece  cotton  from  3  to  5  ounces  to  the  yard. 

T.  N.  MOLLOY, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

St.  John's,  N.  P.,  August  14,  1889. 


QUEBEC. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DOWNS. 

The  inclosed  report  was  made  out  from  quarterly  returns  kindly  fur- 
nished me  by  Mr.  D.  O'Meara.  acting  collector  of  customs  at  Quebec, 
for  nine  months  ending  31st  March,  1889.  I  could  not  get  returns  for 
the  year.  The  report  contains  all  cotton  goods  imported  into  Quebec 
for  period  named,  value,  quantity,  country  whence  imported,  and  rate 
dutiable. 

I  could  not  comply  with  Nos.  2  and  3  and  place  of  manufacture,  as 
per  circular.  I  may  state  that  merchandise  is  generally  bought  on 
three,  four,  or  six  months7  time.  The  weight  per  yard  I  can  not  state, 
not  being  able  to  procure  any  record  of  it. 

THEODORE  W.  DOWNS, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Quebec.  Canada,  June  19,  1889. 


Imports  of  cotton  textiles,  fairies,  etc.,  at  the  port  of  Quebec,  Canada,  for  nine  month* 
ending  March  31,  1889,  per  Quebec  custom  house  returns. 


Articles  and  countries  where  imported. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Rate  of  duty. 

Bleached  and  unbleached  cotton  : 
Great  Britain  sq. 

United  States  

yards.. 
..do  ... 

49,  787 
8,644 
801 
5,684 

3,858 
20,  636 

920,  454 

49.  475 

$4,  143 
1,684 
133 
809 

561 
3,540 

60,  481 
4.123 

1  cent  per  square  yard  and  15  per 
cent,  ad  valorem. 
Do. 

2  cents  per  square  yard  and  15  per 
cent,  ad  valorem. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

No  specific  and  32$  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 
Do. 

Ginghams  : 
Great  Britain 

do 

United  States 

do 

Denims  : 
Great  Britain 

do 

United  States  

do 

Printed  or  dyea  : 
Great  Britain  

United  States  ... 

yards.. 
..do... 

COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 
Imports  of  cotton  textiles,  etc. — Continued. 


23 


Articles  and  countries  where  imported. 

Quantity.  Value. 

Hate  of  duty. 

—i  
Damask  : 
Great  Britain  

yards  .  . 

3,488 

$541 

4,141 
1,747 
131 

1 
2,078 
16 

114 
503 

489 
36 
97 
9 
28 
1,685 

861 
43 

41 

2,908 
2,208 

6 

4 

84 

10,  701 
1,679 

198 
8 
5,182 
2,669 
2,448 
7,681 
288 

910 
1,429 

No  specific  and  25  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 

Do. 
Do. 

2  cents  per  pound  and  15  per  cent, 
ad  valorem. 

10  cents  per  pouud  and  30  per  cent, 
ad  valorem. 
Do. 

3  cents  per  pound  and  15  per  cent, 
ad  valorem. 

Do. 

No  specific  and  25  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 
Do. 

No  specific  and  20  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 
1  dollar  per  dozen  and  30  per  cent, 
ad  valorem. 
Do. 

No  specific  and  25  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 

No  specific  and  35  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 

Do. 
Do. 

No  specific  and  30  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 

4  cents  per  pair  and  30  per  cent,  ad 
valorem. 
Do. 

20  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 
Do. 

No  specific  and  20  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 
No  specific  and  25  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 
No  specific  and  3«  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 

No  specific  and  22$  per  cent,  ad  -va- 
lorem. 
No  specific  and  20  per  cent,  ad  va- 
lorem. 
24  cents  per  dozen  and  30  per  ceut. 
ad  vuloit  in. 

Handkerchiefs  : 
Great  Britain  

Jeans: 
United  States  
Seamless  bags  : 
United  States 

yards., 
pounds. 

18.  Ill 
1,066 

2,070 
32 

505 

Socks: 
United  States 

do.... 

Great  Britain 

..do  

Waddings  : 
Great  Britain 

do 

Knitting  cotton  (or  yarn)  : 
Great  Britain                     ... 

.   .do.... 

Sewing  thread  in  spools  : 

United  States 

Sewing  thread: 
Great  Britain 

pounds 

74 
13 
i 

Cotton  shirts: 
Great  Britain  

United  States 

dozen., 
do 

Towels  : 
United  States 

Great  Britain 

Colored  fabrics  : 
Great  Britain  

United  States 

yards., 
do 

4,836 
320 

30 

Bed-comforters  : 

number 

Clothing: 
Great  Britain 

United  States 

Lamp  wicks  : 
United  States    

Cuffs,  cotton  : 
United  States  

Great  Britain 

pairs.. 
do 

12 
696 

Manufactured  cotton  n.  e.  a.  : 

United  States 

Velveteens  : 
United  States  
Belting  : 
Great  Britain 

yards.. 

915 

Parasols: 
Great  Britain 

Velveteens  : 
Great  Britain  

yards 

10,994 
42,699 

Wincevs  : 
Great  Britain  

....  do 

Crapes  : 
Great  Britain  .  .  . 

Collars: 
Great  Britain  

doze  n 

289 

Manufactured  cotton: 
Belgium  

France 

Total  imports  of  cotton  

126,438 

RECAPITULATION. 

Great  Britain. $110  379 

United  States 13,720 

France 1,429 

Belgium 910 

Total 126,438 


24 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GEORGE,  OF  OHARLOTTETOWN. 

I  send  herewith  inclosed  a  statement  prepared  under  the  direction  of 
the  collector  of  customs. 

It  was  understood  that  the  collector  would  cover  all  the  points,  but 
this  he  subsequently  found  could  not  be  done.  It  is  believed  that  the 
goods  were  manufactured  in  the  countries  whence  imported. 

It  may  be  observed  that  statistics  which  have  been  published  may 
be  as  easily  gathered  for  the  whole  of  Canada  as  for  one  province. 

K  J.  GEORGE, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Charlottetown,  August  20,  1889. 


Cotton  textiles  imported  into  Prince  Edward  Island  during  the  years  1885  to  1889,  both 

inclusive. 


From  United 

From  Great 

Tl*lf  T* 

States. 

Britain. 

jA 

uuty. 

a 

-5 

Articles  and  year  of  impor- 

. 

i 

§ 

j2 

tation. 

^ 

& 

0 

^ 

1 

0 

•3 

•3 

a 

9 

0 

o 

1 

I 

1 

Amount. 

Rate. 

O* 

£ 

0? 

r* 

H 

H 

Bleached    and    unbleached 

sheetings,     drills,    ducks, 

etc.,  not  stained,  printed, 

or  painted  : 

1884           .square  yards 

44,054 

$6,999 

33,  133 

$2,  794 

77,  187 

$9,  793 

$2,243.83 

1  cent  per  square 
yard  and  15  per 

1885           .                 do 

18,  800 

3,655 

21,  299 

1,909 

40  099 

5  564 

i   OOK  r*a 

cent. 

Tin 

1886       do 

9J637 

1^630 

5]  427 

*489 

15*  064 

2*  119 

i,  MO.  i>y 

1JO. 
T>n 

1887  do  

9,730 

1,599 

5*  1  32 

477 

14!  862 

2^076 

460  02 

x/o. 
Do 

1888  do.... 

5,879 

1,126 

6,640 

548 

12!  519 

1^674 

376J  29 

Do! 

1889  do     . 

2,  912 

783 

5,  061 

442 

7,973 

1,225 

970  fift 

Do. 

Ginghams  and  plaids,  dyed 

&  |U,  Oo 

or  colored  : 

1884  square  yards.. 

129 

10 

494 

69 

623 

79 

24.31 

2  cents  per  square 

yard  and  15  per 

cent. 

1885...                 ...do... 

440 

48 

1,588 

187 

2,028 

235 

75.81 

Do. 

1886  do.... 

1,359 

159 

824 

67 

2.183 

226 

77.56 

Do. 

1887  do.... 

2,753 

328 

1,594 

147 

4,347 

475 

158.  19 

Do. 

1888  do  ... 

516 

53 

67 

16 

583 

69 

oo  01 

Do 

1889  do.... 
Denims,  drillings,  bed  tick- 

254 

31 

1,086 

146 

1,340 

177 

-i£.  U  L 

53.35 

Do! 

ings,  canton  flannels,  ducks, 

and  drills,  dyed  or  colored, 
checked,  etc.,  striped  shirt- 

* 

ings,  cottonades,  etc.  : 

1884  square  yards  .  . 

23,  378 

2,130 

18,  409 

2,320 

41,  787 

5,450 

1,  654.  21 

2  cents  per  square 
yard  and  15  per 

1 

cent. 

1885  do.... 

10,  879 

1,484 

10,  569 

1,463 

21.448 

2,947 

871.  01 

Do. 

1886  do 

5,674 

813 

3,512 

515]    9,'  186 

1,328 

382.  92 

Do. 

1887  do.... 

320 

126 

3,  522 

459 

3,842 

585 

164.  59 

Do. 

1888  do.... 

106 

17 

7,027 

785 

7,133 

802 

262.  96 

Do. 

1889  do 

7,144 

840 

7,144 

840 

268.  88 

Do. 

Printed  or  dyed  cotton  fabrics. 

not  elsewhere  specified  : 

1884  yards.. 

31,095 

2,303 

184,  686 

15,  872 

215,  781 

18,  175 

4.  566.  28 

20  per  cent,  to  Jan. 

1,  1884,  27i  pei- 

cent.  from'Jau. 

1885  do... 
1886  do 
3887  ...do.... 

34,  627 
68,  000 
34,460 

3,145 
4,069 
2,  140 

221,  645 
188,  188 
257,  625 

22,159 
16,  127 
19,  701 

256,  272 
256,  188 
292,  085 

25,  304 
20,  196 
21,841 

6,  960.  50 
5,558.11 
6,  067.  56 

1,  1884. 
Do. 
27£  per  cent. 
27i   per   cent,  to 

May      13,     32* 

1888..                   ...do... 
1889  do.... 

17,  078 

10,  950 

1,311 
630 

140,  397 
178,  936 

11,  602 
13,  549 

157,475 
189,  886 

12,  913 
14,  179 

4,  198.  12 
4,  608.  63 

after. 
32J  per  cent. 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

n  festih>s  imported  into  Prince  Edward  Island,  etc. — Continued. 


25 


Articles  and  year  of  impor- 
tation. 

From  United 
States. 

From  Great 
Britain. 

Total  quantity. 

Total  valne. 

Duty. 

1 
9 

1 

Quantity. 

i 
f 

Amount 

Rate. 

White  cotton  jeans  and  cou- 
tilles,  including  cambrics, 
caatins,  and  silicias  : 
1H84.  yards.. 
,1885                      do  ... 

44,  339 

$2,  695 

79.625 

$0,970 

123,964 

$8,665 

$1,  734.  41 

20  per  cent. 

2  cents  per  pound 
and  15  percent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

2  cents  per  pound 
and  15  percent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

3  cents  per  pound 
and  15  per  cent. 
.  Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

3  cents  per  pound 
and  15  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

2  cents  per  pound 
and  15  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

30  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
i  $1  per  dozen  and 
30  per  cent. 
Do. 

20  per  cent. 
1        Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
i  25  per  cent. 
!       Do. 

1886                           do 

1887                       ...do  

1888  do  

1889                do  

Wadding,  batting,  batts,  and 
warps,  and  carpet  warps, 
not  bleached,  dyed,  or  col- 
ored: 
1884  pounds.. 

1885                            do 

2,132 

2,371 
1,260 
1,036 
"J05 

284 

239 
134 
149 
27 

2,132 

2,371 
1,200 
1,036 
205 

284 

239 
181 

149 
27 

85.24 

83.27 
45.30 
43.07 
8.15 

1886                            do 

1887                do  ... 

1888                            do 

1889                           do  .. 

Knitting  yarn,  hosiery  yarn, 
or  other  cotton  yairn,  un- 
der No.  40,  not  bleached, 
dyed,  or  colored  : 
1884     pounds 

190 

46 
40 
132 

31 

24 
13 
45 

309 
70 

60 
17 

499 

116 
40 
132 

91 

% 
..« 

23.63 

8.47 
2.75 
9.39 

1885          .            .do  ... 

1886                            do 

1887                            do 

1888  do  

1889  do... 

Wadding,  batting,  batts.  and 
wraps,  bleached,   dyed,  or 
rolored  : 
1884  pounds  .  . 

260 

393 
176 
120 
182 
40 

84 
92 
204 
124 

74 

75 

39 
22 
34 

8 

23 

36 
75 

43 

46 
4 

1C 

13 
4 

303 

439 
180 
120 
186 
44 

916 

86 
92 
204 
124 

90 

88 
43 
22 
28 
11 

215 

24 
36 
75 
36 

22.59 

26.37 
11.86 
6.90 
11.28 
2.97 

59.73 

6.18 
8.16 
17.37 
9.12 

1885  .  .                   .     do.  .  . 

1886  do  .. 

1887           ....      do 

1888  do  

4 

4 

916 

1 

4 
1 

215 
1 

1889  do... 
Knitting  yarn,  hosiery  yarn, 
and   other    cotton     yarn, 
under    No.   40,   bleached, 
dyed,  and  colored: 
1884  pounds.. 

1885    do 

1886                            do 

1887  do.... 
1888  do     . 

36 

1889  do... 

Seamless  bags  : 
1884                      pounds 

62 

367 
335 
141 

568 
466 

13 

69 
65 
28 

74 
80 

305 

62 

367 
345 
141 
581. 
466 

13 

69 
66 

28 
75 

80 

1,947 
3,291 
2,  100 
1,757 

77 

74 

819 
1,026 
123 
45 
163 
21 

3.19 

17.62 
16.80 
7.02 
22.93 
21.82 

584.10 
987.  30 
630.00 
542.89 
32.60 

35.07 

163.80 
205.20 
24.60 
9.00 
40.75 
—    2.25 

1885                            do 

1886  do.... 
1887                            do 

10 

1 

1888  do.... 
1889  do 

13 

1,642 
2,934 

Skirts  and  drawers,  woven 
or  made  on  frames,  and  all 
cotton  hosiery  and  knitted 
cloth  : 

1884  . 

1885  

357 

1886  

379 

1,721 

1887  

502 

1,255 

1888...  dozen.. 

1889  do.... 

Sewing  thread  on  spools  : 

6} 

53 

9 

9 

6 

77 
21 
812 

9 

12f 

1885  

1,026 
123 
45 

1886 

1887  

1888 

163 
21 

1889... 

26  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Cotton  textiles  imported  into  Prince  Edward  Island,  etc. — Continued. 


Articles  and  year  of  impor- 
tation. 

From  United 
States. 

From  Great 
Britain. 

Total  quantity. 

1 
"« 
i> 

'3 

"o 
H 

Duty. 

Quantity. 

£ 

& 

1 

$100 
57 
1 
16 

Quantity. 

<o 
i 
13 
t> 

Amount. 

Rate. 

Bed  comforters,  or  quilts  of 
cotton,  not  including  woven 
quilts  or  counterpanes  : 
1884          number.. 

67 
37 
'  1 
20 

30 
21 
28 
2 

$51 
34 
22 
9 

97 
58 
29 

22 

$151 
91 
23 
25 

$41.  53 
25.0^ 
6.  83 
6.89 

27J  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
35  per  cent. 
Do. 

30  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
35  per  cent. 
Do. 

30  per  cent. 

Da 
Do. 
35  per  cent. 
Do. 

30  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

25  per  cent. 
30  per  cent- 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

26  per  cent. 
Do. 

3t 

Do. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

1885                do  

1886                            do  .... 

1887                  do  

1888                              do... 

1889                          ..do  

Clothing  or  other  material, 
nototherwise  provided  for, 
including  corsets,  lace  col- 
lars, aiid  similar  articles, 
made  up  bv  seamstress  or 
tailor;  also'  tarpaulin,  plain 
or  coated  with  oil,  etc.  : 
1884  
1885                       

4,011 
5,979 

2,776 
2,  167 

6,787 
8,146 
6,073 
6,038 
3,459 
3,159 

2,  036.  10 
2,  443.  80 
1,  821.  90 
1,  826.  50 
1,  189.  36 
1,  105.  38 

1886                

4,133 

1,940 

1887                             

2,796 
1,168 



3,242 
2,3151 



1888                  

1889       

1,787 

1,372 

Cotton  bags,  made  up  bythe 
use  of  the  needle,  not  else- 
where specified  : 

1885                         

141 

141 

42.30 

1886              

1887 

15 
74 
165 

1 
59 
66 
38 
28 
62 

15 

74 
165 

1 

60 
66 
38 
28 
62 

93 
225 
945 
1,443 
1,059 
1,291 

4.50 
25.90 

57.  75 

.30 
18.40 
19.80 
11.40 
8.25 
18.60 

23.25 
63.85 
283.  50 
432.  90 
317.  70 
387.  30 

1888                  

1889 

Lamp-wicks  : 

1884 

1885                        

1 

1886 

1887                               ...     - 

1888                -  • 

1889 

Parasols,  umbrellas,  and  sun- 
shades : 
1884                           

93 

1885 

225 
930 
1,438 
1,  059 

1886                               

15 
5 



1887 



1888  

1889 

17 

1  °74 

Damask  of  cotton  bleached, 
unbleached,  or  colored: 
1884                          yards 

1885                         .do     .. 

8,720 
83 
895 
430 
131 

1,745 
8 
226 
52 
11 

8,720 
130 
951 
430 
181 

1,745 
20 
237 
52 
14 

438.  40 
5.00 
59.25 
13.00 
3.50 

1886                             do 

47 
56 

12 
11 

1887                             do 

1888  do  

1£8!»                             do 

50 

Handkerchiefs,    plain    or 
printed,  in    the    piece    or 
otherwise  : 

1884 

1885 

%' 

1886 

rj 

95 

102 
1,672 
1,117 
1,293 

25.50 
421.45 
279.  25 
323.  25 

1887 

43 

1  629 

1888  

14 

1,103 

1889  

1,  293 

Towels: 

1884 

1885 

1886  

154 
365 

154 
377 
169 
182 

38.50 
94.25 
42.45 
45.50 

1887                         

12 

1888 

18 

160 

1889... 

15 

167 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Cotton  /rjr/»7f»  Imported  into  Prince  Edward  Island,  etc.— Continued. 


27 


Articles  and  year  of  impor- 
tation. 

From  United     From  Great 
States.             Britain. 

Total  quantity. 

Total  value. 

Duty. 

::• 
i 

1 

| 
"3 
> 

£> 
a 

5 

B 

3 

13 

> 

Amount. 

Rate. 

Colored    fabrics   woven,   of 
dyed    or    colored    cotton 
yarn,    or    part   jute    and 
part  cotton,  or  other  mate- 
rial except  silk,  not  else- 
where specified: 
1884                         yards 

25  per  cent 
Do. 

10    cents    per 
pound    and    30 
per  cent. 
Do. 

20  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

Do. 

22*  per  cent. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

20  per  oent. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 

1885        do  

1886  do  

1887         do  ... 

1888                            do 

40 
480 

$19 
111 

$715 
2,324 

$209 

481 

$755 
2,804 

$228 
592 

$57.00 
148.00 

1889                         ..do     . 

Socks  and  stockings  of  cot- 
ton: 
1884  pounds.. 

1885                     .        do 

1886    do  .. 

1887                            do 

1888      do  ... 

125 

101 

142 

108 

1,435 
1,812 

9,731 
16,  099 
14,  786 
12,699 
6,718 
5,896 

31,  508 
65,878 
4,760 
3,130 
«J,  980 
6,658 

1,052 
1,152 

4,353 
6,271 
5,164 
3,594 
1.730 
1,330 

:.»,  861 

5,440 
381 
197 
•28 
447 

11,  755 

7  541 

1,560 
1,913 

9,731 
16,099 
14,  786 
12,  699 
6,718 
5,896 

31,508 
65,  878 
4,760 
3,130 
9,980 
G,  658 

1,194 
1,260 

4,353 
6,271 
5,164 
3,594 
1,730 
1,330 

2,  861 
5,440 
384 
197 
628 
447 

12,903 
8,127 
7,932 
2,906 
2,373 
2,846 

514.30 
569.30 

870.60 
1,254.20 
1,032.60 
718.  80 
346.00 
266.00 

572.81 
1,  089.  95 
86.41 
44.30 
141.  31 
100.58 

2,580.60 
1,625.40 
1,586.40 
581.90 
474.60 
572.45 

1889                            do 

Velveteens  and  cotton  vel- 
vets: 
1884  yards.. 
1885                            do 

1886                            do 

1887  do  

1888                            do 

1889                         .  do 

Winceys  of  all  kinds: 
1884  yards.. 
1885  do  ... 

. 



1886                            do 

1887  do     . 

1888                            do 

1889  dn 

All  other    manufactured    of 
cotton,  not  elsewhere  speci- 
fied: 
1884  
1886  

1,148 
586 
522 
201 
159 
97 

1886 

6,481 
2,705 
2,214 
2,  749 



1887  



1888 

1889 



RECAPITULATION. 

1884 $74,902 

1885 69,074 

1886 46,318 

1887 43,640 

1888 28,025 

1889 29,248 


28  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

MEXICO. 

GUAYMAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WILLARD. 
IMPORTS. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  importations  for  this  consular  district, 
which  formerly  came  entirely  by  sea,  are  now  brought  via  Nogales  on 
the  Mexican- American  frontier  by  the  Sonora  Railroad,  American 
manufactured  goods,  as  well  as  European  manufactured  goods  sent  in 
transit  through  the  United  States  via  Galveston,  New  Orleans,  and 
New  York.  These  goods  are  dispatched  at  Nogales  paying  duty,  etc. 
(our  consul  at  Nogales  no  doubt  will  obtain  the  data  of  both  Amer- 
ican and  European  goods),  for  this  reason  I  can  only  give  approximate 
figures  as  to  quantities  and  values  during  the  year  1888  for  Guaymas. 

Two-thirds  of  the  cotton  goods  consumed  in  this  consular  district 
are  of  American  manufacture,  and  they  now  occupy  the  place  formerly 
held  by  European  goods  (English  and  German).  Up  to  1874  the  great 
bulk  of  cotton  textiles  consumed  on  the  west  coast  of  Mexico  was  of 
European  manufacture.  The  northern  states  of  Mexico  now  consume 
but  few  European  goods  in  comparison  with  former  years,  as  the  facil- 
ities of  importing  American  goods  by  rail  has  made  this  change,  and 
besides  the  quality  of  the  goods  as  a  rule  are  superior.  This,  no  doubt, 
will  be  confirmed  by  the  reports  of  our  consuls  along  the  Mexican  and 
American  border  (Paso  del  Norte,  Laredo  and  Matamoros). 

There  are  no  American  mercantile  exporting  houses  established  in  this 
consular  district,  the  leading  commercial  houses  being  German,  Spanish, 
and  Mexican.  Neither  French  nor  English  houses  exist  that  import 
manufactured  cotton  goods. 

I  can  state  in  reply  to  the  five  points  in  which  information  is  re- 
quested as  follows : 

QUANTITY  AND  KIND  IMPORTED. 

I  can  only  give  that  which  came  by  sea  to  Guaymas  for  1888,  which 
is  more  or  less  the  same  for  the  past  two  years  preceding.  The  cotton 
goods  so  imported  of  American  manufacture  brought  from  San  Fran- 
cisco to  Guaymas  by  steamers  (none  by  sailing  vessels),  according  to 
the  values  entered  at  this  Guaymas  custom-house,  was  $105,145  (the 
number  of  yards  I  am  unable  to  obtain),  consisting  of  cotton  drillings, 
sheetings,  calicoes,  and  lawns. 

Importations  of  same  class  of  goods  of  European  manufacture  from 
Germany  and  England,  value  $68,000. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


29 


tin:  table  thawing  width*,  weight  per  yard,  price  and  duties  paid  on  certain 
cotton  good*  imported  to  Gaaymas,  Mexico,  from  the  United  States,  England,  and  Ger- 
many. 


Articles. 

Width  of 
piece. 

Weight 
per  yard. 

Pru 
Guaymas, 
Mexico. 

Import  duty. 

American  : 

Inches. 
28 

Ounces. 
g 

Gents. 
33 

17  cents  per  square  meter. 

Prints  

244 

2 

16J 

12  cents  if  not  over  30  threads  to  half 

Bleached  sheeting. 
Gray  sheeting  

26 

32 

28 

ii 

if 

14 

20 
21 

centimeter  square  ;  15  cents  if  over  30 
threads. 
9  cents  if  not   over  30  threads  to  half 
centimeter  square  ;  11  cents  if  over  30 
threads. 
Uo. 
Do. 

EngU*h: 

28 

21 

18 

12  cents  if  not  over  30  threads  to  half 

Bleached  sheeting. 
Lawns  

26 
22 

1* 
i 

12 

22 

centimeter  square  ;  15  cents  if  over  30 
threads. 
9  cents  if  not  over  30  threads  to  half 
centimeter  square  ;  11  cent  sif  over  30 
threads. 
Do. 

German  : 
Cotton  drill  

30 

40 

17  cents  per  square  meter. 

Prints 

32 

01 

25 

12  cents  if  not  over  30  threads  to  half 

centimeter  square  ;  15  cents  if  over  30 
threads. 

The  established  importing  houses  of  this  port,  as  a  rule,  purchase 
their  goods  on  time.  If  in  the  United  States,  from  thirty  to  sixty 
days,  and  in  Europe  from  six  to  ten  months. 

The  goods  are  manufactured  in  and  imported  from  the  United  States, 
Germany,  and  England. 

Duties  are  charged  by  the  square  meter,  and  with  prints,  sheetings, 
etc.,  according  as  there  are  under  thirty  threads  to  the  half  centimeter 
square  or  over  thirty  threads.  This  distribution  is  not  made  with 
denims,  drill,  and  similar  heavier  goods. 

A.  WLLLARD, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Guaymas,  July  20,  1889. 


TALCAHUANO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  VAN  1NGEN. 

In  reply  to  the  Department  of  State's  circular  of  May  27,  1889,  with 
regard  to  the  import  of  cottons  into  this  consular  district,  I  have  to 
state  that  no  statistics  are  published  here,  and  only  general  statistics 
at  the  capital  (Santiago),  and  these  not  for  separate  districts. 

This  district  includes  Concepcion  Bay,  Talcahuano,  Coronel,  Valdivia, 
and,  in  short,  all  ports  south  of  this. 

I  inclose  the  only  data  I  have  been  able  to  obtain,  and  which  I  trust 
may  be  found  useful. 


30 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Iii  addition  to  the  tariff  duties  noted  on  annexed  table,  and  which  are 
calculated  in  paper  money,  there  is  an  additional  charge  for  exchange 
or  gold  value,  being  for  the  current  injnth  of  August  39  per  cent., 
and  for  September  will  be  38  per  c.'nt.,  reaching  in  December  35  pet- 
cent.,  which  may  probably  be  the  rate  for  the  coming  year. 

JOHN  F.  VAN  INGEN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Talcahuano,  August  23,  1888. 


Cotton  textiles  imported,  and  which  have  paid  dulies  into  this  port,  during  the  year  1588. 


Articles  and  whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Tariff 
value. 

Total  value. 

Duties. 

Bleached  cottons  : 
Germany  .  .  . 

50  347 

$1  00 

$50  347  00 

Per  ct. 
25 

.     .    do 

22  221 

1  60 

22  221  00 

25 

England  

do 

93  110 

1  00 

93  110  00 

25 

CTnited  States  

do 

926 

1  00 

926  00 

25 

Spain 

do 

78 

1  00 

78  00 

25 

Osnaburgs  : 
Germany  .  - 

do 

26  872 

50 

12  279  00 

15 

England  

do 

43  189 

50 

18  020  00 

15 

France  

do 

7  090 

50 

3  545.00 

15 

United  States    

do 

28  090 

50 

14  083  00 

15 

Prints: 
Germany 

do 

96  426 

1  50 

37  018  00 

25 

England  

do 

39  244 

1  50 

58  611  00 

25 

France 

do 

8  656 

1  50 

11  937  00 

25 

Spain  .  . 

do 

45 

1  50 

67  00 

25 

Italy 

do 

104 

1  50 

156  00 

25 

Cotton  cloth  for  pants  : 
Germany  

..   .    do 

72  419 

90 

67  670  00 

25 

England  -.  .. 

do 

45  238 

90 

41  511  00 

25 

France  

do 

6  222 

90 

5  515  00 

25 

United  States 

do 

*170 

90 

155  00 

25 

Cotton  cloth  : 
Germany  . 

5  415 

°0 

1  083  00 

25 

England  

do 

6  228 

20 

1  245  60 

25 

France 

do 

2  490 

20 

498  00 

25 

Twilled  cottons: 
Germany 

576 

2  50 

1  412  00 

25 

England  

do 

314 

2  50 

1  259  00 

25 

France  

...  .  do 

196 

2  50 

681  00 

25 

Cotton  drills: 
Germany 

do 

4  506 

95 

4  280  00 

25 

England  ...... 

do 

4  157 

'  % 

4  113  00 

25 

France  

do 

644 

95 

617  00 

25 

Ticking: 
Germany  

kilograms 

4  828 

1  20 

3  907  00 

25 

France.  

2  370 

1  20 

1   8S4  00 

25 

England  

do 

7  453 

1  20 

6  341  00 

25 

United  States 

do 

*258 

1  20 

32^  00 

25 

Sheeting: 
Germany     .   . 

do 

2  197 

2  309  00 

25 

England  

do 

469 

469  00 

25 

France 

do 

1  075 

....   . 

906  00 

25 

Serged  drills  : 
Germany  

do 

6  791 

95 

6  451  00 

25 

England  ... 

do 

3  956 

95 

3  614  00 

25 

France  

do 

1  288 

95 

1  231  00 

25 

Cotton  thread  in  balls  : 
Germany  

...do 

5  347 

1  50 

7  889.00 

25 

England  

do 

6  628 

1  50 

9  257  00 

25 

France  

do 

1  342 

1  50 

1  885.00 

25 

Cotton  thread  in  spools  : 
Germany  

do 

876 

4  50 

3  554  00 

25 

England  

do 

3  416 

4  50 

12  859  00 

25 

France  

do 

123 

4  50 

705  00 

25 

Lawn  cotton  : 
German  /  
England  

meter., 
do 

31,  214 
70  458 

.06 
06 

1,891.00 
4  119  00 

25 
25 

Franc«  

...do.. 

4,256 

.06 

255.00 

25 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        31 

Cotton  textiles  imported,  and  which  have  paid  duties  into  this  port,  etc. — Continued. 


Articles  and  whence  imported. 

• 

Quantity. 

Tariff 
value. 

Total  value. 

Duties. 

Striped  cottons  : 

Ill 

$0  90 

$100  00 

Perct. 
25 

do 

883 

90 

707  00 

25 

France            

...     .  do  . 

170 

90 

134  00 

''5 

Cotton  stockings: 
Germany          

.  .  .  .  dozens 

12,621 

1  20 

11  342  00 

25 

England 

do 

9  728 

1  20 

9  369  00 

25 

France                  ..   .          

do 

3  563 

1  20 

3  314  00 

25 

United  States 

do 

524 

1  20 

584  00 

25 

Spain                 ..       .            

do  . 

131 

90 

97  00 

25 

Cotton  wlcking  : 
England             .             ....... 

kilograms 

602 

75 

293  00 

25 

United  States  

do  

230 

.75 

127  00 

25 

Shawls: 

do 

2  956 

1  50 

4  4g3  oo 

25 

do 

1  469 

1  50 

1  588  00 

25 

France         

....do    . 

110 

1  50 

152  00 

•J5 

Spain 

do 

26 

1  50 

44  00 

25 

Handkerchiefs  : 

3  073 

1  50 

5  424  00 

25 

England 

.  ..do.  . 

5  *70 

1  50 

8  344.00 

52 

France  

do.... 

404 

1.50 

706.00 

25 

Towels  : 
Germany  

...do... 

159 

1.25 

248.00 

25 

England 

do 

705 

1  25 

1  137  00 

25 

France    .      ....             .          

do... 

425 

1.25 

492.  00 

25 

Unbleached  cotton  sheeting: 
England 

do  . 

80  165 

.75 

61  270.00 

25 

France  ,  

do.... 

12,  660 

.75 

9,  647.  00 

25 

United  States 

do 

600 

75 

453  00 

25 

Germany  

.      ...do.... 

25,235 

.75 

19,  308.  00 

25 

Total  

661  648.60 

RECAPITULATION. 

England $337,236.60 

Gemany 240,995.00 

France 66,325.00 

United  States 16,650.00 

Spain 286.00 


CENTRAL   AMERICA. 
COSTA  RICA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WINGFIELD,  OF  SAN  JOSfi. 
Cotton  textiles  imported  into  Costa  Rica  /«>r  year  1868. 


Articles. 

Quantity. 

Weight. 

Width. 

Contents 
of 
package. 

Brown  cotton 

Kilograms. 
142,  »«5 
58,886 
106,  498 

6,258 
104,634 

28,998 
5.556 

Inches. 
27 
40-48-96 

28-36 
28J 

30 
|U 

26J 

Yard. 
40 
50=100 

40 
20 

Sail  cloth  for  cart  covers  ........ 

1  to  2  pounds  per  yard  

Bleached  shirting      .  . 

4  J  to  lOf  pounds  per  piece  ac- 
cording to  width    .  . 

Croydon 

Brown  and  bleached  drilling  
Blue  denims  .. 

(United  States,  7i  pounds  per 

(England.  4£  pounds  per  piece  .  . 
12£  pounds  per  piece  
According  to  quality  and  size  . 

20 
31 

Bed-spreads  .  . 

32         COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Cotton  textiles  imported  into  Costa  Rica  for  year  1888 — Continued. 


Articles. 

Quantity. 

Weight. 

Width. 

Contents 
of 
package. 

Kilograms. 

[United   States,   6  pounds  per 
1     piece  

Inches. 
25 

Yard. 
53 

(England  and  France,  3|  pounds 

25 

30 

Pique 

6  258 

4^  pounds  per  piece 

26 

30 

5,650 

4  pounds  per  piece  

25 

28 

Muslins 

13  518 

2A-  pounds  per  piece       ... 

24 

31 

9,928 

2  and-  3  pounds  per  piece,  ac- 

cording to  width 

32  and  39 

20 

TT    i\        1  ' 

4  287 

430 

Damask  goods  for  towels,  nap- 

93  633 

72 

Handkerchiefs 

29  861 

426 

Tape,  trimmings,  cord,  garters, 
etc                              ...     ...... 

Beady-made  clothing  : 

20,  710 

435 

Underwear  for  men 

11  012 

648 

In  addition  to  information  called  for  by  the  circular  of  the  Department,  I  have  given  the  width  and 
number  of  yards  in  piece  of  goods.  As  to  some  articles  this  is  insisted  ou  by  importers. 

Quantity  given  is  the  gross  weight,  as  duties  in  Costa  Rica  are  charged  on  the  gross  weight  and 
the  statistical  report  is  made  up  accordingly.  This  is  a  point  to  be  specially  considered  by  United 
States  merchants.  It  is  the  common  complaint  here  that  our  merchants  do  not  know  how  to  pack 
goods.  They  should  be  packed  strong  to  stand  transport  across  the  mountains  and  as  light  as  possible. 


Articles. 

Whence  imported. 

How  purchased. 

Duty  per 

kilogram. 

Brown  cottons 

United  States 

Cash 

$0  26 

Sail  cloth  for  cart  cover.  .  .... 

.   .  do  

do  

.26 

England    for    most    part  • 

6  to  12  months'  credit*  inter- 

43 

Croydon       .        

from    United    States  too 
fine  thread. 
England         

est,  6  per  cent.,  added. 
do    

43 

Brown  and  bleached  drilling. 
Blue  denims  

United  States  and  England. 
do    

United  States,  cash  ;  England, 
6  and  12  months'  credit. 
do  

.43 
.43 

England 

6  to  1  2  months'  credit 

43 

Calicoes  

Cheap  from  United  States  ; 

United  States,  cash  ;  Eng'and 

54 

Piques 

better  from  England  and 
France. 
England 

and  France,  6  to  12  months' 
credit. 

r>4 

Percales  

do 

do  . 

54 

Muslins 

do 

do 

54 

Victoria  lawns. 

do 

.do 

54 

Undershirts  

do  

do  . 

65 

Drawers  .  . 

do 

do 

65 

Damask  goods  for  towels,  etc 

.do  

do  

65 

Handkerchiefs 

England  and  Germany 

do                                     .. 

65 

Collars  and  cuffs  

England  and  France    .  . 

do 

87 

Tape  trimming,   cords,  gar- 

  do  

1.09 

ters,  etc. 
Ready-made  clothing 

do 

1  09 

Each  kilogram  is  equal  to  about  2|  pounds. 

The  above  tariff  of  duties  is  in  Costa  Rican  currency.  Exchange  here  is  so  variable  that  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  say  what  the  equivalent  would  be  in  United  States  gold.  During  the  year  1888  the  rate 
varied,  sometimes  $1  United  States  gold  was  worth  $1.35,  and  sometimes  $1.50.  The  average  for  1888 
was  about  $1.40. 

J.   BlCHARD   WlNGFIELD, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

San  Jose,  Costa  Rica,  July  30, 1889, 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES.  33 

GUATEMALA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  HOSMER. 

While  attempts  have  been  made  to  manufacture  cotton  goods  in  this 
republic  on  a  small  scale,  nothing  of  a  successful  or  permanent  char- 
acter has  been  effected. 

COTTON  GROWING  IN  GUATEMALA. 

Some  twenty-five  years  ago  Sea  Island  cotton  was  planted  near  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  an  abundant  crop  of  the  raw  material  was  raised.  It 
seemed,  as  I  am  informed,  both  practicable  and  profitable  to  extend  its 
growth,  the  soil  and  climate  favoring,  to  a  remarkable  degree,  the  cult- 
ure of  the  plant,  but  during  the  second  or  its  following  season  the  fatal 
u  army-worm"  put  in  its  destructive  appearance,  committing  such  rav- 
ages that  the  planting  and  cultivation  was  abandoned,  and  has  not 
been  resumed  since  that  time. 

IMPORTS  BY  COUNTRIES. 

Hence  the  republic  of  Guatemala  depends  upon  foreign  markets  for 
the  supply  of  cotton  textiles,  the  principal  portion  of  which  is  imported 
from  England ;  next  in  quantity  is  from  the  United  States. 

I  am  unable  to  follow  strictly  or  exactly  the  requirements  of  the  De- 
partment's circular  of  May  27,  1889,  but  have  endeavored,  by  careful 
inquiry,  to  acquire  such  facts  and  figures  as  will  afford  approximate  in- 
formation to  the  cotton  manufacturers  of  the  United  States  for  the  ben- 
efit of  their  trade. 

The  custom-house  of  Guatemala  classifies  cotton  goods  of  all  kinds, 
with  the  value  of  and  duty  on  same,  in  gross  sums,  as  follows: 

From  England. — Prints,  white  shirting,  brown  cottons,  sheetings,  bed- 
spreads, cotton  clothing,  hosiery  (half  and  long  hose),  undershirts, 
handkerchiefs,  all  of  cotton,  to  the  value  of  $873,594.20 ;  duties  there- 
on, $721,676.10. 

From  United  States. — Prints,  brown  cottons,  sheetings,  drillings, 
hosiery  (half  and  long  hose),  all  of  cotton,  to  the  value  of  $89,286.17  ; 
duties  thereon,  $64,298.30. 

From  France. — Prints,  white  shirting,  calicoes,  cotton  clothing,  hosiery 
(half  and  long  hose),  all  of  cotton,  to  the  value  of  $27,395.48 ;  duties 
thereon,  $26,514. 

From  Belgium  and  Germany. — Drillings,  hosiery  (half  and  long  hose), 
all  of  cotton,  to  the  value  of  $26,983.80  ;  duties  thereon,  $16,619.82. 

Total  import  value,  $1,017,259.65;  duties,  $829,108.22. 

These  sums  are  based  upon  the  Guatemalan  j?eso,  or  Peruvian  so?, 
which  is  worth  68  cents  United  States  gold. 

The  specific  kinds  of  cotton  goods  imported  into  this  market  from 
the  United  States  are  Pacific  H  sheeting,  36  inches;  Massachusetts  C, 
608A 3 


34 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


of  same  width:  Warregan  Mills  No.  1,  of  Pawtucket,  K.  L,  and  white, 
and  brown  drills.  These  are  favorites  among  the  native  population, 
and  preferred  to  any  of  European  manufacture. 

The  weight  per  yard  is  not  obtainable  for  the  reasons  already  stated. 

Cotton  goods  from  the  United  States  are  purchased  through  commis- 
sion-houses in  New  York. 

The  place  of  manufacture  and  whence  imported  is  included  in  the 
general  statement  of  the  custom  house  under  the  reply  to  the  first  inter- 
rogatory of  the  Department's  circular. 

The  duties  on  cotton  goods  imported  into  this  republic  are  levied 
upon  the  gross  weight  of  the  packages,  including  boxes  and  coverings, 
and  not  per  yarcj.  They  vary  from  20  cents  per  pound  for  cotton  sheet- 
ings and  its  kind,  to  30  cents  for  white  calicoes. 

JAMES  R.  HOSMER, 

Consul  General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSUL  ATE- GENERAL, 

Guatemala,  July  31,  1889. 


SAN  SALVADOR. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  TUNSTALL. 
IMPORTS. 

In  compliance  with  directions  I  have  prepared  and  have  the  honor  to 
submit  the  following  report  upon  the  cotton  textiles  imported  into  this 
consular  district  during  the  year  1888. 

The  number  of  packages  or  bales  and  the  countries  whence  imported 
were  as  follows : 

England 13,715 

United  States 1,854 

France 768 

Germany 700 

Italy 220 

These  packages  or  bales  are  constituted  each  of  fifty  and  sixty  pieces, 
and  each  piece  contains  so  many  yards  of  a  given  witdh,  varying  as  per 
the  following  table: 


Width. 

Length. 

Pieces 
in  bale. 

Weight 
per  bale. 

Inches. 

lards. 

34 

24 

50 

356 

34 

24 

50 

367 

34 

24 

50 

298 

26 

24 

60 

330 

26 

24 

60 

349 

24 

24 

60 

302 

24 

24 

60 

326 

24 

24 

60 

296 

These  bales  of  domestics  or  cotton  textiles  present  the  shape  or  bulk 
in  which  these  importations  are  shipped,  and  the  weight  per  yard  may 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.         35 

be  readily  ascertained  when  the  deduction  of  from  9  to  11  pounds  tare 
is  allowed  on  the  gross  avoirdupois  of  the  bale,  the  heaviest  being  about 
3J  yards  and  the  lightest  5£  yards  to  the  pound,  or,  as  I  estimated  it, 
about  4i  ounces  for  the  heaviest  and  3}  ounces  for  the  lightest  per 
yard. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

These  goods  are  purchased  on  a  credit  of  six  months  in  the  United 
States  and  on  nine  and  twelve  mouths  in  the  European  markets. 

WHERE  MANUFACTURED. 

All  this  class  of  goods  imported  from  Great  Britain  is  manufactured 
at  Manchester,  while  those  from  Germany  are  imported  through  Ham- 
burg, but  where  manufactured  I  am  not  prepared  to  state;  nor  have  I 
succeeded,  after  diligent  inquiry,  in  ascertaining  where  the  cotton  im- 
norted  from  France  and  Italy  are  shipped  or  manufactured. 

DUTIES. 

The  duty  charged  upon  these  goods  is  30  cents  per  kilogram  on  the 
gross  weight  of  the  bale  or  package,  which  amounts  to  110  per  cent,  on 
cost;  80 per  cent,  of  which  is  paid  in  cash,  and  the  remaining  30  per 
cent,  in  Government  bonds. 

EUROPEAN  VS.  AMERICAN  COTTON  IN   SALVADOR. 

In  my  interview  with  the  merchants  I  discover  that  the  larger 
share  of  American  cottons  are  marked  "  Indian  Head  Mills  and  Mas- 
sachusetts shirtings." 

I  am  informed  by  the  merchant  that  there  are  serious  obstacles  to 
overcome  in  the  introduction  of  this  class  of  American  goods,  notwith- 
standing their  acknowledged  superiority. 

He  has  in  the  first  place  a  credit  of  only  six  months  in  the  States 
with  6  per  cent,  interest  on  his  bills,  while  in  the  European  market  he 
has  nine  and  twelve  months  with  5  per  cent,  interest.  Besides  this  dis- 
crimination, he  alleges  there  is  a  difference  in  freight  and  exchange  in 
favor  of  the  European  market. 

Hence  it  is  the  manipulations  of  trade  in  dry  goods  and  cotton  textiles 
seem  to  operate  against  the  development  of  this  branch  of  American 
interests  in  this  quarter. 

Aside  from  all  these  drawbacks,  however,  I  have  the  assurances  of 
some  of  the  most  intelligent  and  enterprising  merchants  ot  San  Sal- 
vador that  in  view  of  the  superior  merit  of  the  American  fabrics  they 
are  inclined  to  make  some  sacrifices  in  order  to  introduce  them  perma- 
nently into  these  markets. 

T.  T.  TUNSTALL, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

San  Salvador,  August  9,  1889. 


36 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 

ARGENTINE    REPUBLIC. 

-    REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BAKER  OF  BUENOS  AIRES. 

All  cotton  goods  consumed  in  the  Argentine  Republic  are  imported 
from  abroad  excepting  a  very  small  amount  manufactured  by  hand  looms 
in  a  few  of  the  upper  interior  provinces,  and  which  to  some  extent 
supplies  the  local  demand.  And  as  but  little  of  the  cotton  fiber  is 
raised  in  the  country,  and  as  there  are  no  facilities  for  its  fabrication 
I  presume  the  Argentine  Eepublic  will  go  on  receiving  its  supplies  from 
other  countries,  l-  to  the  end  of  the  chapter."  The  annual  supply,  how- 
ever, does  not  vary  very  greatly  in  quantity  or  value.  The  following 
figures  show  the  amount  of  the  cotton  imports  for  the  last  ten  years: 


Tears. 

Amount. 

Years. 

Amount. 

1878  

$5,  555,  647 

1883  

$8  008  221 

1879                                           

5  213  852 

1884        .     ... 

6  459  146 

1880    

5,  494,  043 

1885  

5  436  487 

1881 

6  489  270 

1886 

6  434  914 

1882        

7,  468,  451 

1887  

7  270  656 

IMPORTATIONS  OF  COTTON  GOODS. 

The  following  table  gives  a  comparison  of  the  kinds,  quantities,  and 
values  of  the  importations  for  the  years  1886  and  1887  : 


1fi_J_ 

1R 

ML 

18 

87. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

White  cottons  
Do  

...kilograms.. 
.  .....  meters 

5,  277,  485 
1,654  195 

$3,  688,  715 
211,  961 

7,  181,  859 

$5,  078,  596 

Printed,  colored,  and  stamped  cottons 

..  .kilograms.. 

2,  292,  278 

2,  534,  238 

2,  456,  860 

2,  192,  061 

Since  1886  the  duties  on  cottons  have  been  assessed  entirely  accord- 
ing to  their  weights. 

I  regret  that  I  am  not  able  to  give  the  figures  for  the  last  year,  but 
the  custom-house  statistics  of  the  country  for  1888  have  not  yet  been 
published. 

WHENCE  IMPORTED. 

As  to  the  countries  from  which  the  cottons  consumed  in  the  Argen- 
tine Republic  are  imported,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  the  great 
bulk  was  from  the  British  islands.  Years  ago  Great  Britain,  by  its  su- 
perior trade  methods,  succeeded  in  securing  the  monopoly  of  the  tex- 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


37 


tiletradeof  this  country,  and,  although  other  nations  have  since  managed 
to  make  small  inroads  upon  it,  she  still  continues  to  maintain  her  su- 
premacy. As  showing  how  uniform  has  been  the  course  of  the  cottons 
trade  for  the  last  ten  years,  I  have  compiled  two  tables,  the  first  show- 
ing the  countries  from  which  the  importations  were  made  in  1878,  and 
the  second  showing  the  same  thing  for  1887 : 

Imports  of  cottons  into  the  Argentine  Republic,  1878. 


Countries. 

Amount 
of  meters. 

Value. 

Amount  of 
kilograms. 

Valu  . 

687,  815 

$90,819 

31,  678 

$18,135 

898,886 

131  850 

26,368 

15,334 

United  States 

558  433 

66  881 

56  793 

39  031 

700  056 

81*441 

3  472 

2,415 

Italy                       

545,  533 

51,419 

3,118 

1,870 

En  "land 

18  217  070 

1  897  866 

1  759  553 

1  285  283 

Chili 

1  762,102 

178  683 

177,  651 

120,  530 

Uruguay  -  •  • 

1,  409,  953 

103,  679 

73,468 

48,024 

214,  840 

21  440 

30,999 

20,905 

Transit          

7,  819,  902 

782  347 

329,  092 

597,685 

Total          

32,  805,  590 

3  406  425 

2,  992,  192 

2,  149,  222 

It  will  be  seen  that  of  the  total  value,  $5,555,647,  imported  during 
the  year  1878,  England  is  credited  with  furnishing  $3,183,149.  But  to 
this  amount  should  be  put  down  what  in  the  above  table  is  given  to 
Chili,  Uruguay  and  "  transit"  (the  original  shipments  being  from 
England),  thus  making  a  total  of  $5,014,097  furnished  by  England,  and 
leaving  only  $541,538  as  the  amount  furnished  by  all  other  countries; 
whereas  the  custom-house  returns  in  the  foregoing  table  puts  white 
cottons  and  printed  goods  in  the  same  category ;  those  for  the  year  1887 
very  properly  separate  the  two.  The  following  table  shows  the  im- 
portations for  1887 : 

Imports  of  cottons  into  the  Argentine  Republic,  1887. 


Countries. 

"White  cottons. 

Printed,  stamped,  and 
colored  cottons. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Germany  

Kilograms. 
778,  070 
376,  471 
214,  115 
260,  398 
319,  473 
4,  763,  083 
323,  558 
143,  691 

$530,  233 
309,  529 
156,007 
240,001 
237,  399 
3,  275,  350 
215,  813 
18,263 

Kilograms. 
67,  196 
19,122 
254,855 
42,182 
l!647 
1,  874,  185 
147,  910 
49,763 

$60,  476 
17,  210 
210,  688 
37,964 
1,584 
1,  686,  766 
133,  190 
44,185 

Belgium 

United  States  

Fr^nC"  ,      ,      .......... 

Italy  . 

England  

Uruguay 

Other  nations  

Total  

7,  181,  859 

5,078,595 

2,  456,  860 

2,  192,  061 

Of  the  total  value,  $7,270,656,  of  the  cottons  imported  during  the  year 
1887,  it  will  be  seen  that  England  is  credited  with  furnishing  $4,962,116; 


38 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


but  adding  what  is  put  down  to  Uruguay,  the  total  furnished  by  Great 
Britain  amounts  to  $5,311,117,  against  $1,959,539  furnished  by  all  other 
countries. 

Comparing  the  present  returns  with  those  of  ten  years  ago,  it  appears 
that  Great  Britain  has  somewhat  lost  ground,  but  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily signify  that  her  supremacy  is  any  the  less  assured  now  than  it 
was  then. 

It  further  appears  that  during  the  same  time  the  United  States  have 
more  than  trebled  their  imports  of  cottons,  those  of  1878  amounting  to 
$105,912,  and  those  of  1888  to  $366,695. 

IMPORTS   OF   COTTON  THREAD. 

In  the  above  tables  I  have  not  taken  into  account  the  importations 
of  cotton  thread  into  the  Argentine  Republic.  I  give  the  folio  wing- 
returns  for  1887 : 

Importations  of  cotton  thread  into  the  Argentine  Republic,  1887. 


Countries. 

Spools. 

Value. 

Dozens. 
12,  lf>6 

$3,619 

Belgium                                                                                         ....            

25,  035 

5,  862 

United  States                          

48 

29 

25,  690 

7,570 

Italy                                 .                      

3,  150 

1,890 

1>  608,  795 

400,  H35 

59,643 

13,910 

41,  820 

10  329 

Total                                                                                                            .  . 

1  831  337 

444,  174 

Adding  what  is  put  down  to  Uruguay,  we  have  England  furnishing 
$414,875  worth  out  of  a  total  of  $444,174,  while  the  United  States  is 
credited  with  importations  of  cotton  thread  to  the  amount  of  $29. 


WIDTHS,  LENGTHS,  AND  WEIGHTS. 

In  regard  to  the  make-up  and  weights  of  the  cotton  textiles  imported 
into  the  Argentine  Republic  there  is  such  variety  as  to  make  itiimpossi- 
ble  to  give  an  exact  statement.  In  these  matters  there  is  probably  as 
little  conformity  to  any  fixed  rules  as  you  would  find  in  the  city  of  New 
York.  There  are  no  fixed  weights  ;  and  every  mill  that  turns  out  such 
textiles  for  this  market  has  its  own  figures.  As  elsewhere,  while  you 
will  find  on  sale  here  cottons  of  the  very  heaviest  weights,  you  will  also 
find  millions  of  yards  in  stock  which  are  so  made  up  of  sizing  that  after 
a  good  washing  there  is  scarcely  anything  left  of  them.  I  suppose, 
however,  that  ordinary  cotton  textiles  will  run  from  2J  pounds  per  piece 
of  20  yards  up  to  6  pounds  of  European  make ;  while  pieces  of  40  yards, 
mostly  of  American  manufacture,  will  run  from  8  pounds  to  14  pounds 
per  piece.  The  following  note  of  a  sale  of  cottons  made  by  an  import- 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


39 


ing  bouse  a  few  days  ago  will  give  an  idea  of  the  range  of  weights,  per- 
haps iu  better  form  than  I  could  otherwise  state  it : 


Pieces. 

Yarda. 

Net 
weight. 

60 

2  400 

Pounds. 
496 

Do  

60 

2  400 

528 

Do 

60 

2,400 

613 

Do  

60 

2  400 

734 

Do    

60 

2,400 

802 

Gray  drills  

60 

2  400 

792 

Blue  drills 

30 

1  340 

345 

Bleached  drills 

30 

899 

290 

Blue  drills  

30 

1,356 

463 

Bleached  aheetin"1      

30 

1  200 

315 

There  is  also  the  same  variety  in  widths  and  lengths  that  there  is  in 
weights.  The  favorite  width,  however,  is  32  inches,  and  the  favorite 
length  is  20  yards  to  the  piece,  this  being  the  size  which  finds  the  most 
buyers  among  the  people  of  the  interior  of  the  country.  Except  where 
otherwise  ordered,  the  American  cottons  sent  here  are  in  pieces  of  40 
yards.  But  there  will  be  found  in  stock  here  cotton  textiles  of  all 
widths,  all  lengths,  and  all  weights  that  are  known  to  the  trade. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

It  may  be  said,  with  reference  to  all  commercial  transactions  in  this 
country,  that  credit  is  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception.  And  the 
trade  iu  cotton  goods  is  not  one  of  the  exceptions.  All  cottons  bought 
in  Europe  are  purchasecj  on  credit.  The  usual  credit  given  by  the  cot- 
ton mills  of  England  is  six  months,  and  the  importers  from  France, 
Germany,  and  Belgium  have  a  corresponding  credit.  While,  however, 
six  months  is  the  specified  time,  it  is  no  unusual  thing  for  such  bills  to 
run  unpaid  for  twelve  and  eighteen  months;  indeed,  in  many  cases  the 
manufacturers  quite  wait  on  the  convenience  of  their  Argentine  custo- 
mers for  their  money.  Perhaps  the  reason  for  this  is  the  fact  that  the 
mercantile  firms  doing  business  here  are,  in  many  cases,  branches  of 
established  houses  in  the  business  centers  of  the  Old  World,  or  are  the 
immediate  agents,  if  indeed  not  part  owners,  of  manufacturing  estab- 
tablishments  in  England  and  France.  They  are  thus  enabled  to  obtain 
their  goods  at  times  and  in  quantities  to  suit  the  trade,  accompanied 
by  the  most  favorable  terms  and  credits.  Besides  this  many  wholesale 
houses  in  Buenos  Ayres  now  have  agents  in  Europe  who,  in  consider- 
ation of  the  business  put  in  their  hands,  give  an  open  credit  in  propor- 
tion to  the  amount  of  business  done ;  and  in  this  way  a  large  trade  which 
used  to  be  transacted  by  importers  does  not  now  pass  through 'their 
hands  at  all.  Owing  to  these  facilities  for  obtaining  credit  Argentine 
merchants  are  very  independent,  and  they  have  no  trouble  in  obtaining 
even  more  cotton  goods  than  the  trade  calls  for  on  pretty  much  their 
own  terms.  A  case  was  related  to  me  the  other  day  where  an  English 
manufacturing  company  had  waited  two  years  on  a  house  in  thiscity  for 
the  payment  of  its  overdue  bills,  and  finally  sent  out  an  agent  to  collect 


40 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


the  amount,  which  reached  to  nearly  $100,000.  The  agent  was  told  to 
call  on  the  next  day,  and  the  balance  was  promptly  paid  ;  but  when  he 
asked  for  a  new  order  it  was  respectfully  declined  on  the  ground  that 
the  house  had  just  arranged  better  terms  with  another  manufacturing 
company.  This  incident  illustrates  the  unrelenting  competition  which 
exists  among  the  manufacturers  of  Europe  to  obtain  a  market  for  their 
goods.  It  is  this  facility  in  getting  long  credits  in  Europe  which,  among 
other  things,  militates  against  the  rapid  increase,  not  only  of  the  cotton, 
but  of  the  general  trade  of  the  Argentine  Kepublic  with  the  United 
States.  Except  in  a  very  few  cases,  where  the  financial  standing  of 
the  importing  house  is  above  all  criticism,  I  believe  that  American  cot- 
tons are  still  sold  here  for  cash,  or  for  what  is  equal  to  cash — the  goods 
in  many  cases  being  invoiced  to  some  banking  house  to  be  delivered 
on  the  payment  of  the  bills  drawn  against  them.  Of  course,  when  the 
business  of  our  manufacturers  is  thus  done  through  a  bank,  which  charges 
commissions  and  interest,  or  when  they  pay  some  banking  house  in 
Europe  a  commission  for  accepting  their  drafts,  the  remittance  going 
through  the  same  house,  the  intervention  of  so  many  middle-men  makes 
the  transaction  expensive.  But  all  this  outlay  and  percentage  is  saved 
by  the  European  manufacturers,  who  can  afford  to  wait  for  their  money, 
and  in  many  cases  the  saving  is  equal  to  a  fair  profit  on  the  goods. 

DUTIES  CHARGED   ON  COTTONS. 

In  regard  to  the  duties  charged  on  cottons  I  have  to  say  that  the 
Argentine  customs  tariff  is  not  a  continuing  law,  but  runs  only  for  the 
year  for  which  it  is  enacted ;  and  that  for  the  imposts  levied  by  the 
Government  the  custom-house  valuations  on  imported  articles  are  offi- 
cially regulated  and  fixed  by  the  executive  department  at  the  begin- 
ning  of  each  year.  The  tariff  and  official  valuations  on  cotton  goods 
for  the  1889  have  been  fixed  as  follows : 

Argentine  cotton  tariff — 1889. 
[Rate  of  duty  25  per  cent.] 


Tariff  classification. 

Unit. 

Custom-house 
valuation. 

Tariff  classification. 

Unit. 

Custom-house 
valuation. 
i 

Ser^e 

Kilogram  . 
do  
do  

$1.50 
.90 
$0.  80  to  1.  00 
.24 
.70 
.  24  to  1.  50 

2.  50  to  4.  00 
2.  50  to  4.  00 
.80 
2.  00  to  3.  80 
.80 
.70 
.80 
.80 
.'JO 
.H) 
1.30 

.43 

Brilliantines     and 

Kilogram  . 
do  
do  ..  .. 

$4.00 
.80 
.75 
1.00 
2.00  to  4.00 
.40 
3.50 

1.25 

.  70  to  1.  60 
2.00 
1.00 
.  80  to  1.  30 
2.00 
.70 
2.00 
.90 

.so 

Alraanesques....  

Colored  twills  
Duck 

do 

Brauiant 

do 

Mantles  and  shawls. 
S'ockings         .  .  ... 

....do  
do  

do 

Counterpanes,   imita- 

do 

Socks 

do 

Anti-Macassars  . 

do  

Curtaius        .  ....   . 

..  do 

Handkerchiefs    and 
scarfs  
Pocket      handker- 
chiefs   

....do..... 
...do  .. 

Ticking  
Damasks  ,  

....do  
....do  .... 

Drilling 

do 

do 

do 

Diaper 

.  do 

Napkins  

..  do  

Blankets 

do 

do 

Prints  of  all  kinds.... 
Satinets 

...do  .. 
do 

Velvet            ........ 

...do  

do 

Zephyr,  muslins,  etc.  . 
Sheeting  and  twilled 

....do  
do 

Veiling          

....do  

Chintz 

do 

Checks 

do 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        41 

Where  the  fabrics  are  mixed  with  wool  they  are  classified  as  woolen 
goods,  and  pay  duties  accordingly. 

I  would  further  state  that  the  duties  established  by  the  foregoing 
tariff'  are  recharged  with  an  addition  of  1  per  cent,  fixed  by  the  Law  of 
the  Estimates  (Ley  del  presupuesto). 

CAUSES  OF  ENGLISH   SUPREMACY  IN  THE  TRADE. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  statistics  I  have  given  in  the  foregoing  tables 
that  the  great  bulk  of  the  cottons  consumed  in  the  Argeatine  Republic 
continues  to  be  imported  from  Great  Britain,  and  that  the  United 
States  are  still  without  an  assured  foothold.  The  figures,  however,  of 
the  last  ten  years  show  that  our  cottons  trade  with  this  country  is  gradu- 
ally growing  into  proportions  which  are  not  only  encouraging  but  which 
render  it  well  worth  our  while  to  make  increased  efforts  for  a  better 
showing.  From  $105,912  of  importations  in  1878  to  $366,695  in  1887 
proves  that  there  is  a  movement,  although  it  may  be  a  slow  one,  in  the 
right  direction.  There  are,  however,  several  very  serious  obstacles 
which  interfere  with  our  headway,  and  against  which  we  must  continue 
to  contend : 

(1)  The  cottons  trade  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  through  all  the 
years  since  the  establishment  of  an  independent  government  here,  has 
become  so  firmly  fixed,  and  is  so  irresistibly  set  towards  Great  Britain 
that  it  will  require  an  uncommon  effort  to  divert  the  steady  stream 
from  its  present  channel  or,  even  in  a  measure  to  divide  it. 

(2)  Great  Britain  constantly  keeps  on  hand  in  the  bonded  warehouses 
of  the  Argentine  Republic  such  an  oversupply  of  cotton  goods  that  it 
will  require  more  than  ordinary  inducements  from  outsiders,  like  our- 
selves, to  obtain  orders  for  more,  especially  when  it  is  considered  that 
the  stocks  on  hand  are  not  yet  paid  for. 

(3)  The  cotton  millers  of  Great  Britain  are  so  thoroughly  posted  in 
reference  to  the  styles,  patterns,  make-up,  and  general  details  of  the 
Argentine  market,  a  knowledge  which  they  have  obtained  by  long  and 
persistent  personal  inspection  of  the  field,  that  they  have  by  long  odds 
the  advantage  over  those  who  are  commercially  isolated  as  we  are  from 
the  Argentine  Republic. 

(4)  The  trade  methods  of  Great  Britain,  in  the  matter  of  regular  steam 
communication,  liberal  banking  facilities,  and  branch  busines  houses 
here  in  the  Argentine  Republic — in  all  of  which  essentials  to  a  close 
and  reciprocal  trade  we  are  so  absolutely  wanting — are  so  well  estab- 
lished and  are  of  such  a  permanent  and  reliable  character  as  to  almost 
defy  outside  competition. 

THE  OUTLOOK  OF  THE  TRADE. 

In  spite,  however,  of  these  disheartening  conditions,  the  cottons  trade 
of  the  Argentine  Republic  is  certainly  deserving  of  the  serious  atten- 
tion of  American  manufactures.  As  I  have  heretofore  said,  in  a  report 


42         COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

to  the  Department,  it  is  a  trade  which,  in  all  the  future  years,  must 
continue  to  offer  a  wider  and  wider  field  for  the  expenditure  of  enter- 
prise— a  field  in  which  there  is  no  local  competition  and  in  which  prob- 
ably there  never  will  be  any.  It  is  a  trade  which  is  not  only  large  now, 
but  which  must  go  on  increasing  with  the  growth  and  development  of 
the  country.  And  in  the  midst  of  the  monopoly  which  Great  Britain 
now  enjoys,  and  of  the  unpromising  prospect  which  is  offered  to  the 
cotton-millers  of  the  rest  of  the  world,  there  is  at  least  one  circumstance 
very  greatly  in  our  favor,  and  that  is  that  English  cottons  are  not  to  be 
compared  with  those  turned  out  by  the  mills  of  the  United  States — 
our  fabrics  commending  themselves  at  once  by  their  superior  body  and 
strength,  and  by  their  freedom  from  dirt  and  sizing.  It  is  on  this  fact, 
and  on  this  alone,  that  we  are  able  at  present  to  build  any  hopes  of  the 
future.  Trade,  we  know,  has  a  tendency,  where  other  things  are  equal, 
to  keep  in  its  i%  old  rut,"  but  it  can  be  diverted  by  furnishing  a  better 
article  as  cheap.  Let  us  proceed  in  the  business  on  the  line  of  the 
trade  methods  which  have  done  so  much  for  British  commerce  in  South 
America,  and  the  superiority  of  our  cotton  goods  must  eventually  com- 
mand the1  market  of  the  River  Plate. 

LOST   OPPORTUNITIES. 

I  regret  to  have  to  say  that  if  the  sales  of  American  cottons  have  in- 
creased here  at  all  during  the  last  ten  years,  it  is  not  because  our  Amer- 
ican mills  have  done  anything  themselves  to  assist  the  situation.  On 
the  contrary  they  have  even  neglected  to  take  advantage  of  opportu- 
nities when  they  offered.  A  few  years  ago  one  of  the  leading  commer- 
cial houses  of  Buenos  Ayres,  well  posted  by  many  years'  experience  in 
all  the  details  of  the  cottons  trade,  not  only  succeeded  in  successfully 
introducing  American  cottons  to  the  notice  of  its  customers  but  even 
pushed  the  trade  overland  into  Bolivia,  and,  as  the  market  at  home 
was  at  that  time  dull  and  slow,  our  mills  rejoiced  in  being  able  to  fur- 
nish all  that  was  required  by  the  increasing  demand  down  here.  But 
what  ensued  ?  Just  then  our  home  trade  began  to  revive,  and  the  very 
same  mills,  which  had  previously  been  so  anxious  to  gain  a  permanent 
foothold  in  the  Eiver  Plate,  coolly  n  plied  to  the  orders  for  more  cot- 
tons, that  they  had  at  present  a  market  in  the  United  States  for  all  the 
cottons  they  could  furnish,  and  that  the  orders  from  the  Argentine  Re- 
public could  not  be  supplied  !  The  result  was  that,  disgusted  with  this 
method  of  doing  business,  the  importing  house,  which  had  worked  so 
faithfully  in  the  matter,  was  compelled  to  drop  the  American  trade  as 
unreliable,  and  go  back  again  to  English  cottons.  Our  American  mills 
must  understand  that,  if  they  would  establish  a  foreign  market  for 
tbeir  fabrics,  they  can  not  temporarily  suspend  a  trade  which  they  have 
inaugurated,  and  then  take  it  up  again  at  their  pleasure.  The  millers 
of  Manchester  do  things  better  than  that.  If  they  have  once  caught 
on  to  the  trade  of  any  country  they  never  let  go  or  give  it  up. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.         43 
HOW  WE  MAY  YET  SECURE  THE  MARKET. 

In  a  report  which  I  made  to  the  Department  nearly  ten  years  ago  I 
offered  some  suggestions  in  reference  to  the  cottons  trade  with  this  coun- 
try, which,  though  they  seem  to  have  been  neglected  then,  may  per- 
haps have  more  weight  now,  and  I  therefore  venture  to  repeat  them: 

To  secure  a  strong  and  permanent  foothold  in  this  market  it  is  necessary  that  the 
American  cotton  manufacturers  should  do  something  more  than  send  samples  or  ask 
consuls  for  information.  The  field  is  a  large  one,  and  it  needs  to  be  worked.  The 
manufacturers  should  unite  together  and  send  an  agent  or  agents  here,  not  necessa- 
rily to  sell  or  even  to  solicit  orders,  but  to  "  spy  out  the  land  ; "  to  obtain  exact  in- 
formation in  regard  to  the  wants  and  demands  of  the  market,  the  kinds  of  fabrics 
best  suited  to  the  trade,  the  number  af  yards  to  the  piece,  and  the  proper  widths,  the 
most  satisfactory  weights  per  yard,  with  such  other  points  as  experts  in  the  business 
fully  understand.  Consuls,  of  course,  are  ready  and  willing  to  atf'ord  their  country- 
men all  the  assistance  in  their  power,  but  it  is  not  all  of  them  who  are  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  the  details  of  the  business  to  be  able  to  decide  on  the  qualities  of 
different  fabrics  or  report  on  the  most  approved  trade-marks.  Our  cotton  mills,  I 
am  satisfied,  can  ultimately  have  the  trade  of  the  Argentine  Republic  in  their  own 
hands,  to  a  very  great  extent,  if  they  will  quietly  and  systematically  work  for  it;  but 
to  effect  this  it  requires  time,  and,  it  may  be,  the  expenditure  of  a  little  money  for  the 
expenses  of  agents  to  secure  the  "  points"  which  the  manufacturers  must  possess  to 
work  intelligently.  Even  then,  however,  almost  an  indispensable  prerequisite  to 
securing  the  Argentine  market  for  cotton  fabrics  (as  indeed  for  nearly  all  descriptions 
of  dry  goods)  is  the  establishment  of  a  direct  line  of  steam-ships  with  tbe  River 
Plate.  I  have  referred  to  this  subject  so  often  that  I  hesitate  further  to  enlarge  upon 
it.  It  is  next  to  impossible  for  American  manufacturers,  even  with  better  goods  to 
sell,  to  compete  with  the  English  market  on  equal  terms  without  the  advantage  which 
sure  and  quick  intercommunication  affords.  Since  the  opening  of  the  ocean  cable 
such  large  stocks  of  merchandise  are  not  required  to  be  held  in  this  market.  They 
are  ordered  by  cable  as  they  are  needed,  ami  the  saving  of  time  and  the  dispatch 
with  which  orders  can  be  tilled  in  England  and  other  maritime  countries  of  Europe 
will  still  give  those  markets  the  preference.  When  the  fleet  of  ocean  steamers  by 
which  Europe  is  connected  with  tLe  River  Plate  can  put  down  at  this  port  goods 
ordered  by  cable  in  from  twenty  to  twenty- five  days,  merchants  here,  however  well 
disposed  they  may  be,  will  hesitate  about  sending  orders  to  the  United  States,  know- 
ing that  they  can  not  be  filled  except  by  sailing  vessels,  which  require  from  sixty  to 
ninety  days  to  make  the  voyage. 

Should  an  American  line  of  steamers  be  put  on  direct  to  the  River  Plate,  in  my 
opinion  it  would  not  be  long  in  working  great  changes  if  not  a  revolution  in  our 
trade,  and  especially  our  cottons  trade  with  the  Argentine  Republic.  Not  only  from 
selfish  considerations,  however,  for  the  development  of  our  foreign  trade,  but  from  a 
broad,  political  point  of  view,  in  its  influence  ic  strengthening,  confirming,  and  en- 
couraging this  Republic  in  tbe  promising  career  which  is  before  it,  it  is  to  be  hoped 
that  our  Government  may  see  its  way  clear  to  assist  such  an  enterprise.  Our  inter- 
est in  the  political  prosperity  of  the  South  American  Republics,  nearly  all  of  whose 
business  associations  are  now  monarchical  instead  of  democratic,  should  prompt  us,  if 
possible,  to  bind  our  own  to  the  Republics  of  the  River  Plate  by  the  strong  bonds  of 
a  mutual  reciprocal  trade.  Commerce  is  the  great  civilizer  and  political  missionary 
of  the  world,  and  the  ideas  and  methods  by  which  the  United  States  have  advanced 
to  their  present  commanding  position  among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  if  brought 
into  close  contact  and  communion  with  this  country,  could  not  fail  to  act  and  react 
most  favorably  upon  its  commercial,  industrial,  and  political  destinies.  In  no  other 
way  could  we  better  spread  and  propagate  the  principles  and  ideas  which  have  built  us 


44  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

up  as  a  great  nation,  than  by  the  secret,  silent  influences  of  a  closer  and  more  intimate 
intercourse.  As  it  is,  we  are  in  a  measure  isolated  from  this  port  of  South  America. 
Its  possibilities  are  a  sealed  book  to  us.  Its  heroic  struggles  against  the  fearful  odds 
of  the  old  Spanish  conquest  to  rise  to  a  higher  level  of  civil  and  political  freedom 
have  thus  far  met  with  no  recognition  by  us,  except  the  cold  sympathy  of  diplomacy. 
Let  us  show  by  practical  methods  the  deep  interest  we  take  in  the  welfare  and 
advancement  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  republican  government,  not  only  here 
but  everywhere,  will  be  the  gainer,  and  we  will  be  stronger  and  more  firmly  estab- 
lished by  the  re-assuring  company  of  the  strong  republics  we  will  see  marching  for- 
ward with  us  in  the  race  of  empire. 

Such  are  the  triumphs  in  a  national  point  of  view  which  would  result 
from  the  establishment  of  a  regular  line  of  steam-ships  between 
the  United  States  and  the  republics  of  the  Eiver  Plate,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  stimulus  which  it  would  give  to  our  trade,  and  especially 
our  cotton  trade,  with  this  part  of  South  America.  But  the  future 
which  would  thus  be  opened  up  to  our  cotton-mills,  by  placing 
them  on  an  equality  in  respect  to  transportation  with  those  of  Man- 
chester, can  scarcely  be  estimated.  And  it  is  to  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  trade  which  would  thus  be  placed  within  the  reach  of  our 
country  is  not  for  a  day  or  for  a  season,  but  for  all  time  to  come,  with 
an  importance  .which  will  increase  with  the  growth  and  development  of 
the  Argentine  Eepublic. 

E.  L.  BAKER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Buenos  Ayres,  August  19>  1889. 


BRAZIL. 

BAHIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BVRKE. 

Information  on  the  first  point  in  the  circular,  viz,  "Quantity  and 
kind  of  cotton  textiles  imported  per  annum,"  I  found  could  best  be 
obtained  from  the  custom-house.  Accordingly  in  this  connection  I 
inclosed  a  table  of  such  importations  covering  the  year  ending  Decem- 
ber 31, 1888. 

In  this  table,  in  addition  to  the  quantity  and  the  kind  of  cotton  tex- 
tiles imported,  the  duties  levied  are  also  given,  thereby  covering  the 
fifth  point  in  the  circular,  viz,  "  Duties  charged  thereon."  I  might  say 
right  here  that  the  number  of  cases  for  the  year  1888  differs  but  little  from 
each  of  the  four  years  preceding,  with  the  exception  of  1885.  In  1884 
the  number  was 27,9G3 ;  in  1885,  10,955  cases;  in  1886,  23,589;  in  1887? 
22,098;  in  1888,  28,895  The  first  six  months  of  the  present  year  show 
an  importation  of  but  5,267  cases.  The  falling  off  is  due  chiefly  to  the  hard 
times  prevailing. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


45 


Quantity,  kind,  and  weight  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  Bahia  from  January  1  to  Decem- 
ber 31,  1888,  unth  the  duty  paid  thereon. 


Kinds. 

Whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Duty. 

Cloaks,  shawls,  and  handkerchi 
I  ong-cloth  piqn6  and  prints   . 

efs  < 

Germany 

kilometers 

80,925 
338 
27,964 
7,158 
40 
8,  626 
12,480 
1,954,227 
1,394 
2,802 
2,585 
69 
24,160 
16 
2,478 
934 
4,005 
225 
380 
79 
2,825 
2,927 
133 
3,805 
26,219 
7 
157 
799 
56 
1,148 
192,  332 
2,994 
75,  399 
301,  953 
5,  132 
78 
903 
931 
3 
1,301 
423 
8 
3 
1,339 
86 
7,351 
240,580 
345 
576,  109 
361 
1,058 
8,359 
236 
1,168 
1,187 
41,554 
61 
9,817 
684 
2,519 
310 
8,178 
6,036 
102 
1,819 
25 
2 
898 
223 
76 
612 
10 
5 
1,041 
118 
677 
1,939 
2,575 
1,399 
661 
1 

Milreis. 
158,453 
812 
58,534 
57,937 
80 
17,772 
24,  951 
2,  812,  176 
2,374 
5,604 
3,087 
86 
20,  179 
78 
2,743 
1,292 
4,042 
225 
3,922 
792 
24,654 
11,540 
333 
13,  185 
58,832 
28 
628 
2,957 
141 
4,179 
193,795 
2,994 
85,438 
285,786 
9,887 
1,004 
13,  759 
1,342 
4 
2,977 
4,316 
102 
5 
2,089 
138 
12,  081 
235,  510 
817 
406,061 
541 
1,317 
8,750 
423 
2,443 
4,715 
35,541 
258 
14,943 
960 
10,628 
784 
35,541 

]        27,  182 

16,  719 
75 
16 
4,503 

j              720 

3,856 
28 
64 

\          4,221 
1,302 
\           7,569 

\          5,464 

Belgium 

do 

France  

do.... 

{ 
\ 

England  . 

do 

do 

Germany  . 

do 

France  

do  

England 

do 

I 

United  States.. 
Be<rlium 

do.... 
do 

Germany  
France  

...do... 
do... 

Starched  cotton  cambric  

1 

England  
Portugal  

do.... 
do  

Germany  . 

do 

do... 

1 
| 

England  
Belgium  ......  . 

do  
do  . 

Germany  . 

do 

France  

do    . 

Muslins,  tarlatans,  and  grenadh 
Cotton  velvet  and  bombazine.  . 

I 

England  

do.... 

Geraaanv 

do 

United  States.. 

do.... 

France  

...do... 

I 

England  
Portugal 

do... 
do 

Belgium  ....... 

do 

Germany  

do  

France 

do 

1 

f 

England  

do.... 

Germany 

do 

Belgium  

do.... 

Tape,  twist,  braid,  and  ribbons. 
Lace  and  insertions  

1 

France 

do 

England 

do 

Germany  

do... 

United  States  . 
France  

do... 
do    . 

England 

do 

Portugal  

..  do 

Germany 

do 

France  

do... 

Unbleached  cotton,  white  and 
eluding  "  blue  drills." 

colored,  in- 

...* 

England  
Portugal. 

do  
do 

Germanv  

kilograms  . 

Belgium* 

do 

Coast  of  Africa 
United  States  . 

do.... 
do.... 

France  

do 

England 

do 

Germany  . 

do 

France 

do 

Cotton  hose,  stitched  

t 

England 

do 

Germany  

do 

France 

do 

Hose,  gloves,  cravats,  and  neck 
Bonnets,  hats,  and  caps  

ties               <] 

England  

do 

Germany  
United  States.. 
France  

dozen  pairs.. 
kilograms.. 
.  .  .  dozen  pairs 

England 

*do 

France  

kilograms.. 

Men's  and  boys'  clothing  

Germany  
France  

do  
pairs  and  suits.. 
C  dozen  pairs.. 

•   i  kilograms  .  .  . 

Clothing  for  women  and  girls.. 

England  
Italy  

dozen  pairs., 
do    . 

Portugal 

do 

France....  ..... 

.  do... 

Germany  

C  dozen  

"I  kilograms.. 

Xot  specified  

f 

Portugal  

kilocrrams 

Belgium  

dozen.. 

Germany 

?  do.... 

United  Siates  . 

"  l  kilograms., 
dozen 

£  do.... 

England  
Portugal  . 

"  j  kilograms.. 
5  do  
'      *  do.... 

46         COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 

As  the  duty  in  the  foregoing  table  is  given  in  milreis,  it  would  be 
well  to  say  that  for  convenience  and  readier  computation  50  cents  ot 
United  States  money  are  regarded  as  the  equivalent  r.f  1  milreis,  though 
54.6  cents  are  the  equivalent  when  at  par. 

Owing  to  exchange  being  in  favor  of  the  Brazilian  currency,  the  mil- 
reis is  now,  and  has  been  for  nearly  a  year,  worth  more  than  the  stand- 
ard equivalent.  But,  as  stated  in  this  report,  it  will  be  regarded  equal 
to  50  cents.  By  a  footing  up  of  the  number  of  kilos  brought  from  Ger- 
many, France,  England,  and  the  United  States  it  is  found  that  during 
the  year  referred  to  above,  Germany  furnished  209,731  kilograms  of 
cotton  textiles,  on  which  a  duty  of  410,970  milreis  were  paid,  or  $205,485 
United  States  money.  From  France  were  imported  to  this  port  127,304 
kilograms,  with  a  duty  of  244,871  milreis,  or  of  United  Stages  money 
$122,485;  from  England,  2,908,680  kilograms,  with  a  duty  of  3,688,756 
milreis,  or  $1,844,378,  United  States  money ;  from  the  United  States, 
242,185  kilograms,  with  a  duty  of  239,221  milreis,  or  $119,610,  United 
States  money.  The  importations  from  the  other  countries  mentioned  in 
the  table,  being  so  small,  are  not  heie  considered. 

AMERICAN  VS.  ENGLISH   DRILLS. 

The  only  class  of  cotton  goods  imported  to  this  place  in  which  the 
United  States  has  the  lead  is  blue  drills.  In  fact  this  class  covers  nearly 
the  entire  importation  from  the  United  States  in  the  cotton  textile 
line. 

And  though  the  cost  to  the  purchaser  is  greater  than  a-  similar  class 
of  goods  imported  from  England,  yet  the  blue  drill  of  the  United  States 
holds  the  field,  and  most  likely  will  continue  to  hold  it  till  driven  out 
by  home  manufacture,  as  will  probably  be  done  if  the  proposed  new 
scale  of  duties  on  this  article  and  similar  ones  goes  into  effect  The  pro- 
posed new  scale  increases  the  present  provincial  duty  25  per  cent,  and 
the  general  duty  20  per  cent.  The  present  duty  is  1  milreis  or  50  cents 
per  kilogram. 

While  some  of  the  purchasers  concede  the  American  blue  drill  to  be 
superior  to  the  English,  and  though  costing  more,  selling  for  more  also, 
every  purchaser  acknowledges  that  even  the  negro,  who  is  the  chief  buyer 
of  this  class  of  goods — no  matter  how  good  the  English  imitation  is — 
can  instantly  tell,  if  two  pieces,  one  English  and  the  other  American,  are 
placed  side  by  side,  which  is  the  American. 

The  American  blue  drill  has  a  peculiar  smell  which  is  wanting  in  the 
English.  This  smell  is  one  thing  that  enables  the  negro  and  all  that 
use  these  goods  to  detect  the  difference  between  the  former  and  the  latter. 
Besides  the  American  does  not  fade  as  quickly  as  the  English  blue  drill. 
Touching  the  cost  of  each  one,  an  importer  gives  the  cost  of  the  Ameri- 
can laid  down  in  Bahia  at  5J  pence  per  yard,  or  say  10J  cents  United 
States  money.  The  cost  of  the  English  to  the  same  importer  laid  down 
in  Bahia  is  4£  pence,  or  say  9  cents  per  yard.  Of  the  selling  price  here, 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  47 

the  importer  states,  the  Araericau  brings  from  40  to  80  reis  or  from  2 
to  4  cents  more  per  yard  than  the  English. 

PLACES  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  greater  part  of  the  cotton  fabrics  imported  to  this  place  is  manu- 
factured in  Lancashire,  Glasgow,  and  Manchester,  and  are  known  as 
Manchester  goods.  The  print  works  are  nearly  all  Manchester,  and 
all  these  goods  shipped  to  this  place  from  England  come  from  the 
manufacturers  or  printers  or  their  agents  at  Manchester.  Shawjs, 
fancy  cotton  drills,  hosiery,  hats,  caps,  bonnets,  lace,  ribbons,  etc., 
come  largely  from  Germany  and  France;  linens  chiefly  from  Belfast 
and  Bradford. 

WEIGHT  PER  YARD. 

The  wide  Tange  of  imports  of  this  character  and  the  variety  of  grades 
render  it  difficult  to  obtain  the  weight  of  each  grade  or  quality.  The 
best  that  can  be  done  is  to  submit  the  minimum  and  maximum  weight 
of  some  of  the  articles  constituting  the  largest  importation  of  cotton 
textiles.  With  this  is  given  the  purchase  price,  the  rate  of  duty,  and 
the  selling  price. 

Printed  calicoes  having  125  yards  to  the  lump  or  piece  weigh  from 
12  to  24£  pounds ;  price  in  Manchester  to  the  Bahia  purchaser  22s.  to 
46*;  rate  of  duty,  L'  milreis  or  $1  per  kilogram  ;  selling  price,  from  300 
to  TOO  reis,  or  from  15  to  35  cents  per  yard. 

Bleached  calicoes  of  100  pieces,  with  24  yards  to  each  piece,  weigh 
from  110  to  220  kilograms ;  price  in  Manchester  to  Bahia  purchaser,  2s. 
8d.  to  7s.  per  24  yards;  rate  of  duty,  1  milreis  or  50  cents  per  kilo- 
gram ;  selling  price  from  160  to  450  reis,  or  8  to  22J  cents  per  yard. 

Gray  calicoes  of  100  pieces,  with  24  yards  to  each  piece,  weight  from 
123  to  312  kilograms;  price  in  Manchester  to  Bahia  buyer,  2*.  9d.  to 
4s.  5d. ;  rate  of  duty,  680  reis  or  34  cents  per  kilogram;  selling  price 
from  160  to  360  reis  or  8  to  18  cents  per  yard. 

White  drills  having  117  yards  in  each  piece  weigh  from  25  to  3'i 
pounds;  price  in  Manchester  to  Bahia  buyer  3s.  to  9|s. ;  rate  of  duty 
1  milreis,  or  50  cents  per  kilogram  ;  selling  price  from  420  to  1,100  ries, 
or  from  21  to  55  cents  per  yard. 

Regattas  :  A  piece  of  69  yards  weighs  6.872  kilograms ;  price  in  Man- 
chester 3%s. ;  rate  of  duty  1  milreis,  or  50  cents ;  selling  price,  440  to 
560  reis  or  from  22  to  28  cents  per  yard. 

Plain  Oxfords:  A  piece  of  40  yards  weighs  4.870  kilograms;  price  in 
Manchester  from  17s.  8d.  to  31s.  4r?.;  rate  of  duty  1,000  reis  or  50  cents 
per  kilogram  ;  selling  price  from  200  to  460  reis,  or  from  10  to  23  cents 
per  yard. 

Striped  Oxfords  of  69  and  67  yards  weigh,  respectively,  3.7  and  6.25 
kilograms;  cost,  duty,  and  selling  price  same  as  plain  Oxfords. 

Checked  Oxfords  :  A  piece  of  45  yards  weighs  5  kilograms;  price  in 


48  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Manchester,  2s.  to  3|s.;  rate  of  duty  1,000  reis  or  50  cents  per  kilogram; 
selling  price  from  220  to  480  reis,  or  from  11  to  24  cents  per  yard. 

Dyed  linings :  A  piece  of  TOyards  weighing  4.840  kilograms ;  costing 
in  Manchester  14s.  to  19s.  pays  a  duty  of  1,000  reis  or  50  cents  per  kilo- 
gram and  sells  for  from  320  to  510  reis,  or  from  16  to  25  cents  per  yard. 

Black  printed  cotton  shawls,  44  by  66  inches,  weighing  by  the  dozen 
1.050  kilograms ;  rate  of  duty  2  milreis  per  kilogram;  sells  from  900  to 
1,000  reis  each,  or  45  to  50  cents. 

Printed  cotton  handkerchiefs,  1  dozen  weighing  .224  kilogram ;  cost- 
ing from  9s.  to  15s.  and  rate  of  duty  2  milrets  per  kilogram ;  sells  for 
from  1  to  2  milreis,  or  from  50  cents  to  $1. 

Fancy  cloths :  A  piece  of  41  yards,  weighing  3.700  kilograms ;  price  in 
Manchester,  from  3s.  to  12s.;  rate  of  duty,  2,500  reis  or  $1.25  per  kilo- 
gram ;  sells  from  600  to  J,500  reis,  or  from  30  to  75  cents  per  yard. 

The  principal  cotton  fabrics  imported  are  printed  calicoes,  bleached 
and  gray  calicoes;  drills,  white,  blue,  and  gray,  regattas,  headed  cotton 
sheets,  printed  cotton  sheets,  plain,  striped,  and  checked  Oxford  shirt- 
ings, dyed  and  printed  linings,  bishop's  lawn,  Victoria  lawn,  fancy  cloths 
for  costumes,  white  and  dyed,  printed  cotton  shawls,  printed  cotton 
handkerchiefs,  etc. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

The  usual  term  of  credit  for  the  importer  is  six  months.  The  term  to 
his  customers  is  from  sixty  to  ninety  days,  though  sometimes  he  is  fort- 
unate if  the  credit  becomes  cash  in  twelve  months.  In  some  cases  the 
importer  delivers  to  his  customers  the  goods*  and  the  bill  at  the  same 
time.  If  goods  are  paid  within  a  month,  payment  being  made  on  Tues- 
days and  Fridays  during  that  time,  a  discount  of  2£  per  cent,  per  pay- 
ment is  allowed.  If  paid  at  the  end  of  the  month,  1  £  per  cent,  discount 
is  allowed  on  the  whole  bill.  Purchases  are  rarely  for  cash,  and  sales 
for  cash  are  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  In  fact,  actual  import- 
ers are  very  few,  and  the  very  few  are  mostly  Portuguese.  The  greater 
part  of  the  Brazilian,  the  German,  and  the  English  houses  are  merely 
commission  houses,  ordering  just  such  goods,  such  quality,  such  grades, 
such  designs,  such  styles,  such  brands,  such  marks,  and  even  such  prices 
as  the  small  wholesale  or  retail  dealer  calls  for,  either  for  hj^  city  or 
country  trade.  Not  infrequently  do  wholesale  or  retail  dealers  order 
through  a  commission  house  prints  or  drills  of  a  certain  design,  each 
piece  to  contain  a  specified  number  of  yards  not  to  cost  more  than  a 
specified  price.  These  orders  may  be  given  to  the  manufacturer  to  place 
a  well-known  mark  or  brand  of  a  superior  quality  of  goods  upon  an  in- 
ferior quality  in  order  to  sell,  of  course,  the  inferior  quality  for  a  better 
price  than  it  would  otherwise  bring,  the  seller  representing  to  the  every- 
day buyer  that  he  is  selling  this  well-known  brand  for  a  less  price  than 
his  merchant  neighbor. 

The  buyer,  not  knowing  the  tricks  of  the  seller,  takes  the  poor  article 
with  the  well-known  brand  and  goes  on  his  way  rejoicing,  thinking  he 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        49 

has  made  u  good  bargain  because  be  pays,  it  may  be,  3  to  5  couts  less 
per  yard  to  Mr.  A  than  Mr.  B  asks  for  what  he  thinks  the  same 
quality  of  goods.  In  such  a  method  of  doing  business,  while  all  would 
say  the  buyer  is  certainly  tricked,  some  would  only  ascribe  to  the 
manufacturer  and  seller  a  little  sharp  practice  for  promoting  trade; 
others  would,  boldly  assert  tbat  such  a  proceeding  is  a  dishonesty  and 
an  injustice  which  they  could  by  no  means  countenance,  much  less 
engage  in. 

In  commercial  business,  as  in  any  other  line  of  life,  the  manner  of 
dealing  depends  upon  the  man.  In  some  cases  and  in  all  countries 
there  are  men  who  are  square  dealers  under  any  and  all  circumstances. 
In  other  cases,  and  in  all  countries,  too,  more  move  along  the  line  of 
circumstances,  using  the  same  instruments  as  they  inove  that  their 
competitors  employ,  or  better  or  worse  ones  to  promote  their  interests 
and  support  their  families,  and  have  as  full  a  share  as  possible  in  the 
enjoyments  of  life. 

DESIGNS   AND   PATTERNS. 

Variety  designs  or  patterns  are  really  a  necessity  for  a  merchant  to 
have  in  this  country,  or  at  least  this  province.  The  greater  the  variety 
of  designs  o?  patterns  of  prints  displayed  for  sale  by  the  merchant  the 
greater  his  trade,  other  things  being  equal,  and  the  better  pleased  the 
purchaser. 

The  designs  and  patterns  are  nearly  all  devised  in  Paris.  The  Man- 
chester printer  or  manufacturer  purchases  different  sets  which  he  puts 
into  work  to  make  sample  pieces — if  not  getting  orders  at  once  from  the 
designs  and  from  the  sample  pieces,  he  distributes  patterns  to  his 
customers. 

This  South  American  trade  has  been  so  long  in  the  hands  of  English, 
French,  and  German  manufacturers,  they  understand  just  what  these 
people  need  and  want,  and  if  they  don't  know,  the  English,  French,  and 
German  houses  established  here  will  not  fail  to  keep  them  posted. 

To  institute  a  comparison  in  the  cost  of,  say,  English  cotton  textiles 
and  American,  as  here  called,  is  difficult,  because  so  few  American  cot- 
ton goods  are  imported.  The  only  real  exception  is  as  given  above  in 
the  case  of  blue  drills.  In  these  the  United  States  has  practically 
shut  out  English  blue  drills,  as  well  as  those  from  any  other  country. 
And  why?  Because  they  are  just  what  the  people  want — the  people 
that  use  them — while  the  merchant  imports  them  because  he  can  sell 
them.  Now  what  has  been  done  and  is  being  done  in  blue  drills  by  our 
manufacturers  can  be  done  in  other  lines — can  be  done  in  white  drills, 
prints,  etc.  In  other  words,  in  order  to  find  a  market  for  our  goods 
here,  our  manufacturers  must  make  goods  that  will  meet  the  require- 
ments of  the  people,  goods  that  are  suitable  for  their  needs  and  will 
strike  their  fancy  as  well.  A  cheap  article  having  a  good  and  a  showy 
appearance  is  much  more  appreciated  and  is  much  more  readily  pur- 
608A 4 


50  COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

chased  by,  perhaps,  three-fourths  of  the  people,  than  an  article  whose 
actual  value  is  greater  than  the  other  but  is  not  as  showy.  Then  if  the 
people,  I  say,  want  cheap  things  and  showy  and  our  manufacturers 
want  the  trade,  they  must  of  necessity  make  what  is  wanted  here,  and 
not  what  they  think  is  wanted. 

Once  having  the  trade,  our  manufacturers  can  control  it,  and  if  deem- 
ing it  necessary,  can  then  throw  a  better  class  of  goods  upon  the  market, 
provided  they  find  a  better  class  is  required.  But  let  them  first  make 
an  effort  to  get  it.  When  it  is  considered  that  fully  three-fourths  of 
the  people  of  this  province — the  same  ratio  will  probably  hold  through- 
out Brazil — are  negroes  or  Indians  or  both,  with  a  dash  of  white-blood 
here  and  there  mingled  and  mixed,  and  that  these  three-fourths — though 
not  possessed  of  a  very  large  quantity  of  such  treasure  as  is  required 
in  order  to  eat  and  drink  and  be  clothed  more  or  less,  to  get  married  and 
be  buried — must  of  necessity  be  the  largest  consumers,  it  may  readily 
be  understood  what  they  need,  what  they  want,  and  what  they  can 
buy. 

The  other  fourth  is  in  circumstances  to  purchase  our  better  and  more 
expensive  manufactures  for  themselves  and  their  homes.  Apparently, 
and  perhaps  in  reality,  the  advantage  for  supplying  this  country  with 
what  it  requires  for  its  people  is  with  England,  with  Germany,  with 
France.  These  countries  have  their  representatives  in  business  here; 
they  have  had  long  experience  in  commercial  dealing  with  the  people, 
as  before  stated,  knowing  well  their  methods  of  transacting  business  ; 
they  have  their  banking  houses,  especially  the  English ;  they  have  their 
steamers,  usually  arriving  and  departing  with  well-timed  promptness 
and  regularity.  With  this  state  of  things  in  favor  of  those  countries 
our  manufacturers  and  business  houses  must  compete;  against  it  they 
must  contend.  We  have  no  business  houses  here,  we  have  no  banks, 
we  lack  experience  in  business  relations  with  the  people,  and  we  have 
only  three  steamers  arriving  here,  after  leaving  New  York,  anywhere 
from  twenty  to  twenty-eight  days.  It  is  true  we  have  skilled  workmen,  we 
have  genius,  we  have  any  amount  of  energy,  we  have  untiring  push,  we 
have  brains,  and  we  have  money — all  necessary  elements  to  build  up  and 
develop  our  trade  with  all  South  America.  With  these  requisites  as  a 
foundation,  why  then  can  not  these  things  be  done  which,  it  strikes 
me,  must  be  done  to  accomplish  the  building  up  and  developing  and 
extending  of  this  trade,  viz,  establish  business  houses  here,  establish 
banking  houses  instead  of  having  our  business  in  this  line  go  through 
London,  and  construct  steam  ships  that  will  give  the  United  States 
and  all  South  American  ports  better  mail  facilities,  enabling  them  to 
communicate  with  one  another  much  more  frequently  than  now  and  in 
the  fastest  time  possible. 

A  domestic  manufacture  is  rising  here  with  which  we  must  compete 
as  well  as  with  other  nations.  Not  extensive  yet,  it  is  true,  but  it  is 
beginning  to  increase.  It  will  doubtless  increase  more  rapidly  as  soon 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        51 

as  the  present  economic  crisis — the  result  of  emancipation  and  drought — 
is  passed,  and  the  tide  of  prosperity  sets  in.  Later  I  will  look  into  the 
number  of  cotton  mills  in  this  province,  the  business  and  results,  and 
transmit  to  the  Department  such  information  about  them  as  I  shall  be 
able  to  obtain. 

DAVID  N.  BURKE, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Bahia,  August  23, 1889. 


PARA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  CLAYTON. 

Quantity  and  kind  imported.— There  are  no  statistics  to  show  the  exact 
quantity  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  Para  and  Manaos.  I  estimate 
the  quantity  at  from  35,000  to  40,000  cases  and  bales.  As  to  different 
kinds  of  these  goods  Para  imports  printed  cotton,  white  bleached  cot- 
ton, colored  cotton  drills,  white  cotton  drills,  gray  unbleached  cotton, 
cotton  cashmeres,  cotton  cassirneres. 

Weight. — Weight  varies  from  one-fifth  to  one-half  pound  per  yard. 

How  purchased. — Bought  from  commission  houses,  or,  in  a  few  cases, 
direct  from  manufacturers.  Generally  against  draft  up  to  ninety  days 
sight  after  arrival  of  steamer,  or  in  account-current  for  six  months  date 
of  invoice  and  interest  5  to  6  per  cent.  Commission  charged  2£  to  5 
per  cent,  if  not  included  in  prices. 

Place  of  manufacture. — Manufactured  in  Manchester,  Bradford,  Dun- 
dee, Boston,  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Glasgow,  Elberfeld,  and  Silesian 
and  Saxonian  places.  Imported  from  Manchester,  Liverpool,  London, 
New  York,  and  Hamburg. 

Duties. — Duties  for  white  cottons  and  colored  cottons,  1  inilreis,* 
brown  unbleached,  680  reis  per  kilo,  with  augment  of  15  per  cent,  of 
this  tax  and  5  per  cent,  more  for  emancipation  of  slaves. 

B.  W.  CLAYTON, 

Consul 

UNITED  STATES  CONTJLATE, 

Para,  October  1,  1889. 


PERNAMBUCO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BORSTEL. 

I  have  the  honor  to  inform  the  Department  that  I  have  obtained 
from  the  Baron  de  Souza  Leao,  collector  of  customs  here,  a  list  show- 
ing the  total  import  of  cotton  goods  into  this  province  for  the  year 
1888 ;  the  list  giving  weight  in  kilograms  and  value  in  milreis.  I  have 

*  One  milreis  =  54.6  cents ;  1,000  reis  ==  1  niilreis. 


52 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


therefore  copied  the  same,  and  given  the  weight  in  pounds  and  value 
in  dollars,  weight  per  yard  of  three  qualities,  the  best  and  heaviest 
being  American,  from  a  Fall  River  mill,  and  containing  no  starch,  but 
unfortunately  also  the  most  expensive;  as  a  result,  cheaper  qualities 
are  bought,  which  are  all  full  of  starch,  without  exception. 

I  make  no  comment,  because  figures  will  show  all  that  is  desired  by 
the  Department. 

H.  CHRISTIAN  BORSTEL, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Pernambuco,  July  20,  1889. 


Cotton  prints  imported  into  the  consular  district  of  Pernambuco  during  the  year  1888. 


Where  from. 

Bareges,  muslins. 

Drills,  cassinets. 

Whites. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Great  Britain          .......... 

148,  268 
146,  738 
43,  596 

$323,  441.  66 
317,  983.  33 
113,583.85 

221,  816 
194,  712 
146,318 

$130,  937.  50 
114,  070.  31 
90,  985.  21 

873,  640 

$455,  020.  83 

United  States 

Total 

.  338,  602 

755,  008.  84 
362,  404.  25 

562,  846 

335,  993.  02 
161,  276.  65 

873,  640 

455,  020.  83 
218,410.00 

Where  from. 

Prints. 

Madapolam  cloth. 

Sundry  cotton  woven 
work. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

519,  962 
353,  946 

$539,  960.  41 
368,  693.  75 

369,  214 

62,  774 

$131,  600.  20 
30,  941.  45 

3,882 
1,550 
2,436 

$7,  909.  37 
1,795.10 
4,  561.  04 

France 

United  States 

113,  112 

45,  428.  83 

Total       .    . 

873,  908 

908,  654.  16 
436,  154.  00 

545,  100 

207.  970.  48 
99,  825.  B4 

7,868 

14,  265.  51 
6,  824.  95 

American  goods  from  Fall  River  mill  (no  starch),  one  sort  only,  one  yard,  weight 
112^  grams  ;  duty  25  cents  per  pound  and  18  per  cent,  for  brokers  to  get  sameithrough 
the  custom-house  at  Pernambuco.  One  piece  contains  24  yards  ;  price  7f  cents  per 
yard,  sold  here  for  $4  per  piece. 

English  goods  full  of  starch  and  many  grades  below  and  above  this  quality,  one  yard 
weight,  93£  grams ;  duty  25  cents  per  pound  and  18  per  cent,  for  brokers  to  get  same 
through  the  custom-house  at  Pernambuco.  One  piece  contains  24  yards,  price  $1.42 
per  24  yards,  sold  here  for  $2.85  per  piece. 

English  goods  full  of  starch,  inferior  quality  and  many  grades,  one  yard,  weight  61f 
grams ;  duty  25  cents  per  pound  and  18  per  cent,  for  brokers  to  get  same  through  the 
custom-house  at  Pernambuco.  One  piece  contains  24  yards ;  price  84  cents  per  piece, 
sold,here  for  $1.85  per  piece. 

These  goods  are  bought  here  for  cash  or  for  three  or  six  months'  credit.  Banker's 
draft  reckoned  from  the  time  they  leave  the  factories. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  53 

RIO  GRAND'E  DO  SUL. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BENNINQTON. 
EXPLANATORY  INTRODUCTION. 

To  prepare  an  accurate  and  complete  report  on  the  importation  of 
cotton  textiles  into  this  province  would  require  much  longer  time  than 
under  the  circumstances  I  deem  it  necessary  or  expedient  to  employ, 
as  one  of  the  custom-houses  is  on  the  western  frontier,  a  distance  of  over 
450  miles  from  my  office,  and  with  present  mail  facilities  communica- 
tions by  post  would  be  accompanied  by  great  delay. 

I  apprehend,  however,  that  the  requirements  of  the  cotton  manufact- 
ures of  the  United  States  can  be  met  within  a  reasonable  degree  of 
accuracy  by  a  comparison  of  the  latest  official  published  returns  of  the 
annual  revenue  receipts  for  the  three  different  custom  houses  in  the 
province  located  at  Rio  Grande,  Porto  Ale£re,  and  Uruguayana. 

Having  obtained  the  importation  statistics  from  the  custom-house  of 
RioGraude  for  the  fiscal  year  1888,  it  will  be  quite  sufficient  upon  which 
to  base  a  fair  estimate  of  the  entire  cotton  textile  importation  of  the 
province  by  comparison  as  before  stated,  thus  giving  the  best  obtain- 
able information  on  the  points  indicated  by  the  circular  issued  from  the 
Department. 

In  some  instances,  however,  the  origin  of  goods  is  no  longer  kept  up, 
and  many  arrive  here  manifested  as  foreign  goods  in  transit.  This 
failure  to  show  origin  occurs  when  goods  are  reshipped  or  manifested 
as  local  cargo  in  Rio  de  Janeiro  for  this  and  other  points  in  the  prov- 
ince. 

Some  months  ago  there  was  an  immense  contraband  business  con- 
ducted over  the  southwestern  and  western  frontier,  which  still  exists  to 
a  certain  extent  notwithstanding  the  special  tariff  for  the  province, 
which  went  into  effect  March  15,  1889,  reducing  the  tariff  on  cotton 
textiles  to  at  least  50  per  cent,  of  the  rate  collected  in  the  custom  houses 
of  the  other  provinces  of  the  empire. 

By  reason  of  the  contraband  business  the  exact  amount  of  cottons 
brought  into  the  province  can  not  be  ascertained,  but  the  average  con- 
sumption of  a  million  of  people,  the  estimated  population  of  the  prov- 
ince, would  indicate  to  a  certain  extent  the  probable  annual  importa- 
tion of  cotton  goods,  both  by  legitimate  and  illegitimate  methods. 

By  comparison,  as  before  stated,  of  the  annual  re  venae  receipts,  for 
the  three  custom-houses,  1  estimate  importation  statistics  for  the  cus- 
tom-house of  Rio  Grande  to  show  three-sev7euths  of  the  entire  legit- 
imate importations  of  the  province. 


54 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


IMPORTS. 


The  following  table  shows  the  foreign  cotton  textiles  dispatched 
from  the  custom-house  in  the  city  of  Eio  Grande  do  Sul  for  the  year 
1888: 


Articles,  and  whence 
imported. 

Weight. 

Official  value 
in  United 
States  gold. 

Articles,  and  whence 
imported. 

Weight. 

Official  valua 
in  United 
States  gold. 

Brown  muslin  : 
Germany      ...... 

Kilogram*. 
8  269 

$9  118  50 

Printed  cotton-  Ctd. 

Kilograms. 
267 

$563  00 

13  050 

10  399  50 

Great  Britain 

49  408 

103  630  00 

United  ritates  

15,  228 

11,  549.  00 

Italy  .. 

120 

168  00 

France 

152 

253  00 

Great  Britain  

43,  667 

40,  153!  00 

Total  .    ... 

97,  286 

202  852  00 

Total 

80  366 

71  473  00 

Germany 

6  049 

6  311  00 

Printed  cottons  : 

Uraguay      ...... 

11  207 

12  095.50 

Germany  ........ 

23  463 

48  575  00 

United  States 

7  239 

8  237  50 

280 

588  00 

Great  Britain 

34,848 

37  139  50 

22  824 

47  387  50 

United  States  

924 

1,  940.  50 

Total 

59  343 

63  783  50 

WEIGHT  AND  QUALITY. 

The  weight  of  these  goods,  which  include  all  the  imported  cotton 
materials  in  the  markets,  I  have  not  ascertained,  but  will  add  that  the 
figures  show  a  large  part  to  be  of  British  origin,  and  to  a  casual  ob- 
server the  nationality  of  the  origin  of  the  goods  could  not  be  told  by 
mere  appearances ;  the  brand  must  be  seen  and  the  quality  examined 
closely  to  tell  the  place  of  manufacture. 

This  being  true,  I  presume  every  well-informed  manufacturer  in  the 
United  States  knows  enough  about  standard  British  cottons  to  judge 
weights  very  closely.  American  bleached  muslins  and  sail  duck  or  can- 
vas is  in  very  high  favor  with  the  consumers  in  all  places  in  the  prov- 
ince where  they  have  been  introduced. 

MANNER  OF  PURCHASE. 

In  regard  to  the  manner  of  purchase,  I  can  only  say  that  they  aje  gen- 
erally received  by  the  importers  in  the  usual  commercial  way,  upon 
orders,  though  many  are  sent  here  by  foreign  exporters  on  consign- 
ment. As  to  time  and  terms  of  payment,  which  is  conceded  to  be  a 
strictly  private  business  of  the  importer,  I  am  unable  to  give  informa 
tion.  I  am  of  opinion  that  the  greater  part  are  bought  upon  credit  for 
certain  periods  of  time,  varying  accordingly  as  the  agreement  is  mado 
between  the  parties. 

DUTIES  CHARGED. 

The  following  table  shows  the  tariff  on  the  classes  of  goods  referred 
to,  in  the  foregoing  table,  in  this  province,  under  the  special  schedule, 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


55 


together  with  the  per  cent,  by  which  the  official  valuation  is  made  and 
storage  is  estimated: 


Articles. 

Unit. 

Duty. 

Per  cent, 
for  offi- 
cial valu- 
ation, etc. 

Brown,  or  unbleached,  cottons  : 

Kilogram 

Cents. 
.15 

Per  cent, 
15 

.15 

15 

Heavy  cotton  <*loth  raw  and  smooth.                         

do     ... 

.10 

15 

Calico,  white  muslin,  checked  and  .-triped  cottons: 
Gummed,  ordinary,  white  or  in  colors,  proper  for  linings,  var- 

do 

15 

15 

Not  specified  smooth,  white                                        .....      .  . 

.do.    ... 

.15 

15 

do 

20 

12 

Not  specified,  worked  damasked  or  checked         .  .          ... 

.  do 

.31 

13 

....do  

.25 

15 

EXCHANGE  FLUCTUATIONS. 

The  foregoing  table  includes  about  all  the  cottons  that  are  sold  in  the 
markets  of  the  province  by  bale,  bolt,  or  piece,  and  the  duty  is  esti- 
mated on  an  exchange  basis  of  24-} \  pence  gold  to  a  millreis,  paper. 

Sight-drafts  being  nearly  2  per  cent,  below  the  ninety-day  selling 
value  of  gold  in  London,  Paris,  or  Hamburg,  and  as  ninety-day  drafts 
are  about  26J  pence  to  the  millreis  at  present,  it  is  impossible  to 
foresee  what  fluctuations  may  occur  in  a  short  time,  when  a  manipu- 
lation is  commenced  to  effect  a  rise  or  fall  of  exchange,  which  has  been 
frequently  done  in  this  country.  So,  I  have  concluded  that  a  lower  rate 
for  the  calculation  of  the  duty  would  be  the  most  reliable  under  all  the 
surrounding  circumstances. 

STORAGE  AND  OFFICIAL  VALUES. 

To  estimate  storage  and  official  value  it  is  necessary  to  cite  an  ex- 
ample of  the  method  of  calculation.  For  instance,  the  duty  on  certain 
brown,  or  unbleached,  cotton  is  15  cents  per  kilogram,  and  this  sum  is 
followed  in  its  proper  column  by  15  per  cent,  (called  in  the  Brazilian 
tariff  table  "  razao")-  This  means  that  the  duty  of  15  cents  per  kilo- 
gram is  15  per  cent,  of  the  official  value  of  the  goods.  Whatever  per- 
centage follows  the  amount  of  duty  on  the  unit  indicated  in  the  table, 
then  the  duty  is  that  per  cent./>f  the  official  value  of  the  goods.  As 
storage  on  all  goods  entering  the  custom-houses  of  Brazil  must  be  paid 
for  at  least  one  month,  if  the  goods  do  not  remain  one  hour,  it  is  a  mat- 
ter of  interest  to  the  exporter  to  know  something  of  storage  rates. 
Now,  under  the  tariff  regulations,  there  are  eleven  different  razaos,  rang- 
ing from  4  per  cent,  to  60  per  cent.,  but  as  I  only  have  to  deal  with 
two  in  this  report,  will  endeavor  to  show  the  full  force  of  the  regulations 
on  storage,  or  armazenagen,  which  is  required  to  be  calculated  separately 
for  each  month.  Under  a  razao  of  12  per  cent,  the  storage  for  each  month 


56  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

not  exceeding  two  months  will  be  4.16  per  cent,  of  the  duty  charged  = 
for  each  month  not  exceeding  four  months,  8.32  per  cent. ;  for  each 
month  not  exceeding  six  months,  12.48  per  cent. ;  and  for  each  month 
exceeding  six  months,  16.64  per  cent,  of  the  duty  ;  so  under  a  duty  of 
20  cents  per  kilogram  the  storage  would  in  six  months  amount  to  99.84 
per  cent,  of  the  duty.  On  articles  paying  a  duty  of  20  cents  per  kilo- 
gram would  be  due  for  storage  at  the  end  of  six  months  the  sum  of  19.96 
cents  per  kilogram.  The  duty  on  articles  followed  by  15  per  cent.razao 
pay  for  each  month  not  exceeding  two,  3.33  per  cent,  of  the  duty ;  for  each 
month  not  exceeding  four,  6.66  per  cent.;  for  each  month  not  exceed- 
ing six,  10  per  cent.,  and  for  each  month  over  six,  13.33  per  cent. 

By  calculation  it  will  be  found  that  the  storage  for  each  month  not 
to  exceed  two  equals  0.5  per  cent,  of  the  official  value  of  the  goods ;  for 
each  month  not  exceeding  four,  1  per  cent,  of  official  value;  for  each 
month  not  exceeding  six,  1.5  per  cent,  of  official  value,  and  for  each 
month  exceeding  six,  2  per  cent,  of  official  value  of  the  goods.  There 
are  some  minor  expenses  connected  directly  with  the  act  of  dispatching 
goods  from  the  custom-houses,  but  if  regulated  by  law  the  regulations 
are  not  generally  followed,  and  I  am  unable  to  give  information  on  that 
point. 

LEBBEUS  G.  BENNINGTON, 

Consul 

UNITED  STA.TES  CONSULATE, 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil,  July  29,  1889. 


BRITISH  GUIANA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WALTHALL,  OF  DEMERARA. 

A  circular  from  the  Department  of  State,  dated  May  27,  1889,  calls 
for  information  relative  to  cotton  textiles  imported  into  this  consular 
district  (as  well  as  others),  in  reply  to  the  following  questions: 

1.  Quantity  and  kind  imported  per  annum? 

2.  Weight  per  yard  ? 

3.  How  purchased  f 

4.  Place  of  manufacture  "and  whence  imported? 

5.  Duties  charged  thereon  ? 

(1)  No  definite  answer  can  be  made  to  the  first  query,  for  the  reason 
that  the  custom-house  records  include  "linens  and  cottons"  under 
one  caption,  without  distinction  between  the  two  classes  of  goods,  and 
it  would  be  impracticable  to  ascertain  the  proportion  of  each  without  a 
close  and  minute  examination  of  the  original  invoices — a  task  which 
would  require  much  time  and  labor,  even  if  the  officers  iii  charge  of 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        57 

those  papers  sbonld  be  willing  to  submit  them  to  the  prolonged  exam- 
ination that  would  be  necessary. 

The  "  linens  and  cottons  n  imported  into  British  Guiana  during  the 
year  1888  amounted  to  5,108  packages — a  package  of  cotton  goods  con- 
sisting of  from  10  to  25  pieces  of  40  to  50  yards  each.  The  value  of  the 
whole,  $609,703.85  Of  this  total,  the  United  Kingdom  furnished  4,861 
packages,  valued  at  $592,100.85.  an'd  the  United  States  furnished  212 
packages,  valued  at  $16,051.28.  The  remaining  35  packages,  valued  at 
$1,542.72,  were  chiefly  from  the  British  West  Indies,  though  partly 
from  other  countries  and  colonies. 

(2)  The  weight  per  yard,  not  being  an  element  either  in  the  purchase 
or  sale  of  the  goods,  cannot  be  ascertained. 

(3)  The  goods  are  purchased  by  the  yard  in  pieces  of  40  to  50  yards 
each. 

(4)  The  British  goods  (cottons)  are  manufactured  in  Manchester  and 
other  places  in  Lancashire,  England,  and  imported  thence.    The  cot- 
ton goods  from  the  United  States  are  generally  imported  from  New 
York  or  Baltimore.     As  far  as  can  be  ascertained,  they  are  manu- 
factured chiefly  in  South  Carolina,  but  partly  in  Massachusetts. 

(5)  The  duty  on  all  linen  and  cotton  goods  is  7  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

W.  T.  WALTHALL, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Demerara,  August  26,  1889. 


DUTCH  GUIANA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BROWNE,  OF  PARAMARIBO. 

I  am  nnable  to  state  the  quantity  of  cotton  textiles  imported  in  this 
colony  per  annum,  as  no  separate  account  of  such  is  kept  at  the  cus- 
tom house  office  in  this  city. 

The  different  kinds  imported  are,  as  far  as  I  could  learn,  known  under 
the  names :  Long  cloth,  croyden,  shirting,  unbleached  cotton,  twilight- 
cotton,  and  madapolanas. 

I  could  not  succeed  in  learning  the  weight  per  yard,  as  of  the  above- 
named  kinds  different  qualities  are  imported,  and  the  merchants  are 
not  inclined  to  give  such  minute  information. 

The  cotton  textiles  used  in  this  colony  are  shipped  at  the  ports  of 
Glasgow,  London,  and  Amsterdam,  and  are  manufactured  in  Manches- 
ter and  Liverpool. 

The  duties  charged  on  cotton  textiles  are :  10  per  cent,  of  the  amount 
of  first  cost-price  (packing,  insurance,  commission,  etc.,  not  included) 


58         COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

plus  20  per  cent.;  for  instance,  first  cost-price  $2  +  20  percent.  =  $2.40; 
10  per  cent,  duties  =  24  cents. 

The  population  of  this  colony  amounts  to  57,000,  of  which  nine- tenths 
wear  cotton  clothes. 

THOMAS  BROWNE, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Paramaribo,  July  24,  1889. 


CHILI.* 
IQUIQUE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MERRIAM. 

Immediately  on  receipt  of  the  circular  of  May  27,  1889,  concerning 
cotton  textiles,  I  at  once  took  steps  to  obtain  the  requisite  data  at  the 
custom-house.  1  was  treated  very  courteously  and  referred  to  the  chief 
of  the  section  on  statistics,  who  offered  me  his  hearty  co-operation  and 
promised  to  give  me  the  information  required  as  soon  as  the  pressure  of 
official  business  should  permit.  After  waiting  a  proper  time  1  reminded 
him  of  the  subject,  and  on  that  occasion  and  several  subsequent  ones 
I  was  put  off  with  plausible  excuses,  proffered  with  much  politeness  and 
apparent  regret  for  his  non-compliance  with  his  agreement. 

On  the  last  occasion  referred  to  he  expressed  his  regret  that  through 
inadvertence  the  re'sume'  of  statistics  of  importations  had  all  been  sent 
to  Santiago,  and  that  no  copies  had  been  preserved  on  file  at  the  custom- 
house. I  thanked  him  for  his  promise  to  have  his  subordinates  go  ovet 
the  work  again  and  extract  the  data  required  from  the  original  mani- 
fests. The  time  named  by  him  for  the  completion  and  delivery  of  the 
work  has  already  expired  more  than  fifteen  days  ago  and  I  have  given 
up  all  expectation  of  obtaining  the  information  necessary  to  enable  me 
to  comply  with  the  instructions  of  the  circular. 

J.  W.  MERRIAM, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Iquique,  Chili,  November  6, 1889. 

*  See  foot  note  on.  next  page. 


CUTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


59 


PERU.* 
CALLAO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BRENT. 

In  reply  to  the  Department's  circular  of  the  27th  May  last,  regarding 
cotton  textiles,  I  beg  to  report  the  following : 
Imports  per  annum  $67,815  of  all  kinds,  principally  fine. 
Weight  per  yard  from  2  to  3  ounces. 

Purchased  in  Germany  for  cash.    Places  of  manufacture,  England 
and  Germany ;  very  little  from  the  United  States. 
Duties,  50  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

H.  M.  BRENT, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Callao,  July  12,  1889. 


REPUBLIC  OF  COLOMBIA. 


BARRANQUILLA. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  WKELPLEY. 

On  complying  with  the  request  of  the  Department  circular  of  May  27, 
in  regard  to  the  importation  of  cotton  textiles,  I  found  it  necessary  to 
compile  the  accompanying  tabular  forms  from  the  custom-house  records 
1888. 

Table  No.  1  gives  names  of  the  ports  of  shipment  and  monthly  re- 
ceipts of  cotton  fabrics  in  kilograms  2,990,557. 

Table  No.  2  gives  the  tariff  classification,  with  the  exception  of  classes 
4, 11,  and  15,  there  being  but  a  small  item  in  the  two  former  and  none 

*  NOTE  BY  THE  DEPARTMENT. — The  export  of  cottons  from  the  United  Kingdom  to 
Chili  and  Peru  during  the  year  1888  were  as  follows: 


Description 

Chi] 

LL 

Pen 

1. 

Yards. 

Value. 

Yards. 

Value. 

Piece  goods,  unbleached  .........          .     ..  ..... 

16  542  600 

$840  866 

8  597  900 

$387  782 

Piece  goods,  bleached  

Piece  goods,  printed  and  dyed 

20,  477,  400 
24,  913  500 

1,  066,  294 
1  468  206 

11.  880,  200 
20  155,800 

615,  276 
1  048  492 

All  other  

6->9  &>Q 

259  038 

Total  

4,  005,  192 

2,310  588 

60 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


in  the  latter.  These  omissions,  principally  mining  fuse  (No.  4),  will  ac. 
count  for  the  difference  of  397  kilograms  between  the  tables  Nos.  1  and 
2.  The  limited  space  devoted  to  this  report  must  exclude  the  mention 
of  all  and  every  article  in  the  respective  classes.  The  duty  paid  per 
kilogram  on  gross  weight  of  packages  is  the  national  tariff  j  the  ad- 
ditional 25  per  cent,  is  the  provincial. 

Table  No.  3  comprises  the  data  furnished  by  the  principal  importers 
of  white  goods  and  prints.  Without  making  a  full  and  complete  list  of 
ail  the  fancy  names  in  use,  I  have  endeavored  to  present  an  average 
variety  in  grade  and  quality.  The  names  or  brands  are  placed  upon 
the  goods  at  the  option  of  the  purchaser  when  ordering,  or  stencil  plates 
are  furnished  by  desire  of  the  purchaser  importing  them.  The  same 
class  that  one  house  maybe  selling  as  "KosaBlanca"  or  "Coloinbi- 
ana,"  may  be  "Elephante"  or  "  La  Lola"  with  another. 

In  prints,  purple  tints  prevail,  30  yards  to  the  piece  the  general  rule. 

The  retail  trader  buys  by  the  piece,  but  sells  by  the  "varra;"  the 
"  varra  "  varies  according  to  the  distance  from  the  coast  towns. 

In  remote,  sparsely  settled  districts  it  often  shrinks  to  28  inches,  but 
30  and  32  inches  are  the  ordinary  retail  measurements. 

S.  M.  WHELPLEY, 
Vice-  Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Barranquilla,  August  7,  1888. 


(1)  Cotton  fabrics  imported  in  1888. 
[Record  of  Barranquilla  custom-house.] 


Whence  imported. 

Whence  imported. 

Whence  imported. 

Antwerp     .     .     ... 

Kilograms. 
1  539 

Kilograms. 
140  ]06 

Marseilles 

Kilograms. 
2  943 

Belfast     

595 

Havre    T      ..... 

11  339 

New  York 

39  277 

Bordeaux 

590 

727 

Paris 

54  573 

Bremen  

6,374 

Liverpool     ..... 

599  148 

91  701 

Barcelona  

218 

London   .......... 

138,  477 

San  Nazaire 

16  549 

15  943 

Malaga 

163 

Cadiz  

143 

Manchester  

1,  866,  800 

Total     

2  990  557 

Colon 

3  346 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

(2)  Cotton  fabrics  imported  at  Barranquilla  in  1888. 

[Classification  by  tariff] 


61 


Whence  imported. 

Candle  wick, 
fifth  class, 
10  cents. 

Lamp  wick, 
sixth  class, 
20  cents. 

Thread, 
eighth  class, 
40  cents. 

White 
cottons, 
ninth  class. 
50  cents. 

Colored 
cotton  prints, 
tenth  C!HHS, 
60  cents. 

Kilogram*. 

Kilogramt 

Kilogramt. 
242 

Kilogramt. 

Kilogramt. 

300 

295 

337 

2,516 

1,000 

1,274 

7,889 

7,000 

143 

1,750 

1,000 

1,373 

6,280 

50,000 

51,881 

Havre                           

431 

4,000 

2,534 

113 

291 

724 

14,888 

270,  506 

284,506 

739 

357 

904 

100,000 

31,964 

163 

.846 

1,170 

36,  410 

974,  412 

800,  427 

Marseilles 

231 

78 

2  123 

New  York              

295 

355 

220 

500 

231 

Paris 

995 

1  733 

12  940 

18  793 

3  573 

46,000 

40,  030 

158 

938 

1,160 

4,  100 

2  171 

5  363 

68  °13 

1  470  457 

1  246  914 

Whence  imported 

Handker- 
chiefs, 
shawls, 
ponchos, 
twelfth  class, 
80  cents. 

Hosiery, 
corsets, 
ready-made 
clothing, 
thirteenth 
class, 
90  cents. 

Braid  and 
twist, 
batting,  etc., 
fourteenth 
class,  $1. 

Total. 

Kilogram*. 

Kilogram*. 
1,297 

Kilograms. 

1  539 

Belfast                       

595 

178 

75 

590 

870 

714 

6  374 

218 

218 

505 

549 

15  943 

Cadiz   

143 

Colon 

5% 

3  346 

Hamburg  ..................... 

13,  826 

16  662 

84 

140  106 

Havre 

36'' 

4,  012 

11  339 

Havana        .  ........         .  .... 

614 

727 

15  307 

12  926 

599  148 

3  445 

1  068 

138  477 

Malaga  

163 

Manchester 

38,056 

15  545 

1  866  866 

Marseilles  

146 

365 

2  943 

New  Yoik 

1  454 

36  922 

39  277 

Paris  

1  538 

18  029 

78 

54,  106 

Southampton 

1  451 

657 

91  711 

3  064 

7  129 

16  549 

Total  

80  816 

116  064 

162 

2,990  160 

Total  duties  paid. 


Fifth  clans *$542.75 

Sixth  class 1,340.77 

Eighth  class 34,104.80 

Ninth  class 919,035.65 

Tonth  class 935,185.50 


Twelfth  class 80,816.00 

Thirteenth  class  143,322.00 

Fourteenth  class 162.  OC 


Aggregate 2,114,809.41 


•The  Colombian  dollar  (pesos)  a  68  cents  American. 


62 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


(3)  White  and  colored  cottons  imported  at  Barranquilla. 

[Prices  given  are  the  prices  per  piece  at  Manchester.    Duties  payable  by  kilogram  on  gross  weight 
of  bale,  25  per  ceat.    Provincial  duty  being  added  to  the  national  tariff  rate.] 


Local  name. 

From. 

Weight 
of  bale. 

Pieces 
in  bale. 

Yards 
in  piece. 

Width. 

Weight 
of  piece. 

Prices. 

WHITE.  * 

Rosa  Blanca    

Man  Chester  ....... 

Kilo- 
grams. 

180 

100 

20 

Inches. 
31 

Lbx.    oz. 
4        0 

S    D. 

4    1 

do 

190 

100 

20 

35 

4        4 

4    4 

..  do  

165 

100 

20 

31 

3      10 

3     H 

La  Perla 

do 

173 

100 

20 

35 

4        0 

4     1 

do    . 

93 

100 

20 

21 

2        2 

1  10 

do 

206 

100 

20 

40 

4        8 

4    Ci 

...do  

80 

100 

20 

22-23 

2        0 

2    9 

do 

140 

100 

20 

30 

3        8 

3 

do  

123 

100 

20 

23 

3        4 

2    61 

do 

200 

100 

20 

33 

4        8 

4    6 

do     

144 

100 

20 

27-28 

3        0 

3    1 

Savage  Mills  (duck) 

United  States 

264 

24 

50 

29 

8        0 

COLORKD.t 

Manchester  

70 

60 

30 

22-23 

5        8 

3    4 

81 

60 

30 

22-23 

5       4 

4  10 

do  

58 

100 

30 

23 

4        2 

3    5 

Holancillos  Morados 
Zarazas  Fantasia 

....do  
do    

96 
72 

88 
66 

30 
30 

23 
22-23 

5      12 
5        1 

5    6 
4    3 

do 

73 

64 

30 

24 

5        4 

4    7 

Do 

do 

60 

50 

30 

22-23 

5        0 

5    6 

*  Duty,  50  cents  per  kilogram  ;  ninth  class ;  purchased  for  cash, 
t  Duty,  CO  cents  per  kilogram ;  tenth  class ;  purchased  for  cash. 


CARTHAGENA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MAOMASTER. 

Over  550  tons  (554,433  kilograms)  of  cotton  textiles  were  imported 
during  the  fiscal  year  1889,  of  which  a  little  over  1  ton  (1,258  kilograms) 
came  from  the  United  States. 

It  is  within  my  personal  knowledge  that  American  cotton  goods  are 
preferred  by  the  consumers  of  Colombia,  but  the  refusal  of  American 
manufacturers  to  cut  their  "  prints  "  in  pieces  30  yards  long,  renders 
their  sale  impossible  in  these  markets.  ^ 

As  all  duties  in  Colombia  are  charged  on  the  gross  weight  of  the  pack- 
age, goods  should  be  packed  in  the  lightest  way  consistent  with  their 
preservation  during  transport.  Cotton  textiles  generally  come  in  iron- 
banded  bales,  with  a  layer  of  water-proof  cloth  (or  paper)  under  the 
outer  sacking.  When  destined  for  the  interior,  the  bales  should  strictly 
conform  in  weight  and  size  to  the  directions  sent  with  the  order.  Table 
A  gives  number  of  pieces  a  bale  for  this  port  should  contain,  yard- 
age, etc. 

"  Zarazas "  (ordinary  calicoes)  must  be  30  yards  long  and  seven- 
eighths  wide,  as  the  bulk  of  these  goods  is  used  by  the  poorer  people, 
who  make  three  dresses  from  each  piece  of  this  length  and  width. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


63 


Where  lengths  or  widths  are  given  in  table,  goods  must  conform 
thereto,  if  manufacturers  expect  to  sell  in  these  markets. 

I  transmit  (in  a  separate  envelope)  twenty-seven  samples  of  "  prints" 
and  a  sample  of  white  goods  ;  prices  are  marked  on  these  samples,  which 
also  show  the  quality,  width,  and  designs  in  demand. 

The  usual  credit  given  in  England  is  six  months  from  date  of  invoice, 
in  special  cases,  nine  months.  A  discount  of  1£  per  cent,  is  allowed  on 
prices  quoted  herein,  and  a  further  discount  of  2.J  per  cent,  for  cash. 

No  data  concerning  net  weight  per  yard  are  kept.  I  therefore 
weighed  several  pieces,  and  place  the  weight  of  such  pieces  in  the  table. 
Considerable  weight  is  added  by  filling  the  goods  with  foreign  sub- 
stances; the  weights  would  be  less  after  washing  the  goods. 

Judging  from  my  experience,  during  a  residence  of  nearly  twenty-two 
years.  American  prints  would  soon  control  the  South  American  mar- 
kets, if  the  manufacturers  would  cut  their  pieces  to  the  lengths  required, 
and  pack  their  goods  properly.  American  shirtings  and  sheetings  are 
much  preferred,  but  no  trade  can  be  built  up  until  the  manufacturers 
make  their  pieces  of  the  lengths  in  demand.  8-8,  10-8,  and  12-8  wide 
domestics  are  especially  liked. 

W.  B.  MACMASTER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Carthagena,  August  1,  1889. 


Statement*  showing  Ihe  imports  of  cotton  goods  at  Carthagena  for  the  fiscal  year  1889. 

A.  DESCRIPTION. 


Articles. 

Pieces  in 
each  bale. 

Contents  of 
each  piece. 

"Weight 
per  yard. 

Price. 

100 

Yards. 
20 

Ounces. 

4 

2  to  6  shillings. 

Crehuelas  (Cregiiplas)       

50 

30 

2 

2£  to  5  pence. 

100 

18 

3 

2  to  5  shillings 

Dril  (drill) 

24 

•AD 

4 

4  to  8  pence. 

Fulas  (blue  shirting)  

40 

20 

2 

2  to  4  shillings. 

Liencellott  (domestic  shirting) 

100 

18 

4 

2  to  5  shillings. 

Lintados  (checks)  

50 

21 

2 

5  to  7  marks. 

Mnselinas  (muslins) 

200 

10 

2 

5  to  6  shillings 

Olancellos  (prints)  ................ 

60 

30 

1* 

4  to  5  shillings. 

Zarazas  (prints)                  .... 

50 

30 

if 

5  to  7  shillings. 

Taladello  (tape) 

200 

Meters. 
100 

3  francs 

Camiaas  (shirts)     

25 

Dozens. 

30  to  40  francs. 

Canii.sefus  (undershirts) 

40 

do    

30 

do 

Mediae  (stockings) 

100 

do 

2  to  12  shillings 

200 

do 

Pafiolones  (shawls) 

100 

do 

Iluanas  (ponchos)     ...        

50 

do 

1  to  to  2  shillings 

Toallas  (towels) 

50 

do 

Trencellas  (braid)  

200 

do 

64 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
B.  WHENCE  IMPORTED.* 


Articles. 

Amberes. 

Belfast. 

Brad- 
ford. 

Bremen. 

Dundee. 

Glasgow. 

Ham- 
burg. 

London. 

3  147 

37  530 

Cregiietas 

43 

Drill 

3  342 

''O: 

7  953 

11 

Checks 

9  162 

290 

737 

Prints 

56 

Shifts 

697 

1  436 

10  835 

83 

1,  6°0 

16 

ie 

421 

Handkerchiefs 

477 

326 

983 

676 

Shawls       

224 

3,  112 

605 

355 

Braid 

Prints    .  .. 

Totals  

7,560 

205 

3,434 

4,731 

37,  530 

2,709 

14,  874 

20,  645 

C.  WHERE  MANUFACTURED.' 


Articles. 

Liver- 
pool. 

Manches- 
ter. 

Milan. 

New 
York. 

Paisely. 

Paris. 

Totals. 

Duty  in 

kilo- 
grams. 

217,  949 

258,  626 

$0.65 

7  894 

8  466 

50 

134 

39  736 

39  870 

50 

Brill        

1.725 

133 

352 

13  710 

.75 

Blue  shirting  

1,  242 

1,242 

.75 

Domestic  shirting 

161 

111 

949 

.62* 

Checks    

1,748 

18,  240 

.75 

Muslins 

851 

1  878 

1  10 

Prints    

16,  396 

17.  147 

.75 

Shirts  

144,501 

157,  469 

.75 

D~n  dersbirts    

628 

73 

2  404 

1.10 

2  919 

1  690 

5  062 

1  50 

Tape    

194 

220 

414 

90 

Stockings 

110 

110 

1  10 

Handkerchiefs 

3,231 

156 

786 

6  635 

1.00 

Shawls 

1  885 

8  039 

13  865 

75 

Ponchos  .  ..... 

3  172 

2  488 

6  015 

1.00 

593 

593 

1  00 

Braid  

406 

406 

1  00 

Prints  

90 

90 

LOO 

Dresses 

297 

304 

614 

i  242 

1  00 

Totals 

2  180 

452,  498 

133 

1  258 

156 

6  520 

554  433 

*  There  are  some  omissions  in  the  details  in  tables  B  and  C,  but  the  totals  arc  cor&ct 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.         65 

PANAMA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  ADAMSON. 

My  report  upon  cotton  textiles  imported  into  this  district,  which  is 
called  for  in  circular  instruction  of  May  27,  1889,  has  been  delayed  in 
the  hope  that  some  information  of  possible  value  might  be  obtained, 
Thus  far,  however,  my  earnest  efforts  have  failed  to  procure  any  im- 
portant information. 

IMPORTS. 

The  local  government  does  not  keep  records  to  show  the  quantity, 
kind,  or  value  of  the  textile  fabrics  or  other  goods  imported  here, 
this  being  a  free  port.  The  merchants  who  might  be  expected  to  be 
able  to  estimate  the  value  of  such  imports  do  not  show  any  willing- 
ness to  mention  an  estimate.  This  may  be  explained  thus :  During  the 
flourishing  times  of  the  canal  enterprise,  the  imports  were  large,  prob- 
ably much  larger  than  the  Government  officials  supposed.  The  com- 
mercial tax  was  enormously  high,  and  would,  perhaps,  have  been  in- 
creased had  it  been  known  how  large  the  importing  business  really 
was.  The  merchants  have,  therefore,  always  been  reticent  as  to  the 
amount  of  their  imports. 

I  think  it  probable  that  the  value  of  the  cotton  textiles  imported 
here  from  all  countries,  during  1888,  approached  nearly  $1,000,000,  and 
I  doubt  its  amounting  to  one-fifth  of  that  sum  in  1889. 

In  fact,  there  is  such  a  stagnation  in  business  here,  owing  to  the  fail- 
ure of  the  Canal  Company,  and  such  an  excess  of  supply  over  the  de- 
mand, that  imports- must  almost  entirely  cease  for  some  time. 

KINDS  IMPORTED. 

The  kinds  of  cotton  textiles  imported  here  are  principally  bleached 
and  unbleached  shirtings  and  sheetings,  printed  calicoes,  and  a  moder- 
ate quantity  of  colored  drillings,  denims,  and  various  goods  for  men's 
wear,  and  that  light  class  of  goods  for  women's  use  which  is  known  to 
the  dry-goods  trade  in  the  United  States  as  "  white  goods,"  and  which 
embraces  cambric,  muslins,  lawns,  etc.  The  bulk  of  the  cotton  textiles 
imported  consists  of  bleached  and  unbleached  shirtings  and  sheet- 
ings and  fancy  prints. 

As  to  the  weight  per  yard,  it  would  be  no  guide  to  American  manu- 
facturers to  state  weights,  for  the  goods  intended  for  the  local  trade 
are  chiefly  of  inferior  cloth,  heavily  weighted  with  starch,  clay,  and 
other  substances  used  for  that  purpose,  as  the  trade  may  demand.  All 
the  cotton  goods  imported  for  local  consumption  are  weighted  with  for- 
eign substances,  because  it  gives  them  a  seeming  body,  and  as  there  are 
no  customs  duties  on  goods  brought  to  this  Isthmus  the  cost  is  not  in- 
creased to  the  dealer.  But  Panama  sells  goods  to  the  ports  of  the 
Department  of  Cauca,  which  embraces  thr  whole  west  coast  of  Colombia, 


66         COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

south  of  the  department  of  Panama,  and  in  those  ports  duties  are  col- 
lected and  are  charged  on  the  weight.  It  follows  as  a  matter  of 
course  that  the  Panama  merchant  orders  the  goods  for  his  trade  with 
Cauca  to  be  made  of  light  weight,  and  a  light  starching  gives  the 
requisite  finish  without  the  weight  given  by  other  processes  of  load- 
ing. 

I  have  examined  prints  weighing  2  ounces  per  yard  and  others  of 
similar  cloth  weighing  1J  ounces  to  the  yard,  so  that  stating  the  weight 
gives  no  indication  of  the  quality.  The  buyers  here,  as  in  the  greater 
part  of  Spanish  America,  are  not  judges  of  quality,  and  their  past  ex- 
perience with  poor  goods  does  not  teach  them  the  greater  cheapness  of 
a  good  article  even  at  a  higher  nominal  price. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Cotton  goods  are  generally  purchased  on  a  credit  of  six  months,  for 
which  a  commission  is  paid  to  the  Manchester  agent  of  3  per  cent.,  ami 
interest  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum  on  account  current  not  paid  at  matu- 
rity. 

WHERE  MANUFACTURED. 

The  greater  part  of  the  cotton  goods  sold  in  Panama  are  imported 
from  England,  being  manufactured  at  Manchester. 

A  fair  trade  was  growing  up  in  American  cotton  fabrics,  but  advanc- 
ing prices  there,  higher  rate  of  exchange  here,  and  other  causes  here- 
inbefore mentioned  have  nearly  closed  this  market  against  American 
goods. 

DUTIES. 

There  are  no  import  duties  levied  at  the  ports  of  this  isthmus,  and  as 
to  the  duties  in  other  ports  of  the  Republic,  the  consuls  at  the  duty 
ports  will  report. 

HOW  TO  INCREASE  AMERICAN   TRADE. 

The  buyers  are  also  very  conservative  about  changing  styles  of  goods 
and  ignorant  of  the  laws  of  trade,  consequently  they  adhere  fpr  a  long 
time  to  accustomed  articles  or  styles  and  resist  advance  in  price.  When, 
therefore,  cotton  rises  in  price  or  the  currency  depreciates  in  exchange 
value,  the  dealer  can  not  put  up  his  prices,  but  in  sending  a  fresh  order 
he  directs  his  Manchester  commission  merchant  to  send  the  same  pat- 
tern put  up  in  the  old  way  but  with  one  or  two  threads  less  in  the  square 
inch  or  a  trifle  less  in  width,  and  consequently  at  a  rate  that  enables 
him  to  appear  to  sell  the  same  goods  at  the  old  price. 

Importers  here  say  that  American  manufacturers  will  not  do  these 
things ;  that  they  will  not  cut  the  prices  to  the  lengths  they  may  de- 
mand, and  that  they  will  not  pack  as  the  trade  of  various  sections  may 
require, 


COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES.  67 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  remark  that  local  dealers  who  are 
good  judges  freely  admit  the  superiority  of  American  cotton  goods  and 
even  the  greater  cheapness  of  certain  kinds  when  quality  is  considered. 
For  instance,  two  of  the  most  prominent  dealers  told  me  they  had  sent 
samples  of  the  best  pink  and  purple  Merrirnac  prints  to  Manchester, 
England,  and  that  they  could  not  have  them  duplicated  there  at  the 
American  price. 

But  this  market  does  not  require  many  goods  of  such  superior  quality, 
and  in  the  inferior  grades  Manchester  can  undersell  the  United  States. 
This  may  partly  be  owing  to  the  fact  that  lower  grades  of  cotton  are 
used  there  and  partly  to  the  other  fact  that  American  manufacturers 
are  not  such  adepts  in  the  art  of  a  weighting  n  goods. 

If  our  manufacturers  seriously  wish  to  build  up  trade  with  Spanish 
America,  they  should  come  in  person  and  see  exactly  what  these  coun- 
tries demand.  The  writer  of  this  was  bred  to  the  dry-goods  business, 
and  can  assure  his  countrymen  that  they  can  learn  very  many  useful 
points  by  personal  observation  which  they  would  fail  to  obtain  even 
though  they  should  read  a  thousand  pages  of  consular  reports  on  the 
subject  of  cotton  goods,  and  those  things  are  what  they  should  know 
in  order  to  compete  for  foreign  business. 

THOMAS  ADAMSON, 

Consul-  General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Panama,  July  13,  1889. 


VENEZUELA. 

i 

LA  GUAYRA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BIRD. 
KIND  IMPORTED. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  no  digested  records  of  imports  into  Venezuela 
are  obtainable,  it  is  quite  impracticable  to  approximately  state  the 
quantity  of  goods  imported.  Even  though  a  customs  officer  should  be 
employed  to  collate  the  statistics,  it  would  be  impossible  to  separate 
the  imports  of  cotton  goods  from  linen  and  woolen  fabrics,  and  hence 
any  figures  he  might  offer  would  be  unsatisfactory.  Ail  the  staple  cot- 
ton goods  in  fair  quantities  are  imported  into  Venezuela. 

WEIGHT. 

The  weight  of  all  classes  of  imported  cotton  goods  is  so  variable  ac- 
cording to  kind  and  quantity  that  it  is  deemed  unnecessary  to  furnish 


68  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

any  figures  ;  all  kinds  and  qualities,  from  the  lightest  to  the  heaviest, 
are  imported. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Goods  are  purchased  by  order  from  samples  on  six  months'  credit, 
with  interest  added. 

PLACE   OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  great  bulk  of  staple  cotton  goods  imported  here  is  manufactured 
in  England  and  shipped  from  Liverpool  and  Southampton.  Many  of 
the  finer  fabrics  are  made  in  France  and  are  imported  from  Havre  and 
St.  Nazaire.  The  cheaper  light-weight  staple  goods  come  from  Ger- 
many through  the  port  of  Hamburg.  About  all  the  ducks,  drills, 
denims,  and  first-class  heavy-weight  white  goods  come  from  the  United 
States  and  all  are  imported  from  New  York.  The  English  and  French 
prints  are  much  superior  to  those  of  the  United  States  in  delicacy  and 
variety  of  figure  and  color,  and  hence  those  countries  import  quite  all 
of  that  class  of  goods. 

DUTIES. 

Duties  are  levied  on  the  gross  weight  of  packages,  and  an  additional 
tax  of  12£  per  cent,  on  the  amount  of  duty  collected  is  levied  for  inter- 
nal revenue.  These  duties  vary  according  to  the  quality  of  goods,  as 
follows : 

Canvas,  duck,  twine,  furniture  cloths  and  sails  pay  $6.63  per  100 
pounds. 

Brown  cottons,  unbleached  osnaburgs,  and  domestic  and  regatta 
stripes  pay  $10.06  per  100  pounds. 

Unbleached  drilling,  ginghams,  bleached  shirting,  sheeting,  and  hoi- 
lands  pay  $22.12  per  100  pounds. 

Knit  underwear,  socks,  and  stockings,  bombazine,  table-covers,  bed- 
spreads, damask,  fustians,  table-cloths,  nainsook,  towels,  doylies,  hand- 
kerchiefs, percales,  pique's,  poplins,  and  calicoes,  pay  $44.23  per  100 
pounds. 

Shirts,  zephyr,  gauze,  curtains,  corsets,  shawls,  gloves,  grenadines, 
lawns,  garters,  insertions,  laces,  fringes,  velveteen,  muslins,  organdies, 
and  tarletans  pay  $88.46  per  100  pounds. 

Ready-made  clothing  of  all  kinds  pays  $176.92  per  100  pounds. 

WINFIELD  S.  BIRD, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

La  Guayra,  June  24, 1880, 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


69 


PUERTO  CABELLO. 

j;i  PORT  BY  CONSUL  DE  KLANO. 
QUANTITY  AND  KIND  IMPORTED  PER  ANNUM. 

There  are  no  official  data  concerning  the  quantity  and  kinds  of  cotton 
goods  imported  inro  Venezuela. 

In  the  statistics  which  are  published  yearly  by  the  minister  of  finance 
at  Caracas  the  total  amount  of  duties  collected  on  imports  at  eacli 
custom-house  of  the  Republic  is  given,  but  no  details  as  to  the  kinds  of 
goods  imported  or  their  quantity  are  furnished. 

The  last  report  of  the  minister  of  finance  for  the  fiscal  year  ended 
June  30, 1889,  states  that  the  total  duties  collected  at  the  port  of  Puerto 
Cabello  on  imports  during  that  year  amounted  to  11,844,721.46  bolivares 
(*2,277,S31.04  American  gold),  but  it  gives  no  information  with  respect 
to  the  value  or  kinds  of  goods  upon  which  these  duties  were  levied. 

If  it  be  true,  as  the  principal  merchants  at  this  port  have  assured  me, 
that  the  duties  on  imported  merchandise  in  Venezuela  average  54  per 
cent,  of  the  cost  price,  we  may  calculate  the  total  value  of  the  imports 
at  Puerco  Cabello  for  the  year  above  stated  at  about  $4,218,205.62 
(American  gold),  but  there  is  still  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  amount 
of  each  kind  of  goods  composing  this  aggregate. 

In  the  absence  of  official  statistics  with  regard  to  the  quantity  and 
kinds  of  cotton  goods  imported  into  this  consular  district,  I  have  had 
recourse  to  private  sources ;  and,  as  the  importing  business  in  that  class 
of  goods  at  this  port  is  almost  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  five  leading 
houses,  who  have  very  courteously  given  me  all  the  information  I  asked 
of  them,  I  am  enabled  to  state  approximately  the  quantity  and  accurately 
the  kinds  imported. 

The  total  quantity  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  this  consular  dis- 
trict yearly  is  estimated  at  $2,500,000  (American  gold),  distributed  as 
follows:  From  Great  Britain,  81,200,000;  Germany,  $600,000;  France, 
6400,000 ;  United  States,  8300,000. 

The  following  list  shows  the  kinds  of  goods  imported  and  the  class 
of  the  tariff  to  which  they  belong: 

List  of  cotton  goods  imported  into  this  district. 


Articles. 

Class. 

Articles. 

Class. 

T'ndfrshirts  white,  brown  colored  

6 

Victoria  lawn,  white  

7 

'•fl  :u:d  checked 

5 

White  shirtings 

5 

Stockings  ami  socks  white,  brown  colored 

6 

Mu.iliiis  white  colored  .... 

7 

Shirts  v.hitr  colored 

7 

4 

;:i8,  striped           

5 

Towels      

6 

Collars  white  coinicd 

8 

Xets 

7 

(Mitt's,  white,  colored  

8 

Dowlas  white.....  .... 

5 

i.  ri  ;i  v  sheetings  . 

5 

6 

White  drills  ' 

5 

5 

T'rint.-d  drills   . 

5 

6 

I'rinted  duck 

g 

ii 

7 

Curt.iui-iiets  white  colored 

7 

70         COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  two  articles  most  largely  imported  into  this  consular  district  are 
prints  (Zarazas,  duty  sixth  class)  and  white  shirtings  (Madapollam,  duty 
fifth  class). 

Prints,  26  to  30  inches  wide,  are  imported  almost  exclusively  from 
England  (Manchester)  at  a  price  which  varies  from  If  to  4d.  (3J  to  8 
cents)  per  yard.  The  most  salable  are  those  which  do  not  cost  over  2J 
to  3d.  (5  to  6  cents).  Pink,  and  especially  u  purple  pad,"  are  the  favorite 
colors,  although  "  fancy  styles  "  are  likewise  largely  sold. 

Some  houses  here  have  tried  to  introduce  American  prints,  but  the 
experiment  has  not  proved  successful,  either  because  they  are  not  of 
the  width  to  which  the  people  are  accustomed,  having  24  to  25  inches  in- 
stead of  26  to  30,  as  the  English  prints,  or  because,  considering  this 
shorter  width,  they  are  dearer.  Besides,  the  designs  or  patterns  are  too 
sober  for  the  tastes  of  the  people,  who  are  accustomed  to  the  bright 
colors  and  great  variety  of  styles  of  the  English  and  French  prints. 

White  shirtings.— This  article  is  mainly,  almost  exclusively,  imported 
from  England.  The  kinds  which  sell  most  in  this  port  and  the  adjacent 
country,  are :  Madapollams,  31  to  37  inches,  1 J-  to  2f  $.  per  yard ;  Savajes 
28  to  32  inches,  2  to  2$d.  per  yard. 

Domestics  and  drills. — These  goods  are  imported  largely  from  the 
United  States,  and  some  also  from  England ;  but  the  preference  is  given 
to  the  United  States  because,  as  one  of  the  largest  importers  said  to  me, 
"  people  are  confident  of  getting  always  the  same  honest  quality."  The 
following  kinds  are  those  which  are  chiefly  imported : 

Gray  or  brown  sheetings,  gray  or  brown  drills,  printed  cotton  duck, 
printed  cotton  drills,  duty  fifth  class  ;  gray  duck,  44  inches,  Nos.  5  and 
6,  Stark  mills  gray  duck,  28  to  30,  duty  fourth  class ;  blue  stripes,  27 
inches,  at  4J  to  6  cents  per  yard,  duty  fifth  class. 

Of  the  above-mentioned  gray  or  brown  sheetings  those  which  are 
chiefly  imported  into  this  district  are :  Massachusetts  C,  27  to  28  inches, 
at  4  cents ;  P,  26  to  27  inches,  at  3f  cents ;  J,  27  to  28  inches,  at  4J 
cents. 

Of  the  gray  or  brown  drills,  Massachusetts  D  K,  27  to  28  inches,  at  6 
cents ;  Appleton,  29  to  30  inches,  at  6£  cents. 

And  of  the  printed  ducks  and  drills,  Bedford  A,  24  to  25  inches,  at  6J 
cents ;  thistle  duck  A,  27  to  28  inches,  at  12£  cents ;  drills  B  F  D,  25  to 
26  inches,  at6£  cents  ;  duck  B  B,  26  to  27  inches,  at  11  j  cents. 

Blue  stripes  or  regattas  are  also  imported  from  England,  and  to  a 
greater  extent  than  from  the  United  States. 

Cotton  blankets  (duty  fifth  class)  white,  colored,  and  striped,  52  by  72 
inches  and  54  by  75  inches,  are  also  imported  here  from  the  United  States 
at  prices  varying  from  65  to  85  cents  per  blanket;  but  a  larger  importa- 
tion of  different  qualities  and  descriptions  is  made  from  England  and 
Germany. 

Cotton  colored  handkerchiefs,  duty  sixth  class,  of  varied  descriptions 
are  largely  imported  from  Great  Britain,  principally  from  Glasgow,  at 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  71 

7  pence  to  4  shillings  per  dozen,  and  from  Germany,  (called  "Madras," 
and  "  Piguas  ")  at  4  to  5  marks  per  dozen. 

Cotton  stockings  and  socks,  duty  sixth  class,  are  brought  largely  from 
England  and  from  Germany.  Those  made  of  fil  d'Ecosse  thread  pay  a 
higher  duty,  viz,  seventh  class. 

Sewing  thread,  duty  fifth  class,  is  an  article  considerably  imported 
into  this  district  (it  comes  almost  exclusively  from  Glasgow),  viz,  white 
sewings  on  reels  6-cord  at  200  yards.  No.  30,  40,  50,  60,  at  10«.  6d.  No. 
8,  at  11*.  2rf. 

White  cotton  balls,  No.  50  to  150,  at  lljtf.     No.  30  to  120,  at  lOJd. 

Cotton  undershirts,  white  and  striped,  duty  sixth  class,  are  imported 
from  England,  at  6  to  14  shillings  per  dozen.  Germany,  at  8  to  15 
marks  per  dozen.  Spain  at  7J  to  14  pesetas  per  dozen. 

The  middling  qualities  are  those  which  are  in  demand ;  colored  and 
striped  do  not  sell  as  well. 

WEIGHT  PER  YARD. 

All  inquiries  with  respect  to  the  weight  per  yard  of  the  different  cot- 
ton textiles  imported  into  this  district  have  failed  to  elicit  a  satisfac- 
tory reply. 

The  commerce  of  Puerto  Cabello  takes  no  special  notice  of  the  weight 
except  as  it  affects  the  amount  of  the  duties  to  be  paid.  In  that  respect 
all  the  firms  I  have  consulted  agree  that  American  goods  generally 
weigh  more  than  European  goods.  "  The  prints  are  too  heavy  and  too 
good  for  this  market ; "  "On  all  white  goods  the  United  States  pay 
higher  duty  than  English  goods, "  are  the  answers  which  I  have  obtain- 
ed on  all  sides. 

One  of  the  largest  importers  of  cotton  goods  estimates  the  duty  on 
English  prints  at  40  per  cent.;  on  American,  at  60  to  70  per  cent. ;  on 
drills,  the  duty  on  American  is  40  per  cent. ;  on  English,  not  quite  34 
per  cent. 

The  same  informant  tells  me  that  samples  of  American  white  goods 
have  been  sent  to  England,  where  they  are  made  lighter  to  suit  this 
market. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Purchases  are  made  in  England,  France,  and  Germany  on  terms  of 
credit  ranging  from  three  up  to  nine  months  ;  but  the  most  usual  is  six 
months,  counting  from  the  date  of  the  invoice.  These  credits  bear  in- 
terest at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum. 

The  usual  commission  to  agents  for  purchasing  is  2J  per  cent.,  and 
the  buyer  gets  all  discounts  allowed  to  agents  by  the  manufacturers. 

These  discounts,  on  cotton  textiles,  are :  In  England,  1  \  to  5  per  cent.j 
in  France,  2 £  to  6  per  cent. ;  in  Germany,  2  to  6  per  cent. 


72 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


DUTIES  CHARGED  THEREON. 

Duties  in  Venezuela  are  entirely  specific,  and  are  levied  on  the  gross 
weight  of  packages. 

All  foreign  merchandise  is  divided  into  nine  classes,  on  which  duties 
are  collected  as  follows : 


Class. 

Duty  per 
kilogram. 

Class. 

Duty  per 
kilogram. 

First  

Bolivars. 
Free. 

Sixth   

Bolivars. 
'2  50 

Second  .........   .... 

.10 

Seventh. 

5  00 

Third 

25 

Eighth 

10  00 

Fourth  

.75 

Ninth  :..       . 

20  00 

Fifth 

1  25 

The  above  duties  are  collected  by  the  "aduana  maritima";  the  im- 
porter has  to  pay,  besides,  12J  per  cent,  of  the  amount  thereof  to  the 
"  aduana  terrestre." 

The  duties  are  payable  in  cash;  but  the  importer  may  obtain  six 
months7  credit  by  furnishing  his  bond,  with  two  sureties,  approved  by 
tbe  administrator  of  the  custom  house.  In  that  case  he  pays  1  per 
cent,  interest  on  the  amount  of  his  bond  for  each  month  of  credit. 

CONCLUSION. 

From  the  testimony  of  all  the  importers  with  whom  I  have  con- 
versed (none  of  whom  are  Americans,  but  nearly  all  Germans)  two 
facts  may  be  considered  as  established  : 

(1)  That  American  cotton  textiles  are  superior  in  every  respect  to  the 
fabrics  which  are  introduced  into  this  consular  district  from  Europe, 
chiefly  from  England  and  Germany. 

(2)  That  the  present  tariff  of  Venezuela  on  gross  weight 'discrimi- 
nates against  American  textiles,  which,  on  account  of  their  superior 
quality,  are  much  heavier  than  the  English  and  German  goods. 

Under  these  circumstances,  our  manufacturers  find  themselves  under 
the  necessity  of  choosing  between  the  two  following  courses : 

(1)  To  change  their  methods,  and  make  the  same  class  of  inferior 
goods  as  are  imported  from  Germany  and  England  ;  or — 

(2)  Discarding  immediate  profit,  and  looking  to  future  and  lasting 
results,  persevere  in  their  honorable  course  in  the  full  confidence  that 
honesty  is  the- best  policy  and  will  win  in  the  long  run. 

CHARLES  DE  BLANC, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Puerto  Cabcllo,  August  14,  1889. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


73 


WEST   INDIES. 

BRITISH  WEST  INDIES. 

ANTIGUA. 
HE  PORT  BY  CONSUL  JACKSON. 

Upon  the  matter  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  the  consular  district 
of  Antigua  I  have  to  report  that,  owing  to  the  want  of  statistics  at  the 
custom-house,  the  correct  number  of  yards  can  not  be  ascertained. 

All  imports  of  cotton  goods  are  placed  under  the  head  of  u  cottons, 
woolens,  and  linens/'  and  no  separate  values  are  rendered.  The  whole 
amount  of  invoiced  value  of  imports  of  fabrics,  excepting  silks,  for  the 
year  ended  December  31, 1888,  was  890,408.48;  of  this  amount  it  is  es- 
timated fully  75  per  cent,  may  be  credited  to  imports  of  cotton  fabrics, 
mostly  confined  to  calicoes,  bleached  and  unbleached  cottons. 

The  value  of  cotton  goods  imported  from  the  United  States  for  the 
above  period  amounted  to  $1,248.66  only. 

These  goods  were  confined  to  ducks  and  denims,  and  were  purchased 
much  cheaper  there  than  they  could  be  purchased  for  in  Manchester,  and 
the  trade  has  been  diverted  to  the  United  States  in  consequence. 

All  cotton  goods  imported  come  from  Manchester,  England,  and  the 
United  States,  and  pay  a  duty  upon  entry  of  6|  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

Three  months'  time  is  generally  given  from  Manchester,  or  5  percent, 
off  for  cash,  while  goods  from  the  United  States  come  through  general 
commission  houses  which  give  thirty  to  sixty  days'  time. 

In  order  to  present  a  fair  and  suggestive  view  of  the  situation  of  the 
trade  in  cotton  goods  in  Antigua,  I  submit  a  list  of  samples,  obtained 
from  one  of  Antigua's  merchants,  which  I  had  analyzed  by  the  Govern- 
ment analyst  there,  and  which  covers  the  merchant's  importations  for 
the  year  1888,  and  which  is  estimated  to  cover  one-eighth  of  the  busi- 
ness done  in  that  line  in  Antigua  for  that  year. 

CHESTER  E.  JACKSON, 

Consul. 

HOLLEY,  N.  Y.,  September  18,  1889. 


WHITE  COTTONS  (SHIRTINGS  OR  BLEACHED). 


No.  of 
sample. 

Price  per 
yard  at 
manufac- 
tory. 

Width. 

Weight 
of  1  yard. 

Weight 
of  dress- 
ing in  1 
yard. 

Percent- 
age of 
dressing. 

No.  of 

yaids  iin- 

^wea 

1 

3 
4 
5 

Cent*. 
3* 

P 

Inches. 
33 

25 

Qraint. 
872 
1,038 
1,260 
1,453 
771 

Grains. 
163 
77 
213 
210 
270 

18.7 
7.4 
16.9 
14.5 
34.9 

54,321 
29,  328 
63,  372 
43,  656 
14,  368 

74 


COTTON   TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


FEINTS  (CALICOES). 


No.  of 
sample. 

Price  per 
yard  of 
manufac- 
tory. 

Width. 

Weight 
of  1  yard. 

Weight 
of  dress- 
ing in  1 
yard. 

Percent- 
age of 
dressing. 

No.  of 
yards  im- 
ported 

t1888. 

0 

7 
8 
8a 

Cents. 
H 

ft 

4£ 

Inches. 
2B| 

2PJ 

28i 
28J 

Grains. 
1,093 
1,167 
1,439 
1,203 

Grains. 
240 
456 
28 
519 

22.0 
39.1 
2.0 
43.2 

11,  389 
12,  689 
2,436 
108,  504 

BKOWN  COTTONS  (LIKE  UNBLEACHED). 


9 

3i 

24£ 

1,625 

640 

39.4 

54,782 

10 

30| 

2,671 

988 

37.0 

7,876 

11 

3j 

23 

1,541 

772 

50.1 

48,  672 

12 

4g 

28 

1,958 

662 

33.8 

14,  796 

13 

3 

23 

1,350 

499 

37.0 

11,  628 

a  Weight  of  cloth  taken  after  drying  at  212°  Fall. 


FHANCIS  WATTS,  F.  C.  S., 

Government  Analyst. 


GOVERNMENT  LABORATORY, 

Antigua,  West  Indies,  August  17,  1889. 


ANGUILLA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  RET. 

It  seems  impossible,  even  after  a  careful  examination,  to  arrive  at  a 
correct  estimate  of  the  quantity,  expressed  in  yards,  of  the  cotton  goods 
imported  into  this  island,  for  the  reason  that  almost  every  boat  and 
sloop  trading  to  the  neighboring  islands  brings  back  goods  bought  by 
the  crew  for  the  use  of  their  friends  or  family,  and  wnen  entered  their 
values  alone  are  given.  Exact  figures  being  therefore  out  of  the  ques- 
tion, we  must  depend  for  information  on  the  subject  on  as  close  an  ap- 
proximation as  may  be  made  in  the  circumstances. 

All  cotton  fabrics  imported  here  for  the  year  ending  30th  June,  ul- 
timo, with  exception  of  a  small  parcel  of  blue  and  of  white  ducks,  of  the 
value  of  $250,  from  the  United  States  via  St.  Thomas,  were  manufact- 
ured in  Manchester,  and  imported  from  London  via  St.  Kitts,  and  con- 
sisted of  prints,  shirtings,  domestics  or  greys,  checks,  lawns,  lace,  and 
trimmings. 

The  goods  are  usually  paid  for  in  three  months,  but  the  shippers  al- 
low very  indulgent  terms  to  the  buyers  who,  besides  freight  and  charges, 
pay  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  8  per  cent,  on  all  importations. 

During  the  year  under  review — July  1,  1888,  to  June  30,  1889 — there 
were  imported  by  the  regular  dealers  62,432  yards  of  cotton  goods,  vary- 
ing in  weight  between  2£  and  3J  ounces  per  yard,  and  in  width  between 
27  and  36  inches,  and  4,000  yards  of  cotton  lace  and  trimming.  And,  as 


COTTON   TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  75 

the  boatmen  bring  home  more  than  half  the  goods  imported  by  the 
dealers,  we  may  safely  put  at  95,000  to  100,000  yards,  the  cotton  goods 
brought  to  this  island  during  the  past  year. 

WAGER  REY, 
Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Anguilla,  July  10, 1889. 


BAHAMAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  M'LAIN,  OF  NASSAU. 
QUANTITY  AND  KIND  IMPORTED. 

There  are  no  data  obtainable  to  enable  me  to  state  with  precision  the 
quantity  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  this  colony  per  annum.  The 
customs  authorities  can  give  me  no  reliable  figures,  for  the  reason  that 
cotton  goods  are  not  entered  for  duty  under  that  name,  but  are  entered 
indiscriminately  with  woolens,  linens,  silks,  hardware,  boots  and  shoes, 
earthenware,  and  sundry  other  merchandise,  styled  "  articles  paying  an 
ad  valorem  duty  of  20  per  centum ;"  nor  are  the  local  merchants  to 
whom  I  have  applied  for  assistance  able  to  give  satisfactory  replies. 
The  only  information  bearing  upon  this  point  that  I  can  furnish  is  to 
say  that  after  a  thorough  examination  of  the  subject,  including  the 
opinions  of  well-informed  dealers,  I  believe  I  can  safely  state  that  the 
total  value  at  wholesale  prices  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  this 
colony  during  the  past  year  is  about  $200,000.  As  to  the  kinds  of  such 
textiles  imported,  they  may  in  general  terms  be  specified  as  follows, 
viz :  bleached  and  brown  cottons,  prints,  muslins,  ducks,  denims,  cot- 
ton flannels,  and  jeans. 

WEIGHT  PER  YARD. 

As  merchants  here  do  not  order  their  cottons  by  weight  per  yard 
when  ordering  from  the  United  States,  I  can  not  ascertain  the  weight 
of  American  cottons.  The  purchaser,  as  a  rule,  designates  what  he 
wishes  to  buy  by  giving  the  width  in  inches  and  the  price  he  is  willing 
to  pay.  Nearly  all  American  cottons  are  also  known  by  certain  names, 
perhaps  the  name  of  the  manufacturer,  or  of  the  mills,  or  by  some  fancy 
name,  and  these  are  used  by  the  merchants  here  in  ordering.  In  fact,  I 
have  observed  from  the  price  lists  sent  here  by  our  manufacturers  that 
they  largely  designate  their  cottons  by  width  and  price  or  name,  and 
seldom,  if  ever,  give  weight  per  yard. 

With  British  manufacturers  the  custom,  at  least  for  colonial  pur- 
poses, is  to  give  width,  weight  per  piece,  and  price,  though  merchants 
here  are  not  in  the  habit  of  mentioning  the  weight  when  ordering.  The 


76 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


following  table,  furnished  by  merchants  here,  will  show  the  weight  of 
.some  of  the  cottons  sent  here  from  England  : 


Kind. 

Width. 

Yards  in 
piece. 

"Weight  per  piece. 

Printers         

Indies. 
26 

58 

5  pounds  12  ounces  to  8  pounds. 

Do 

32 

47 

6  pounds  to  7  pounds. 

Do        .                

34 

50 

7  pounds  8  ounces  to  10  pounds. 

Do 

36 

50 

9  pounds  4  ounces  to  11  pounds  8  ounces. 

32-34 

47 

6  pounds  to  7  pounds. 

36 

36 

7  pounds  to  8  pounds 

"DO          .        ... 

39 

36 

8  pounds  to  9  pounds. 

39 

371 

5  pounds  4  ounces  to  9  pounds  4  ounces. 

Do 

45 

37* 

6  pounds  to  10  pounds  8  ounces. 

Do  

50 

37* 

9  pounds  to  11  pounds. 

Jaconets 

89 

20 

1  pound  14  ounces  to  2  pounds  14  ounces. 

Do    

44 

20 

2  pounds  12  ounces  to  3  pounds  4  ounces. 

Mulls 

39 

20 

1  pound  1  ounce  to  2  pound**. 

Do  

44 

20 

2  pounds  1  ounce. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

The  bulk  of  the  cotton  goods  imported  are  bought  of  jobbers  and 
commission  houses,  or  through  agents  located  in  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain.  In  the  United  States  cash  or  short  credit  is  expected. 
In  England  very  much  long  time  credit  is  given,  some  large  firms 
keeping  an  open  account  with  customers  and  charging  small  rates  of 
interest  on  balances  after  six  mouths. 

PLACE   OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  cottons  sold  here  are  manufactured  mostly  in  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  fully  two-thirds  being  imported  from  America.  A 
few  French  and  German  goods  are  imported  through  London  houses. 

DUTIES. 

A  uniform  duty  of  20  per  cent,  ad  valorem  is  imposed  upon  all  cot- 
ton goods  imported,  without  reference  to  the  country  whence  they  may 
come. 

REMARKS. 

I 

The  trade  in  cotton  goods  for  a  number  of  years  has  been  slowly 
drifting  from  Great  Britain  to  the  United  States,  until  now  fully  two- 
thirds  of  all  these  articles  are  imported  from  the  latter.  The  causes  of 
this  change  are  many.  Our  market  is  nearer;  exchange  is  cheaper  on 
New  York  than  London  ;  we  have  steady  and  reliable  steam  communica- 
tion between  New  York  and  Nassau,  with  none  direct  from  England ; 
most  of  the  colonial  exports  goto  the  United  States;  the  style  and 
quality  of  our  goods  suit  the  people,  and  usually  our  prices  are  as 
low  as  prices  are  in  England. 

There  are  two  objections  urged  by  some  dealers  here  against  buying 
their  cottons  in  the  United  States.  First,  the  fluctuations  in  prices  are 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


77 


more  frequent  and  are  greater  in  the  United  States  tban  in  England,  so 
that  buyers  never  feel  certain  that  an  order  filled  in  January  can  be 
duplicated  at  same  prices  in  April  in  the  United  States,  whilst  they  can 
rely  almost  to  a  certainty  that  there  will  be  no  material  alteration  in 
England.  Secondly,  whilst  cash  or  short  credit  is  the  rule  in  the  United 
States,  a  responsible  merchant  can,  in  England,  obtain  long  credit,  say 
six,  nine,  or  twelve  month?,  or  even  longer  by  paying  a  moderate  rate  of 
interest,  or  he  may  keep  an  open  account  running  for  years.  As,  how- 
ever, despite  these  objections,  we  have  gradually  acquired  two-thirds  of 
the  cotton  trade  of  the  Bahamas,  I  look  to  see  our  manufacturers  in 
due  time  obtain  the  whole  of  it. 

THOS.  J.  MCLAIN,  JR., 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Xassau,  .V.  P.,  October  4,  1889. 


BERMUDA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BECKW1TH,  OF  HAMILTON. 

Imports. — The  imports  during  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1888, 
were  as  follows :  From  Great  Britain,  103  packages,  valued  at  $7,095.15  5 
from  the  United  States,  85  packages,  valued  at  $ 2,394.51. 

For  kinds  and  weights  see  inclosed  samples,  as  the  weight  varies 
materially.* 

The  textiles  imported  are  purchased  through  foreign  merchants  and 
dealers. 

The  countries  of  manufacture  are  England  (Manchester)  and  the 
United  States.  The  goods  imported  from  the  United  States  represent 
various  mills,  but  are  all  purchased  in  New  York  through  wholesale 
agents  or  dealers. 

The  duty  is  5  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

HENRY  W.  BECKWITH, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Hamilton,  Bermuda,  July  25,  1889. 


*  The  consul  inclosed  10  samples,  as  follows: 


Kinds. 

Price  per 
yard. 

Weigbi 
per  yar< 

. 

Kinds. 

Price  per 
yard. 

Weight 
per  yard. 

Bleached: 

Cent*. 
g 

Ounces 
&\ 

Unbleached  : 

g 

41 

Second  sample  

10 

]•> 

& 
4; 

Eipbth  sample  

7 

H 

ij 

4& 

Fourth  sample 

14 

4j 

]1 

5| 

jMllh  "ampin  

16 

4. 

Sixt  ii  sample 

20 

4. 

78 


COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


DOMINICA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  STEDMAN. 

Return  of  cottons,  woolens,  and  linens  imported  into  the  island  of  Dominica  during  the  year 
ending  3lst  December,  1688,  shoiving  the  value  and  places  from  whence  imported  and  duty 
paid  thereon. 


Whence  imported. 

Value. 

Whence  imported. 

Value. 

&       s.   d. 
12  073  19    3 

St  Thomas 

£     s.    d. 
414 

°97  17    7 

45  15    6 

8  18    5 

Trinidad 

40    5    4 

511    2    7 

1    0     i 

Martinique          .          ...          ....... 

6    3  10 

Moiitscrrat    ..  .  ....  . 

4    0 

374 

780    0    0 

Total 

13  786    9  11 

St.  Kitts           

13  14    8 

Duties  charged  thereon.  ..  

1,  606    4    6 

Cottons,  woolens,  and  linens  are  kept  under  one  head  at  the  custom- 
house. It  is  therefore  not  possible  to  obtain  a  separate  value  of  the 
cottons  imported,  or  the  quantity,  kinds,  or  weight  per  yard. 

WM.  STEDMAN, 

Comtuiar  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Dominica,  August,  1889. 


JAMAICA. 
REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  FORWOOD,  OF  KINGSTON. 

I  have  the  honor  to  report  upon  the  cotton  textiles  imported  into  this 
island,  viz : 

QUALITY  AND   KIND   IMPORTED. 
From  United  Kingdom „ $1, 518, 209. 28 


From  United  States 

From  foreign  states 

From  British  West  Indies 
From  Germany 


22, 179. 18 

1,016.74 

452. 98 

588.  66 


Total 1,542,446.84 

All  kinds  are  imported  from  Osnabnrgs  to  muslins  and  largfc  quanti- 
ties of  prints. 

WEIGHT. 

Weight  varies  from  6J  ounces  for  Osnaburgs  to  2§  ounces  for  mus- 
lins. No  positive  information  can  be  obtained  on  this  head,  as  the  cotton 
textiles  imported  here  are  very  numerous  and  textures  variable. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 
HOW  PURCHASED. 


79 


Purchased  through  agents  at  the  above-mentioned  countries,  and  in 
>ne  or  two  instances  English  houses  have  established  branches  in  this 
sland. 

PLACE   OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  goods  are  manufactured  at  and  imported  from  the  above-men- 
tioned countries. 
Duties  charged  thereon  12.J  per  cent. 

W.  PEPLOE  FORWOOD, 

Vice-  Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  June  IS,  1889. 


TRINIDAD. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SA  WYES. 
IMPORTS. 

The  quantity  of  cotton  textiles  not  being  given  in  any  one  of  the 
reports  of  this  Government,  and  to  obtain  it  from  the  books  of  the  im- 
porters here  being  impracticable,  the  correct  quantity  imported  can 
aot  be  given ;  but,  as  a  knowledge  of  the  approximate  amount  may  be  of 
some  value,  such  quantity  is  here  given  by  taking  the  correct  total 
rallies  of  all  woolens,  silks,  muslins,  and  cottons  as  a  base,  and  deduct- 
ing the  approximate  quantity  of  cotton  textiles  by  analogy. 

A  leaf  from  the  Trinidad  Blue-Book  for  1888  shows  the  following 
imports  of  textiles,  and  this  is  the  only  report  upon  imports  of  cotton 
textiles  published  by  the  Government: 

Imports  in  1888. 


Articles  and  whence  imported. 

Value. 

Articles  and  whence  imported. 

Value. 

Wrarinjr    apparel  and  haberdashery. 

£943  goa 

Wearing  apparel  and  haberdashery. 

£6 

l»ritii»u  West  Indies 

1  197 

10 

Kritinli  East  Indies 

208 

g 

JJr.ti.su*  Guiana 

30 

10 

French  West  Indies 

25 

United  States 

4  006  ' 

Venezuela         

340 

France 

11  331 

2  789 

Germany 

2  292 

Do      

326 

40 

British  West  Indies 

17 

Holland 

14 

Franco           

15 

Total  value  of  all  manufactured  texiles  imported  into  Trinidad  during 
the  year  1888  amounts  to  $1,295,476: 

The  average  estimate  of  ten  importing  firms  as  to  the  proportion  of 
cotton  textiles  imported  into  this  colony  during  1888,  to  the  amount  of 


80  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

all — including  silks,  muslins,  woolens,  wearing  apparel,  and  haberdash- 
ery— is  about  five-eighths,  or  $809,674;  number  of  yards,  11. 423,957,  being 
about  7.08  cents  per  yard.  The  kinds  of  cotton  textiles  imported  are 
printed  cottons,  long-cloths,  ducks  and  drills,  bed-ticks  and  shirtings, 
muslins,  Victoria-lawns,  fancy  dress  stuff's,  corduroy,  and  velveteens. 

WEIGHT. 

The  average  weight  of  white  cotton  textiles  is  found  to  be  2|  ounces, 
and  the  brown  cottoa  textiles  4£  ounces  per  yard. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Cotton  textiles  are  (like  many  other  kinds  of  goods)  purchased  by 
short  and  also  by  long  accounts.  The  short  account  is  cash,  which 
means  payment  in  15  to  30  days. 

The  long  account  is  for  six  months  or  one  year,  and  carries  interest 
at  5  per  cent,  in  England,  6  per  cent,  in  France,  6  per  cent,  in  Germany, 
and  6  per  cent,  in  the  United  States. 

As  a  rule  the  charges  for  buying  are  2|  percent,  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  and  the  United  States ;  but  there  are  exceptional  cases  where 
it  is  done  for  less,  according  to  the  amount  purchased  and  other  circum- 
stances. English  merchants  in  London  often  charge  their  clients  5  per 
cent.,  but  return  them  all  the  discounts,  that  are  generally  2  or  2  J  per 
cent. 

When  a  client  covers  the  indent  by  remittances  the  merchant  allows 
him  5  per  cent,  and  buys  the  goods  for  him  at  2J  per  cent. 

Some  firms  of  long  standing  get  credit  without  security,  but  as  a  rule 
the  loan  must  be  secured. 

Life  insurance  policies  are  much  used  as  securities  here  by  the  as- 
signment of  the  policies.  A  large  number  of  life  policies  have  been  ef- 
fected in  Trinidad  during  the  past  two  years,  in  the  New  York  Life,  New 
York  Equitable,  and  some  English  and  Canadian  companies. 

When  retailers  buy  of  importers  in  this  colony  (either  for  use  here,  or 
in  Venezuela  or  the  adjacent  islands)  it  is  done  at  ninety  days  without 
charge  of  interest  to  the  clients,  the  bank  discounting  the  notes  at  the 
lawful  interest  of  the  colony — 6  per  cent. — which  of  course  is  Against  the 
importers. 

There  are  sometimes  other  private  arrangements  made  between  men 
of  business,  but  what  I  have  written  is  the  general  custom  adopted  in 
Trinidad. 

PLACE   OF  MANUFACTURE. 

In  England  these  cotton  textile  manufactured  goods  are  produced 
in  Manchester,  and  they  are  imported  from  Liverpool  and  London;  in 
France  they  are  manufactured  in  Rouen,  and  shipped  at  Havre ;  in 
Germany  they  are  made  in  Dresden,  and  imported  from  Hamburg;  and 
jn.  the  United  States  £hey  are  manufactured  jnpstly  in  Waterbury^  Conn,, 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


81 


and  imported  from  New  York.  These  latter  goods  are  cotton  sail-cloth, 
in  which  article  the  Americans  supply  this  market  entirely,  the  goods 
being  held  in  very  high  estimation. 

DUTIES. 

The  import  duties  here  are  4  per  cent.,  excepting  for  a  small  por- 
tion (mentioned  above)  that  are  used  by  the  church,  the  Government, 
and  the  troops. 

MOSES  H.  SAWYER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Trinidad,  July  20,  1889. 


DANISH  WEST  INDIES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  TURNER,  OF  ST.  THOMAS. 

The  quantity  and  kind  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  the  Danish 
West  Indies  (St.  Thomas  and  Santa  Cruz)  can  not  be  ascertained  from 
the  custom-house  statements,  as  the  usual  yearly  reports  show  the 
value  only  in  bulk  of  each  class  of  goods.  The  weight  per  yard,  how 
purchased,  and  place  of  manufacture  are  not  given  either,  but  through 
the  courtesy  of  one  of  the  largest  (probably  the  largest)  importers 
here,  I  am  able  to  present  herewith  a  statement  showing  the  amount 
annually  imported  by  said  firm  during  the  past  two  years,  giving  these 
particulars ;  and  what  is  true  in  this  one  case  is  the  general  rule. 

IMPORTS. 

The  value  of  all  cotton  goods  imported  to  the  Danish  West  Indies  is 
as  follows  lor  the  fiscal  year  ended  March  31,  1889 : 


Imported  into. 

Whence  exported. 

Total 
value. 

Great 
Britain. 

United 
States. 

France. 

Germany. 

Italy. 

Other 
countries. 

St   Thomas 

$166,  408 

$8,580 

$4,250 

$8,639 

$140 

$179 
19,400 
31,197 

$188,  196 
19,400 
31,  197 

Fredericksted 

Chrititiansted 

Total 

4,250 

166,408 

8,580 

8,639 

140 

50,776 

238,  793 

There  is  no  method  of  determining  the  several  countries  from  which 
the  importations  to  Santa  Cruz  come,  as  the  custom-house  report  classi- 
fies them  as  coming  from  St.  Thomas,  Denmark,  and  foreign  countries. 
The  amount  imported  from  Denmark  is  only  $175.  It  is  estimated  by 


82 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


the  merchants  of  that  island  that  about  one-fifth  only  of  the  cotton 
textiles — about  $10,000  in  value — imported  thither  comes  from  the 
United  States ;  the  total  value,  as  can  be  ascertained  from  the  above 
tabulated  statement,  being  $50,597. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

The  purchase  is  always  made  through  commission  merchants. 

PLACE   OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  place  of  manufacture  is  Manchester,  England,  where  the  goods 
come  from  Great  Britain,  and  the  place  of  exportation  is  Liverpool. 
When  from  the  United  States,  the  place  of  exportation  is  New  York. 

DUTY. 

The  duty  on  cotton  goods  imported  to  St.  Thomas  is  2  per  cent.,  and 
to  Santa  Cruz  12J  per  cent. ;  in  each  case,  ad  valorem. 

MORTIMER  A.  TURNER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

8t.  Thomas,  August  1,  1889. 


Statement  of  annual  importation  of  cotton  textiles  imported  to  St.  Thomas  ly  one  firm,  shoiv- 
ing  class  of  goods,  width,  quantity,  weight  per  yard,  how  purchased,  and  where  manu- 
factured. 

[Manufactured  at  Manchester,  England.    Purchased  through  commission  merchant.    Duty,  2  per 

cent,  on  value.  J 


Class  of  cotton  textiles. 

Width. 

Quantity. 

Weight 
per 
yard. 

Shirtings                                          

Inches. 
25 
31 
33 
34 
38 
25 
28 
24 
28 
24 
28 
29 
30-31 
24 
23 
26 
26 

*>  5,  500  pieces,  40  to  50  yards  e|tch  .  .  . 

1 
>  1,200  pieces,  50  to  60  yards  each.. 

\  11.500  pieces,  26  to  30  yards  each  . 

1.300  pieces,  50  to  60  yards  each.  .  . 
350  pieces,  30  to  40  yards  each  
500  pieces,  30  to  40  yards  each  

Ounces. 
(      2* 
2f 

j  if 
1? 

1        5* 

I  3 
I  11 

I 

4* 

X)o                     

Do                                    .      .          

Do                            

Do 

Do 

Do           

Do    .                 .            

Prints  §                                                              

Do                      

Prints  $                                                              ... 

W^hite  cotton  checks                                   

Colored  cotton  checks              ..  

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  83 

FRENCH  WEST  INDIES. 

GUADELOUPE. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BARTLETT. 

On  the  receipt  of  circular,  I  immediately  addressed  myself  to  the  chief 
collector  of  customs  of  this  colony,  who  graciously  sent  me  all  the  in- 
formation it  was  in  his  power  to  give. 

His  reply  and  statistical  statement  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  here- 
with to  the  Department. 

I  will  endeavor  to  answer  the  interrogatories  above  mentioned  ac- 
cording to  the  best  information  I  have  obtained  from  the  collector  of 
customs  and  importers. 

There  has  been  imported  to  the  value  of  1,062,658  francs  worth,  during 
the  year  1888.  There  is  imported  of  all  the  kinds  that  are  manufactured 
in  France,  England,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland,  excepting  unbleached 
cotton. 

Most  every  kind  has  a  different  weight,  impossible  to  ascertain. 

Most  all  these  goods  are  purchased  in  France,  England,  Belgium,  and 
Switzerland,  on  credit,  mostly  through  merchants  in  Paris. 

The  greater  part  of  these  goods  is  manufactured  in  England  and 
France,  and  smaller  portion  in  Belgium  and  Switzerland.  Most  of  these 
goods  are  sent  to  France,  where  they  are  admitted  in  bond  and  re- 
shipped  on  board  the  French  transatlantic  steamers  for  this  colony.  A 
small  quantity  only  comes  direct  from  England  by  the  English  royal 
mail  steamers. 

Duties  charged  thereon  are  10  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

CHARLES  BARTLETT, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 
Guadeloupe,  August  8,  1889. 


Mr.  Laure  to  Consul  Bartlett. 

BASSE-TERRE,  July  9,  1889. 

Mr.  CONSUL:  lu  reply  to  your  honored  demand  of  the  2d  instant,  I  beg  to  point 
out  in  the  statement  hereunto  annexed,  all  concerning  the  introductions  of  cotton 
textiles  during  the  year  1888,  such  as  stated  by  the  commercial  balance  for  the  pres- 
ent year. 

The  customs  service  do  not  possess  informations  more  complete  than  these  on  the 
trade  of  cotton  textiles  in  the  colony,  but  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  France,  Eng- 
land, Belgium,  and  Switzerland  are  the  markets  from  which  all  the  products  of  that 
kind  are  imported. 

Please  accept,  Mr.  Consul,  the  assurance  of  my  most  distinguished  feelings. 

L.  LAUKE, 
The  Inspector,  Chief  of  Customs  Service, 


84 


COT  I  ON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
Cotton  fabrics  imported  into  Guadeloupe  in  1888. 


Articles. 

From  France. 

From   French 
warehouses. 

Directly  from  for- 
eign countries. 

Total. 

Quan- 
tities. 

Values. 

Quan- 
tities. 

Values. 

Quan- 
tities. 

Values. 

Quan- 
tities. 

Values. 

Madras  handkerchiefs  
Madapollan  handkerchiefs. 
Laces 

Pkys. 
676 
515 

Francs. 
9,698 
5,145 
36,  580 
48,  150 
7  867 

Pkgs. 
2,  056 
1,603 

Francs. 
2:$,  454 
15,  416 
705 
14,  338 

Pkgs. 
156 
62 

Francs. 
1,973 
536 

Pkgs. 

'2,  888 
2,  18n 

Francs. 
35,  125 
Si,  097 
37,  285 
65,  492 
11,  273 
1,062,658 

Hosiery,  etc       

3,004 

Oil-cloth 

1  988 

1,418 
124,  008 

Calicoes  cottonades  etc 

164,  491 

774,  159 

Basse-Terre,  July  9,  1889. 


L.  LAURE, 

Inspector,  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Customs. 


MARTINIQUE. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GARESOHB. 

In  reply  to  circular  of  the  Department  of  State,  bearing  postmark  of 
June  13  and  dated  May  27,  1889,  concerning  importation  of  cotton  text- 
iles, I  have  the  honor  to  inclose  herewith  translation  of  a  letter  from 
M.  Emile  Lefebvre,  chief  of  the  customs  service,  in  reply  to  my  com- 
munication to  the  administration  on  the  subject. 

WILLIAM  A.  GARESCHE, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Martinique,  July  19,  1889. 


M.  Emile  Lefebvre  to  Consul  Garesche. 

FORT-DE-FRANCE,  June  9, 1889. 
MONSIEUR  LE  CONSUL  :  In  conformity  to  instructions  of  the  director 
of  the  interior,  I  have  the  honor  to  furnish  you,  at  foot  hereof,  with 
two  points  of  information  which  you  have  asked  of  the  governor  under 
date  24th  June  (ultimo). 

(1)  There  were  imported  into  the  colony,  during  1888,  340,325  meters 
of  French  cotton  manufactured  stuifs  and  2,160,627  meters  of  foreign 
cotton  goods ;  total  importation,  2,735,068  yards. 

(2)  The  French  manufactured  stuffs,  in  pieces,  are  submitted  (or  are 
subject)  to  a  local  or  municipal  duty  as  follows  : 

Per  meter. 

Single  width francs..     0.116 

Double  width ..  ,...., 0,026 


Plus  20  per  cent,  additional  on  above, 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.         85 

The  foreign  cotton  stuffs  pay  independently  or  additionally  to  the 
duty  above  stated  a  customs  duty  (droits  de  douane)  as  follows: 

Per  meter. 

Single  width francs..       0.05 

Double  width 0.08 

LEFEBVRE. 


SAN  DOMINGO. 

PUERTO  PLATA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SIMPSON. 

In  answer  to  circular  of  May  27,  1889,  in  regard  to  cotton  textiles  im- 
ported into  this  district,  I  have  embodied  in  the  accompanying  table 
all  the  information  it  is  possible  to  obtain  on  the  subject.  It  has  been 
difficult  to  classify  the  articles  under  their  proper  heads,  as  I  am  not 
conversant  with  the  trade  names,  in  English,  of  some  of  the  articles, 
nor  are  any  of  the  mercha  nts ;  neither  is  the  tariff  any  guide,  as  there 
are  a  number  of  different  names  for  the  same  class  of  goods. 

The  weight  per  yard  is  never  declared  or  required,  as  duties  are 
based  on  width  and  apparent  fineness ;  each  3  inches,  in  excess  of  24, 
paying  one  or  more  cents  per  yard  additional,  according  to  class. 

On  goods  purchased  in  Europe,  merchants  are  allowed  a  credit  of  six 
months,  and  from  the  United  States  from  cash  to  two  months. 

Duties  are  specific  on  all  classes  of  cotton  textiles. 

THOS.  SIMPSON, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Puerto  Plata,  September  25, 1889. 


86         COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Cotton  textiles  imported  into  the  district  of  Puerto  Plata  during  year  1888. 


Articles. 

England. 

United  States. 

Germany. 

France. 

Total. 

Yards. 

Duties. 

Yards. 

Duties. 

Yds. 

Duties 

Yds. 

Duties. 

Yards. 

Duties. 

Bleached  cottons  : 
24-inch  

54,  728 

$1,  953.  75 

54,  728 
80,  081 
51,  642 
70,  130 
11,536 
1,430 
82,  798 

141,  437 
32,390 

36,  867 
18,  115 
720 
28,  324 
119,  169 

226,  842 
85,  995 

38,  021 
7,756 
668 
2,460 

102,299 
8,036 
6,976 

870,  577 
108,197 
24,  981 
4,100 

41,  678 
140,  082 
9,243 
14,  340 

$1,  953.  75 
3,267.30 
2,369.96 
3,  397.  79 
688.33 
116.  fll 
6,333.65; 

10,309.92 
2,477.83^ 

1,  316.  15  - 
7.,9.00 
33.00 
1,443.70  - 
6,  077.  60 

10,  412.  04 

4,378.45,, 

1,  692.  16 
395.55 
37.47 
175.64 

4,  113.  79 
368.  85 
3  5.90 

39,  959.  48 
6,  069.  & 
1,  656.  20 
376.  00 

1,  301.  00 
5,  000.  90 
377.  11 
877.60 

78,  202 
51,  642 
70,  130 
4,416 

3,  190.  64 
2,  369.  96 
3,  307.  79 
225.  21 

1,879 

$76.66 

30-inch  
33-inch  



•.  





36-inch.  
72-inch  

7,120 
1,430 
45,  375 

39,  750 
32,  390 

363.  12 
116.  68 
3,  470.  80 

2,  530.  87 
2,  477.  83 

Denims  

Drillings: 
27-inch  

37,  423 
95,  877 

2,  862.  85 
7,  334.  59 

5,810 

$444.46 

27-inch   (un- 
bleached) .  .  . 
Ginghams  : 
24-inch  

36,  867 
18,  115 
720 
24,  314 
119,  169 

222,  292 
77,844 

38,  021 
7,756 
668 

1,316.15 
739.  00 
33.00 
1,  239.  70 
6,  077.  60 

10,  203.  20 
3,  <J70.  04 

1,692.16 
395.  55 
37.47 

27-inch  

30-inch  . 

33-inch  

4,010 

204.  00 

Li  awn  a 

Muslin: 
24  inch  
27-inch 

4,"05i 

"263."  66 





4,550 
4,100 

208.84 
205.41 

Oxfords: 
27-inch  
30-inch  ^ 





33-inch  

38-inch 

2,460 

175.  64 

Plaids  : 
24-inch 

95,431 
8,036 
2,576 

444,  417 
107,  359 
24,  181 

3,  833.  58 
368.  85 
131.50 

20,  398.  74 
6,  022.  83 
1,  603.  20 

6,868 

$280.  21 

27-  inch  ...     . 

30-inch 

4,400 

224.  40 

Prints: 
24-inch  

426,  160 
838 

19,  560.  74 
47.00 

27-inch 

30-inch 

800 
4,100 

53.00 
376.  00 

38-inch  

Unbleached   cot- 
tons: 
24-inch 

25,  962 
34.  563 
9,243 

820.  00 
1,  233.  90 
377.  11 

15,  716 
105,  519 

481.00 
3,  767.  00 

27-inch 

30-inch... 

27-inch  (twld.) 
Total  

14,340 

877.  60 

1,  689,  952 

81,  828.  37 

698,  578 

34,  176.  30 

11,268 

504.61 

21,  820 

1,  463.  35 

2,421,618 

117,972.63 

SPANISH  WEST  INDIES. 

CIENFUEGOS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  EHNINGER. 

| 

I  have  spared  no  efforts  in  iny  endeavors  to  obtain  the  information 
asked  for  in  circular  of  May  27,  ultimo,  with  regard  to  the  importation 
of  cotton  textiles  into  this  consular  district,  but,  owing  to  various 
causes,  the  result  has  been  unsatisfactory.  As  a  general  rule,  statistics 
are  not  kept  in  this  colony,  and  to  obtain  them  in  any  public  or  private 
office  would  involve  a  research  which  none  are  willing  to  undertake,  nor 
will  they  permit  an  outsider  to  prosecute  such  an  undertaking  (from 
obvious  reasons).  The  custom-house  records,  the  same  as  those  of  im- 
porting houses,  are  incomplete  and  unreliable. 

I  have  the  honor  to  inclose  herewith  such  few  notes  as  I  have  been 
able  to  procure  from  the  two  principal  importing  dry-goods  houses  of 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


87 


this  city,  Don  Gregorio  Castelloand  Dem  CelistiueCaz^s,  who  do  four- 
fifths  of  the  importation  of  dry  goods  in  this  district. 

In  naming  the  goods  I  have  used  the  nomenclature  of  the  country  or 
assimilated  as  far  as  possible  to  our  goods.  The  equivalents  of  weights 
and  measures  are  well  known  to  the  Department. 

HENRY  A.  EHNINGER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Cienfuegos,  August  15,  1889. 


Approximate  calculation  of  the  amounts  of  cotton  textiles  most  in  demand  imported  dur- 
ing an  average  year  by  Don  Gregorio  Castello,  of  Cienfuegos. 


No. 

Duties 

Articles. 

Pieces. 

Con- 
tents of 

Weight 
per  yard. 

threads 
to  cen- 

Price per  yard. 

per  100 
kilo- 

Place  of  the 
manufactory. 

timeter. 

grams. 

Yards. 

Grams. 

"White  shirting  

4,000 
1,500 
2,500 
1  000 

36* 
30 
65-70 
30 

64 
50 
55 
00 

14-16 
10 
10 
10 

4*.  to  6*.  piece..  .. 
l$d.  per  yard  .... 
2d.  per  yard  

$21.00 
15.00 
26.00 
15  00 

Manchester.* 
Do. 
Do. 
Do 

Striped  shirtin"-..  .. 

White  sheetiu'7' 

4*.  piece 

Do           T. 

1,250 

30 

75 

16 

2Jo.  per  yard 

21.00 

Do. 

Printed  percales  (calico) 

2,500 

55-60 

90 

13-16 

10  cents  per  yard  . 

3.50 

Barcelona.! 

Dress  goods 

8,000 

65-70 

27 

12 

Hd  per  yard 

26.00 

Manchester. 

Do  . 

2,000 

65-70 

40 

14 

l\d.  per  yard 

31.50 

Do. 

Drills 

4,000 

30-35 

•no 

16  ceats  per  yard  . 

4.00 

Barcelona.! 

*  Imported  through  Liverpool,  England. 


t  Imported  through  Santander,  Spain. 


Amounting  to  1,039,000  yards  of  cotton  textiles  most  in  demand.  Duties  are  paid  on  weight,  100 
kilograms.  Terms  of  purchase,  four  months'  time  from  date  of  bill  of  lading ;  interest,  6  per  cent, 
per  month. 

CIEXFUEGOS,  August  10,  1889. 


Importation  of  cotton  textiles  during  an  average  year  ly  Celestim  Cozes  $  Co.,  of  Cien- 

fuegos. 

Value. 

Goods  wholly  cotton $115, 000  to  $120, 000 

Goods,  mixed  cotton 145,000  to    150,000 


2,350,000  yards 260, 000  to    270,000 

Weight  of  the  above  goods,  281,750  kilograms;  average  weight  per  yard,  120 
grams. 
Conditions  of  purchase,  four  months'  time  from  date  of  bill  of  lading. 

Places  of  manufacture  and  exportation. 

Barcelona $160,  000  to  $165, 000 

Manchester 85, 000  to     90,000 

Paris 10, 000  to      12,000 

NewYork 2,000to       2,500 

Amount  of  duties  charged  upon  the  above,  from  $5,900  to  $6,000.  The  $270,000 
value  oi  imports  corresponds  to  2,350,000  yards,  weighing  281,750  kilograms,  which, 
at  $21,  mean  of  duties  per  100  kilograms,  amounts  to  from  $5,900  to  $6,000.  Exporta- 
tion via  Liverpool,  England,  and  Santander,  Spain. 

CIENFUEGOS,  July  24,  1889. 


88  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA. 
REPORT  J5F  CONSUL  REIMER. 

In  making  a  report  on  cotton  textiles  in  this  consular  district  I  only 
refer  to  this  port  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  and  the  consular  agency  of 
Guantanamo.  The  Manzanillo  and  Santa  Cruz  agencies  derive  all  their 
supplies  of  cotton  goods  from  Havana. 

I  inclose  a  translation  of  the  Spanish  customs  tariff  now  in  force  in 
this  island  and  comprising  the  whole  section  of  cotton  textiles.  I  also 
add  to  this  translation  the  imports  into  this  port  during  the  current  years 
of  1887  and  1888.  These  statistics  I  obtained  from  the  local  custom- 
house, which  vouches  for  their  correctness  with  the  view  of  answering 
question  No.  2  of  circular.  I  attempted  to  acertain  the  weight  per 
yard  of  each  lot  imported,  but  found  this  an  absolute  impossibility,  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  of  so  many  different  weights  being  imported  under  one 
Rubric.  This  is  owing  to  the  mode  of  valuation  adopted  by  the  Spanish 
custom-house.  Importations  are  classed  by  the  number  of  threads 
they  contain  in  the  space  of  six  millimeters.  They  are  also  classed  by 
the  weave  of  the  fabric.  I  have  translated  the  terms  "  mano  y  liso" 
as  straight  threads  ;  this  means  an  even  weave  of  perpendicular  and  hor- 
izontal threads.  The  terms  "  cruzado,"  which  I  translate  as  "  crossed," 
means  an  irregular  weave,  the  differences  of  flag  being  obliterated  by 
our  treaty  with  Spain,  which  other  nations  under  the  most  favored 
nation  clause  have  also  claimed  and  obtained.  The  tariff  is  narrowed 
down  to  the  two  columns  of  "Spanish  manufactures"  and  u foreign 
manufactures."  Notwithstanding  the  undeniable  intention  and  pur- 
port of  article  5  of  the  treaty  of  January  2,  1884,  and  the  memorandum 
of  agreement  of  September  21,  1887,  to  place  our  manufactures  and 
products  exactly  on  the  same  footing  here  in  the  island  of  Cuba  as  Span- 
ish products  and  manufactures,  our  imports  of  cotton  textiles  are  forced 
to  pay  under  the  column  of  foreign  manufactures.  This  has  given,  and 
is  giving  more  and  more  (vide  statistics  of  exports  herewith)  an  impetus 
to  Spanish  manufactures,  which  no  doubt  will  eventually  drive  En- 
glish, French,  and  German  goods  out  of  this  market.  The  duties  on  for- 
eign manufactures  are  calculated  on  a  basis  of  29  per  cent,  ad  valorem, 
with  the  additional  20  per  cent,  for  certain  classes  of  goods,  bringing 
the  duties  up  to  very  nearly  36  per  cent,  ad  valorem.  Duties  on 
Spanish  manufactures  are  calculated  on  the  basis  of  10  per  cent.,  with 
the  additional  20  per  cent.,  as  explained  above. 

The  only  cotton  textile  imported  in  quantities  into  this  country  from 
the  United  States  is  cotton  canvas.  All  numbers  from  1  to  12  are 
imported.  The  ordinary  width  is  22  inches,  and  the  selling  price 
here  is :  No.  1,  45  cents  ;  No.  2,  43  cents ;  No.  3, 42  cents  ;  No.  4, 40  cents, 
etc.,  down  to  No.  12,  with  the  difference  of  2  cents  between  each  num- 
ber. These  quotations  are  in  Spanish  gold.  The  weights  it  is  unneces- 
sary to  give ;  suffice  it  to  say  No.  4  weighs  34  kilograms  per  100  yards. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


89 


To  intelligently  answer  your  query  No.  3, 1  send  you  herewith  a  list  of  the 
cotton  textures  mostly  used  here,  their  average  weight,  width,  and  mar- 
ket value  here.  I  also  send  some  samples  which  might  prove  of  interest. 

By  the  statistics  you  will  see  that  Spanish  and  English  manufactures 
have  entirely  crowded  us  out  of  the  market.  The  Spanish  manufactures 
do  so  owing  to  the  discrimination  made  in  the  tariff;  the  English  and 
French  manufactures  because,  notwithstanding  the  high  ocean  freights, 
they  can  be  put  on  this  market,  even  on  an  equal  base  of  import  duties, 
cheaper  than  our  manufactures.  This  is  claimed  by  importers  here. 
Then  again  the  importers  here  state  that  American  manufacturers  are 
not  willing  to  accommodate  them  by  selling  small  lots  of  different 
classes  and  patterns.  English  manufactures  sell  as  few  as  ten  pieces 
of  a  class  or  pattern.  The  goods  are  generally  purchased  at  net  prices, 
from  three  to  four  months  credit,  and  interest  at  the  rate  of  5  to  0  per 
cent,  per  annum,  from  time  of  shipment.  If  the  orders  pass  through  a 
commission  house  2J  per  cent,  is  generally  charged,  if  bought  direct  2J 
per  cent,  discount  is  given.  It  has  been  extremely  difficult  for  me  to 
translate  the  technical  Spanish  terms  into  the  technical  English  names 
for  them  on  account  of  my  not  being  familiar  with  the  details  of  the 
trade  in  cotton  textiles,  and  should  further  explanations,  be  necessary, 
I  will  be  happy  to  furnish  them. 

OTTO  E.  REIMER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  July  15, 1889. 


Translation  of  section  of  cotton   textiles  in  Spanish  customs  tariff  now  in  force  in  the 

Island  of  Cuba. 

fNos.  379  to  419  included.] 


No. 

379 

380 
3«1 

382 
383 
384 
385 

Group. 

Base  on  which  duty 
is  calculated. 

Spanish  manu- 
facture. 

Foreign    man- 
ufacture. 

Under 
Spanish 
flag- 

Under 
foreign 
flag. 

Under 

Spanish 
flag. 

Under 
foreign 
flag. 

KIR8T  GROUP. 

Texture,  straight   threads,   plaiii,    raw, 
white  or  dyed,  a*  Madapollara,  Rouen, 
blangnin,  calico,  nankeen,  silesia,  wrap- 
pings of  cotton  without  carding,  and 
other  analogous  textures  : 

Per  100  kilograms  .  . 
do 

$5.650 
7.900 
.121 

9.  750 
11.800 
.174 
.224 

$11.250 
15.750 

.278 

19.500 
23.650 
.401 
.516 

$15.00 
21.00 
.350 

26.00 
31.500 
.505 
.650 

$20.00 

2&oo 

.447 

34.  650 
42.00 

.045 
.830 

11  to  10  threads 

17  to  '•>o  threads 

Per  kilogram  
Per  100  kilograms  .. 

23  threads  up  (see  third  group). 

SECOND  GROUP. 

Texture,    straight    threads,    stamped, 
painted,    striped,    or   whose   threads 
were  dyed  before  weaving,   such  as 
chintz,  pe-cale,  figured  gros  detoni, 
haraga,    chiutz    striped,   and  similar 
textures  : 
Up  to  12  threads 

17  to  19  threads 

Per  kilogram  
do 

20  to  22  threads  . 

23  threads  up  (see  third  group). 

90  COTTON    TEXTILES    I  NT    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Translation  of  section  of  cotton  textiles  in  Spanish  customs  tariff,. etc. 


No 

Group. 

Base  on  which  duty 
is  calculated. 

Spanish  manu- 
facture. 

Foreign  maim- 
facture. 

Under 
Spanish 
flag. 

Under 
foreign 
flag. 

Under 
Spanish 
flag. 

Under 
foreign 
flag. 

386 
387 
388 
389 
390 
391 
392 
393 

394 

395 
396 

397 

398 

399 

400 
401 

402 

THIKD  GROUP. 

Textures,  light,  fine  or  ordinary,  be  they 
dense  or  light,  and   all  those  which 
contain  more  than  23  threads,  straight 
or  worked  on  the  loom,  bleached,  white, 
stamped,  or  dyed  as  muslin,  jaconet, 
organdi  and  cambric,  muslin  lining  : 
Up  to  8  threads 

Per  100  kilograms  . 
do 

$12.  00 
20.  550 
34.  300 
.412 
.515 
.686 
.857 

10  p.  ct. 

.345 
1.035 

.311 

.690 
.345 

.345 

7.500 
13.150 

$28.  00 
48.00 
80.00 
.900 
1.200 
1.600 
2.00 

23p.ct. 

.793 

2.380 

.714 

1.586 
.793 

.793 

15.00 
26.  250 

$35.  00 
60.00 
100.  00 
1.200 
1.500 
2.00 
2.500 

29p.ct. 

1.00 
3.00 

.900 

2.00 

1.00 

% 

1.00 

20.00 
35.00 

$43.00 
73.  700 
122.  850 
1.475 
1.843 
2.452 
3.072 

37p.ct. 

1.276 

3.828 

1.149 

2.552 
1.276 

1.276 

26.650 
-  46.  659 

9tol2  threads  

13  to  16  threads  

....do 

17  to  22  threads     

Per  kilogram  
...do 

23  to  28  threads  

29  to  34  threads  

do 

35  upwards  

do 

The  textures  contained  in  the  above  group 
embroidered  by  hand  or  on  the  loom  or 
adorned  by  appliqu6  work,  pay  accord- 
ing to  their  group  with  an  addition  of 
20  per  cent,  on  duties. 
The    same    textures,    embroidered  b^ 
hand  or  on  the  loom  or  adorned  with 
silk  or  wool,   the  twisted  wicks  for 
candles 

Ad  valorem  

FOURTH  GROUP. 

Tulles,  plain,  flowered,  or  embroidered, 
white  or  colored: 
Up  to  5  threads  

6  threads  upwards  

do 

FIFTH  GROUP. 

First  species. 
.Laces,  common  machine  worked 

Second  species. 

Laces,  of  lighter  material  or  not  contain- 
ing linen  and  the  borders  and  points 
plain,  worked,  or  embroidered,  white 
or  colored  

Per  kilogram 

Third  species. 

Netting,  in  pieces,  shawls,  large  or  small  ; 
adorned  on  top  and  other  forms  

Per  kilogram 

SIXTH  GROUP. 

First  species. 

Textures,    quilted,    plain,     or   worked 
piqu6,  white  or  colored  

Per  kilogram 

Second  species. 

Textures,  crossed  threads  or  like  serge, 
white,  stamped,  or  colored,  of  common 
kind,    as   ticking,  canvas,    or  cotton 
duck,  the  wicks  for  lamps,  and  others 
of  like   kind,    also    cotton  hose   (for 
liquids)  . 

Per  100  kilograms.  .  . 
Per  100  kilograms  .  .  . 

Third  species. 

Textures  of  superior  kind  to  the  preced- 
ing, as  drills,  flowered  weaving,  cotton 
damask,  such  as  German  cloth  and  calico 
and  Madapollam  of  crossed  threads  

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIi  91 

Translation  of  section  of  cotton  textiles  in  Spanish  customs  tariff,  etc.— Continued. 


No. 


4o:t 


404 


405 


406 


407 


Gronp. 


SEVENTH  GBOUP. 

Textures,  lueshed  ami  stockinnet,  in  un- 
dershirts, drawers,  socks,  and  stock- 
ings, gloves,  caps,  and  other  forms 

EIGHTH  GROUP. 

Textures,  carded,  cotton  velvet,  cotton 
plush,  and  carpet in^s  : 

First  tpecieg. 

Textures,  carded,  cotton  flannel,  shawls, 
blankets,  be  they  raw,  bleached,  or 
colored , 


Second  species. 

Textures,  velveteened,  as  corduroy,  be 
they  plain  or  worked 


Third  species. 

Textures  of  plush,  Brussels   carpets  in 
pieces,  shawls,  large  and  small 


Fourth  species. 

Textures  of  plush,  cut,  or  shaggy  cloth 
in  pieces,  and  towels,  such  as  Turk- 
ish towels  


409 


410 


NINTH  GBOUP. 
First  species. 

Ribbons,  narrow,  white  or  colored 
Second  spei  ies. 


Ribbons  of  other  kinds,  plain  or  worked, 
white  or  colored,  used  for  hat  ribbons 
and  adorning  of  dress,  be  they  of  vel- 
vet (cotton),  called  velveteen 


411 


412 
413 
414 
415 


Third  species. 
• 

Ribbons  of  other  kinds,  such  as  are  used 
for  loops  for  shoes  and  reins  for  horses 

TENTH  GROUP. 

First  species. 

Cotton  stuffs  in  pieces  or  detached,  with 
or  without  fringes,  but  without  hand 
work,  pay  as  per  preceding  group. 
( Handkerchiefs. ) 

Second  species. 

Cotton  stuff  hemmed  or  with  some  hand 
work  belong  to  the  above  groups  and 
pay  an  additional  20  per  cent,  on  the 
duty.  (Handkerchiefs.) 

Third  species. 

Stuffs  open-hemmed,  or  with  lace,  pay 
an  follows : 

Handkerchiefs  up  to  17  threads 

18  to  20  thtfeads 

21  to  22  threads 

23  threads  upwards 


Base  on  which  duty 
is  calculated. 


Per  100  kilograms. 


Per  100  kilograms. 

Per  kilogram 

Per  kilogram 


Per  kilogram 


Per  kilogram 


Per  kilogram 


Per  kilogram 


Per  kilogram 

...do 

...do 

...do... 


Spanish  manu- 
facture. 

Foreign  manu- 
facture. 

Under 
Spanish 
flag. 

Under 
foreign 
flag. 

Under 
Spanish 
flag. 

Under 
foreign 
flag. 

$48.  7fX) 

$97.500 

$130.  00 

$173.  350 

7.500 

15.00 

20.00 

26.650 

.207 

.476 

.600 

.760 

.250 

.575 

.725 

.925 

.155 

.357 

.450 

.574 

.113 

.225 

.     .300 

.400 

.345 

.793 

1.00 

1.276 

.132 

.263 

.350 

.476 

.449 

.655 
.880 
1.311 

1.031 
1.507 
2.023 
3.014 

1.300 
1.900 
2.550 
3.800 

1.659 
2.424 
3.254 

4.849 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


No. 


416 


417 


418 
419 


I  Spanish  manu- 

Foreign  manu- 

tacture. 

facture. 

Group. 

Base  on  which  duty 
is  calculated. 

Under 

Under 

Under 

Under 

Spanish 

foreign 

Spanish 

foreign 

flag. 

flag. 

flag. 

flag. 

ELEVENTH  GROUP. 

Ready-made  clothing  in  general  pays  ac- 
cording to  the  textures  of  this  section, 

with  an  additional  100  per  cent,  on  the 

duty.    The  counting  or  the  number  of 

threads  in  shirts  will  he  made  on  the 

bosoms,  collars,  and  cuffs. 

Shirts  of  cotton,  with  bosom,  collar,  and 

cuffs   of    linen,  pay  as  liuen  textiles 

with  the  additional  50  per  cent,  on  the 

duty  on  linen  in  the  same  manner  as 

demands  the  foregoing  number  (416), 

just  as  if  they  contained  no  cotton. 
Umbrellas  and  sunshades,  of  cotton  

Per  dozen  .-, 

$0.  450 

$0.900 

$1.  200 

$1.  600 

Textiles  with  base  of  elastic,  called  cot- 

ton elastic  

Per  kilogram 

.300 

.600 

.800 

1.067 

(')  The  number  of  threads  in  valuing  cotton  textiles  are  counted  in  the  space  of  six  milli- 
meters. 

(2)  Doubts  are  decided,  should  the  textiles  contain  a  thread  more  in  the  space  above  men- 

tioned, in  favor  of  the  importer. 

(3)  Percale,  scarlet,  pays  according  to  the  second  group. 

(4)  Also  poplin. 

(5)It  is  decided  that  cotton  shawls  the  texture  of  which  is  of  crossed  threads  and  of  light 

damask  only,  marked  on  one  side,  pay  according  to  No.  402. 
(G)  Shawls  or  blankets  bound  with  tape  or  ribbon  pay  according  to  No.  404,  without  the  20 

per  cent,  additional. 


Imports  of  cotton  textiles  from  Barcelona,  Spain,  to  Santiago  de  Cuba  during  the  years  1887 

and  1888. 


Kind  of  goods. 

Weight. 

Duties  paid 
in  Spanish 
gold. 

Textures,  10  threads  

Kilograms. 
33  934 

$1  190  49 

Shirts  

1  604 

*111  72 

Up  to  16  threads  

26  787 

1  346  09 

Drawers  

1  959 

t!86  78 

Up  to  22  threads  

27 

2  13 

Dyed,  12  threads  

4  415 

280  50 

Plain.  16  threads  

1  240 

179  61 

Shirts  

270 

*41  61 

Dyed,  19  threads  

692J 

77  93 

24  threads  in  shirts  ;  

64 

*43  05 

Awning  ticking  

12  154 

550  77 

Handwork  

50 

t2  95 

Crossed  threads  

12  033 

*    1  186  17 

The  same  i  n  trousers  

567 

t61  09 

Meshed  and  stockinnetted  t... 

4  334£ 

1  488  10 

Blankets  

20  140 

997  15 

Counterpanes  

103 

6  05 

Total  

121  374 

7  745  19 

*  This  lot  pays  50  per  cent,  additional,     t  This  lot  pays  20  per  cent,  additional. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


93 


imports  of  cotton  textile*  from  the  United  States  to  Santiago  de  Cuba  during  the  years  1887 

and  1888. 


Kind  of  good  ». 

Weight. 

Duties  paid 
in  Spanish 
gold. 

New  York  : 
Textures  10  threads                  .                ..  ...       .                                   4 

Kilograms. 
41 

$7.31 

g 

2  48 

8  543 

2  027.56 

Philadelphia: 
Textures  8  threads 

16 

5  58 

Total 

8  606 

2  042  93 

Imports  of  cotton  textiles  from  Havre,  France,  to  Santiago  de  Cuba  during  the  years  1887 

and  1888. 


Kind  of  goods. 

Weight. 

Duties  paid 
in  Spanish 
gold. 

Embroidery,  lace: 

Kilograms. 
485 

*$303  67 

370 

*166  68 

8  threads 

19 

7  90 

Handkerchiefs  hemmed  22  threads 

H 

*9  41 

Embroidery  24  threads                 .                    ..        ..          .. 

20 

*42.  75 

Textiles  crossed  threads  

18 

7.48 

Shawls 

17 

9  33 

Total 

934i 

547  22 

*  This  lot  pays  an  additional  20  per  cent. 


Imports  of  cotton  textiles  from  St.  Thomas,  West  Indies,  to  Santiago  de  Cuba  during  the 

years  1887  and  1888. 


Kind  of  goods. 

Weight. 

Duties  paid 
in  Spanish 
gold. 

Textures,  embroidered,  16  th 
Textures,  light,  2'J  threads  . 

reads       .  ..  ...........  ............ 

Kilograms. 
181 
39 
498 
328 
360 

*$90.64 
55.59 
206.98 
*163.  56 
555.30 

Handkerchiefs,  crossed  thres 
Textures,  meshed  and  stocki 

Total   

ids 

1,406 

1,  072.  07 

*  This  lot  pays  an  additional  20  per  cent. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Imports  of  cotton  textiles  from  Liverpool,  England,  to  Santiago  de  Cuba  during  the  years 

1887  and  1888. 


Kind  of  goods. 

Weight. 

Duties  paid 
in  Spanish 
gold. 

Textures  10  threads         

Kilograms. 
698 

$124  33 

AVhite   10  threads                t 

7  1554 

1  274  32 

^V^hite  16  threads                 .                              ....            .... 

6*636 

1  681  49 

113 

*33  81 

Embroidery  up  to  16  threads                        .              . 

3  315 

*1  652  65 

Handkerchiefs  ^hemmed,  basted)  

104 

'*51  88 

Textures  dyed  12  threads 

2  503 

970  94 

2  999 

1  191  75 

279 

t!22  09 

Li  <r  lit  texture         

387 

159  43 

80 

*39  90 

Texture  8  threads     .            .  .  ... 

103 

85  61 

239 

283  80 

Confections  of  cotton 

41 

10  68 

Textures,  22  threads  

5 

7  12 

Embroideries  22  threads 

170 

*324  91 

Embroideries,  28  threads  

31 

*6  85 

Baby  frocks  embroidered 

377 

+13g  03 

Cotton  drill  

21 

24  92 

419 

447  81 

Light  

2064 

490  86 

Netting  

•       754i 

895  97 

Crossed  threads 

580 

137  74 

Superior  ..          ... 

182 

f53  41 

Textures,  meshed  and  stockinnetted  

597A 

916  30 

Carded     

826 

196  23 

Textures,  velveteen  

102 

72  96 

Plush  

55 

29  40 

Shawls  .  .. 

4  797 

1  992  86 

Total  

33  704 

13  348  05 

*  These  pay  an  additional  20  per  cent. 
tThis  lot  pays  an  additional  50  per  cent. 
jThis  lot  pays  ad  valorem  duties. 

Imports  of  cotton  textiles  from  Glasgow.  Scotland,  to  Santiago  de  Cuba  durinn  the  years 

1887  and  1888. 


Textures,  white  : 
10  threads 

Kilograms. 
30  831 

$5  500  70 

16  threads  .   . 

40  583 

10  120  52 

190 

*59  25 

Handkerchiefs  hemmed  16  threads 

312 

t93  37 

Embroideries,  up  to  22  threads......  .. 

2  390 

*1  191  99 

Stamped  calicoes  12  threads 

8  825 

2  465  38 

Do  

13  249 

4  955  93 

Hemmed  handkerchiefs  16  threads 

417 

*187  17 

Hemmed  handkerchiefs  22  threads 

78 

*72  25 

Textures,  light,  8  threads  

443 

184  87 

Embroidered  8  threads 

369 

*184  04 

Embroidered,  up  to  12  threads  

448 

319  19 

Embroidered  up  to  22  threads 

136 

179  54 

Embroidered  

3 

*          5  35 

Tulles,  28  threads 

21 

t44  83 

Textures  without  "  aplicacion  " 

254 

+39  25 

Drill    

29 

27  37 

Plain  lace,  stamped  and  machine  worked 

046 

690  4,0 

Light  

3844 

91l'4"0 

Ghents,  light,  5  threads 

179 

"12  55 

Calico  

1  293 

300  66 

Counterpanes,  w.    handwork  . 

111 

*31  66 

Drill  

7  838 

3  257  26 

Handkerchiefs,  w.,  handwork  

874 

*43  65 

Textures,  meshed  and  stocking  netted,  drawers,  undershirts,  stockings  
Blankets  

561 
2  579i 

865.  33 
643  26 

Velveteen  .    ,     . 

279 

198  77 

Turkish  towels     

670 

358  02 

Textures,  up  to  16  threads  . 

350£ 

416  21 

Total  

113  550 

33  580  19 

*  This  lot  pays  additional  20  per  cent, 
t  This  lot  pays  additional  50  per  cent. 
\  This  lot  pays  ad  valorem. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  95 

Resume1  of  imp  trt*  of  cotton  textiles  into  Santiago  do  Cuba  during  the  yect rs  1887  and  1888. 


Where  from. 

Weight. 

• 
Duties  paid   f 
in  Spanish 
gold.          1 

Kilograms. 
8  606 

$f)  042  93 

121  374 

7  745  19 

Frauce                  ..                  

934$ 

547  ^2 

St   Thomas 

1  406 

1  079  07 

England                       .....                     .  .                                 ... 

33  '"0* 

13  348  05 

113  550 

33  580  17 

Total 

279  574i 

58  335  63 

Explanation  accompanying  samples  of  the  cotton  textiles  principally  sold  in  this  province  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba;  their  weight,  purchase,  and  selling  price,  and  origin. 


Num- 
ber. 

Weight,            Per— 

Purchase  price. 

Selling  price  here  pei 
Spanish  yard. 

•      Manufact- 
ured in  — 

1 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

Kilograms. 
4,  300     70  meters 
6,  260     70  meters 
1,900     40  yards.. 
1,185     40  yards.. 
'2,870     40  yards.. 
2,102     40  'yards  . 
2,500     61  yards.. 
1,220     40  yards.. 
2,320     40  yard  s. 
2,600     68to70yai 
4,  l.r>3     ,00  riN-M-rs 
2,150     68to70vai 
8,  200     68  meters 
7.200  !  40  yards.. 
3,  388     40  yards  . 
4,  300  1  70  meters 

ds 
ds 

1.12  reales  vellon  per  meter.  .  . 
1.50  reales  vellon  per  meter... 
4*  fid  per  yard 

7a  cents 

Spain 

9  J  cents  

Do. 

$''£  per  40  yards 

England 

4s.  10d.  per  yard  .....   ... 

5  cents  yard 

Do. 

5s.  lOd.  per  yard  
8s  4kd  per  yard 

$2.75  per  40  yards 
$3.  75  per  40  yards 
5  cents  per  ;  ard  .  . 
4|  cents  per  yard. 
9  cents  per  yard  .  . 
7  cents  per  yard  . 
18  cents  per  yard. 
4  J  cents  per  yard  . 
8£  cents  per  yard. 
13  cents  per  yard  . 
$3.50  per  40  yards 
9  cents  per  yard  .  . 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
France. 
England. 
Spain. 
Do. 
England. 
Spain. 

3*  8^<i  per  yard 

%f$d.  per  yard      

Id'  per  yard 

0.54  francs  per  meter 

1  -\^d*  per  yard  

1.30  reales  vellon  per  meter.  .  . 
1  .90  reales  vellon  per  meter  .  .  . 
7*  Id  per  40  yards 

1.30  reales  vellon  per  meter.  .  . 

Should  samples  of  cotton  undershirts,  stockings,  and  drawers  be  desired  they  can 
be  obtained  at  an  outlay  of  about  $10.  To  secure  samples  of  cotton  laces  and  piece 
goods,  blankets,  counterpanes,  velveteens,  etc.,  a  similar  outlay  would  have  to  be  in- 
curred. Suffice  it  to  say,  all  goods  of  light  texture  and  low  prices  are  salable  here,  and 
owing  to  enormous  difference  in  weights,  it  is  impossible  to  give  the  weights  per  yard 
you  desire. 


CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 

BRITISH  INDIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  BONEAM,  OF  CALCUTTA. 

After  considerable  unavoidable  delay  I  now  have  the  honor  to  submit 
the  following  report  upon  the  cotton  textiles  imported  into  British 
India,  as  called  for  in  your  circular  letter  of  date  the  27th  of  May  last. 

The  annexed  table  marked  A  shows  the  quantities  and  kinds  of  cotton 
goods  imported  for  the  past  five  years  up  to  March  31,  1888,  as  well  as 
the  values  thereof. 

WEIGHT  PER  YAED. 

Under  this  heading  I  submit  the  inclosed  very  full  and  complete  "state- 
ment showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta  each  month  from  1883 
to  1888,  inclusive,"  which  was  kindly  furnished  me  by  George  Henderson, 
esq.,  of  the  large  mercantile  firm  of  George  Henderson  &  Co.,  of  this  city. 
This  statement,  I  apprehend,  contains  a  lot  of  information,  not  only  as  to 
the  weight,  but  as  to  the  different  kinds  of  cotton  piece  goods  which 
are  in  demand  in  this  market,  which  will  be  of  special  interest  to  the 
cotton  manufacturers  and  merchants  of  the  United  States. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

A  credit  of  forty-five  days  is  usually  extended  to  the  Calcutta  pur- 
chaser of  cotton  piece  goods,  with  a  rebate  of  1J  per  cent,  for  cash. 

The  annexed  table  marked  B  gives  the  place  of  manufacture  and 
whence  imported. 

DUTIES  CHARGED  THEREON. 

There  is  no  duty  in  British  India,  either  upon  raw  or  manufactured 
cotton  goods. 

COTTON  CULTIVATION. 

In  this  connection  it  would  probably  be  of  interest  to  give  a  brief 
summary  of  cotton  cultivation  and  manufacture  in  British  India. 

For  the  year  1886-'87  (the  latest  reported)  I  find  that  the  acreage  un- 
der cultivation  in  cotton  was  14,532,513,  and  the  outturn  therefrom  of 
cleaned  cotton  was  818,058,848  pounds,  or  nearly  57  pounds  to  the  acre. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  97 

COTTON-MILrLS. 

There  were  97  cotton  mills  at  work  in  India  in  1887-'88,'  containing 
18,840  looms  and  2,375,739  spindles.  They  consumed  about  283,000,000 
pounds  of  cotton  during  the  year,  and  employed  a  daily  average  number 
of  80,515  operatives,  of  whom,  as  far  as  details  have  been  obtained, 
there  were  46,406  men,  15,057  women,  12,403  young  persons,  and  2,949 
children. 

The  aggregate  capital  of  said  mills  is  about  100.000,000  rupees, 
equal,  at  the  present  rate  of  exchange,  to  $32,300,000. 

Of  the  97  mills  there  are  72  in  the  Bombay  Presidency,  of  which  50 
are  in  the  town  and  island  of  Bombay  itself.  There  are  6  mills  in  the 
province  of  Bengal,  all  in  the  vicinity  of  Calcutta.  In  the  Madras 
Presidency  there  are  6  mills,  4  of  which  are  in  the  town  of  Madras ; 
there  are  5  in  the  northwest  provinces,  all  at  Cawnpoor;  one  at  Indore, 
3  in  the  central  provinces ;  3  in  Hyderabad,  and  1  in  Mysore. 

The  oldest  of  the  Bombay  mills  was  established  in  1851,  and  between 
that  date  and  1870  there  were  but  7  mills  established.  By  1875  there 
were  22  mills  at  work,  and  18  more  were  added  between  that  year  and 
1880;  10  more  were  started  in  1881,  18. between  {hat  year  and  1886,  4 
in  1887,  and  2  in  January,  1888.  The  last  fourteen  years  have  seen  the 
creation  of  57  of  the  72  mills  -now  working  in  Bombay. 

In  Calcutta  the  oldest  mill  dates  from  1864,  and  in  Madras  from  1874. 

Thus  it  will  be  observed  that  cotton  manufacturing  in  India  is  what 
might  be  termed  an  "infant  industry,"  although,  as  I  view  it,  owing  to 
the  cheapness  of  labor  in  this  country  and  to  the  proximity  of  manu- 
factured goods  to  the  great  markets  of  the  East,  British  India  will  in 
the  near  future  become  a  very  formidable  competitor  with  Europe  and 
America  in  the  cheap  production  of  cotton  fabrics. 

Bearing  upon  this  point,  I  submit  the  following  extract  from  the 
Daily  Englishman,  of  this  city,  of  recent  date: 

ENGLISH   VS.    INDIAN  COTTONS. 
[From  the  Calcutta  Daily  Englishman.  1 

How  formidable  a  competitor  with  Lancashire  Bombay  has  now  become  is  shown 
by  the  returns  of  the  annual  export  of  cotton  twist  and  yarn  from  India.  During 
1888-'39  the  shipments  reached  the  large  total  of  129,000,000  pounds,  representing  a 
value  of  5,250,000  crores  of  rupees.  Nearly  the  whole  of  these  large  exports  went  to 
China  and  Japan,  to  whose  ever-increasing  demands  the  remarkable  growth  of  this 
branch  of  our  foreign  trade  is  entirely  due.  In  the  last  seven  years  the  total  value 
and  quantity  of  the  twist  and  yarn  shipped  from  this  country  has  quadrupled,  while 
in  th«?  same  period  our  imports  of  cotton  twist  and  yarn,  now  valued  at  3f  crores, 
have  increased  by  only  30  per  cent,  in  quantity  and  16  per  cent,  in  value.  There 
can  no  longer  be  a  doubt  that,  as  regards  these  articles,  the  Indian  mills  are  destined 
to  ultimately  oust  Lancashire  manufacturers  from  Eastern  markets.  As  regards  piece 
goods,  however,  India,  though  slowly  increasing  her  production  and  shipments,  can 
not  yet  be  said  to  have  seriously  entered  into  competition  with  home  manufacturers. 
At  the  present  time  Bombay,  not  less  than  Lancashire,  is  feeling  the  effects  of  a  de- 
008A 7 


98  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

pression  in  the  cotton  industry,  and  in  both  short-time  working  is  being  resorted  tc 
or  proposed,  with  the  object  of  checking  production  and  restoring,  if  possible,  the 
margin  of  profit  which  has,  of  late,  entirely  disappeared  or  greatly  dwindled.  The 
depression  should,  however,  only  be  temporary  in  India,  which  possesses  many  ad- 
vantages over  Lancashire  in  supplying  Eastern  markets.  Each  year  shows  morti 
clearly  how  well  founded  is  the  concern  with  which  Manchester  regards  the  develop- 
ment of  the  manufacturing  industries  of  Bombay,  and  the  half-dozen  new  mills  which 
are  about  to  start  working  in  the  Western  Presidency  will,  even  at  this  unpromising 
time,  prove  more  dangerous  to  English  manufacturers  than  to  their  neighbors. 

PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  INDIA'S  COTTON  TRADE. 

Some  light  is  thrown  on  the  present  condition  of  the  trade  in  cotton 
goods  in  this  part  of  India  by  the  following  extracts  which  I  copy  from 
the  annual  statement  of  the  sea  borne  trade  and  navigation  of  the 
Bengal  Presidency  for  the  official  year  1888-'89 : 

The  importation  of  cotton  goods  was  much  larger  in  the  past  year  as  compared 
with  1887-'88  and  the  figures  are  the  highest  yet  reached. 

Gray  cotton  piece  goods  advanced  by  74,500,000  yards  with  an  increased  value  of 
11£  lakhs  of  rupees;  (a  lakh  of  rupees  is  100,000  and  for  practical  purposes  3  rupees 
equal  $1*).  White  piece  goods,  by  28,500,000  yards  and  45  lakhs.  Colored  printed  or 
dyed  piece  goods  by  19,000,000  yards  and  about  32  lakhs,  against  a  decline  of  about  1 J 
lakhs  in  other  cotton  goods.  Yarns,  gray  and  white,  turkey  red,  and  other  colors, 
show  a  small  decline  of  about  400,000  pounds  in  quantity,  and  slightly  over  a  £  lakh 
of  rupees  in  value.  * 

It  would  seem  doubtful,  however,  whether  this  large  trade  has  been  profitable  to 
either  manufacturers  or  importers.  In  Lancashire  spinners  have  done  comparatively 
well,  while  manufacturers  have  fared  badly. 

The  previous  year  was  a  fairly  good  one  for  the  latter,  and  as  a  consequence  there 
was  an  increase  in  the  number  of  looms,  followed  of  course,  by  an  advance  in  pro- 
duction. In  the  past  year  spinners  have  obtained  better  prices  for  their  production 
while  manufacturers  have  been  unable  to  obtain  a  corresponding  advance  for  the 
manufactured  article.  The  spinners  too  bad  to  cope  with  small  supplies  of  cotton 
during  the  latter  half  of  the  year,  and  the  consequent  rise  in  the  prices,  besides  which 
they  had  to  concede  an  increase  in  wages  to  their  operatives. 

The  quality  of  the  American  cotton  was  not  up  to  the  average,  and  to  keep  the 
quality  of  their  yarn,  higher  grades  had  to  be  used  than  formerly.  Speakiug  gener- 
ally, the  trade  for  the  year  has  not  been  satisfactory  to  either  spinners  or  manufact- 
urers. 

EUROPEAN  VS.   AMERICAN   COTTONS   IN  INDIA.  ^ 

In  this  connection  I  will  take  occasion  to  say  that  it  is  generally 
understood  that  American  cotton  is  of  longer  staple  and  materially 
superior  to  that  grown  in  India,  and  the  American  manufacturers  of 
cotton  piece  goods,  so  far  as  they  have  been  introduced  here,  are  gen- 
erally conceded  to  be  of  superior  quality  to  Manchester  goods. 

The  "Pepperell  drills  "found  their  way  into  India,  and  are  held  in 
high  repute  for  their  superior  durability.  They  are  used  principally  for 
men's  and  boys'  every -day  summer  clothing. 

Mr.  Foster,  my  vice  and  deputy  consul-general,  who  is  a  merchant  in 


*  A  rupee,  Treasury  valuation,  32.3  cents. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IX  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        99 

business  here,  has  at  my  request  favored  me  with  some  observations  on 
the  subject  under  review,  which  I  submit  in  conclusion,  as  follows : 

VICE-CONSUL  FOSTER'S  REPORT. 

Sheetings  and  shirting*  are  uo\v  almost  entirely  European.  American  goods  for- 
merly eame  here  and  were  very  much  liked,  but  for  some  unknown  reason  they  have 
stopped.  Have  no  doubt  they  could  again  be  introduced,  but  it  takes  time. 

I  trills. — Drills  are  largely  used.  The  Pepperell  mills  from  America  are  the  stand- 
ard for  this  class  of  goods.  They  are  imported  largely  and  arc  known  all  over  India. 
They  have  such  a  good  name  that  the  mark  is  closely  imitated  by  some  English  man- 
ufacturers. Other  American  brands  of  good  quality  could  no  doubt  be  introduced  if 
properly  persevered  in. 

Dholies. — The  cloths  used  by  the  natives  are  imported  in  immense  quantities,  and 
it  seems  as  if  America  might  supply  a  portion.  There  are  many  qualities  imported,  at 
a  large  range  of  prices.  The  low  qualities  are  made  from  a  cheap  cotton,  loosely 
woven  and  heavily  sized.  The  good  qualities  worn  by  the  higher  classes  are  much 
more  closely  woven,  of  finer  yarn,  and  are  almost  free  from  sizing.  All  these  gdbds 
come  in  pairs,  but  uncut.  There  is  a  stripe  ou  each  selvage,  sometimes  plain,  vary- 
ing from  one-half  to  three-fourths  inch  wide.  There  is  also  a  narrow  border  across 
the  ends  and  across  the  uncut  joining  of  the  pair. 

The  poorest  quality  comes  4  yards  per  pair,  21  inches  wide,  sixty -four  and  seventy- 
two  threads  to  the  inch,  and  sells  at  present  for  about  9  cents  per  pair.  From  this 
they  vary  in  size,  quality,  and  price  up  to  a  fine  quality  that  comes  10  yards  per  pair, 
44  inches  wide,  eighty-eight  and  ninety-six  threads  to  the  inch,  and  sells  for  about 
64  to  65  cents  per  pair.  Buyers  are  very  particular  as  to  the  count  of  the  threads, 
but  no  stipulation  of  weight  is  made,  and  of  course  they  are  quite  light.  There  are 
some  qualities  even  finer  than  the  last  mentioned,  but  they  do  not  sell  very  freely. 
All  these  goods  are  consumed  entirely  by  natives,  and  they  must  be  made  strictly  to 
conform  to  their  requirements  as  to  size,  thread,  width,  and  color  of  border,  and  style 
of  packing.  They  all  come  unbleached,  packed  in  iron-bound  bales,  varying  from 
two  hundred  to  four  hundred  pieces  per  bale. 

To  introduce  any  of  the  above  goods  requires  time  and  perseverance.  The  native  is 
very  conservative  and  is  very  slow  to  take  up  a  new  brand  of  any  goods,  but  when 
once  established  a  well-known  mark  will  sell  for  months  ahead.  Some  attempts  have 
been  made  from  time  to  time  to  introduce  brands  of  American  drills  and  shirtings,  but 
the  shippers  have  been  discouraged  by  the  slow  sales  and  poor  prices  and  have  dropped 
it  before  the  goods  were  well  known.  Any  such  new  goods  are  sure  to  pay  a  loss  at 
first,  but  when  well  known  will  command  a  paying  price.  Many  Americans  have  the 
idea  that  this  market  may  be  made  to  take  surplus  goods  that  have  gone  out  of  date  in 
the  home  markets,  or  goods  of  which  there  happens  to  be  an  overstock  at  home.  But 
this  is  a  mistake;  the  native  will  not  take  anything,  no  matter  how  cheap,  if  it  is  not 
exactly  according  to  his  requirements.  Neither  is  it  any  use  to  try  to  unload  surplus 
stocks  of  shirtings  and  sheetings  on  this  market  and  then  not  ship  any  more  for 
months,  or  perhaps  years,  thus  giving  the  brand  time  to  be  forgotten. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  superior  quality  of  American  cottons  gives 
them  u  preference  here  after  they  have  become  well  known,  and  should 
enable  American  mills  to  do  a  good  business  in  this  country.  Prices  at 
present  are  very  low,  so  low,  indeed,  that  Manchester  is  unable  to  sell, 
but  that  will  be  remedied  as  trade  improves. 

B.  F.  BONHAM, 

Consul- General, 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Calcutta,  September  14,  1889. 


100       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

A. — Quantity  and  kind  of  cotton  textiles  importedper  annum. 
QUANTITY. 


1883-'84. 

1884-'85. 

1885-'86. 

1886-'87. 

1887-'88. 

Yarns  and  textile  fabrics  : 

Twist  and  yarn..  pounds.. 

45,  378,  956 

45,  799,  637 

45,  915,  123 

49,013,979  |        51,542,549 

Manufactures,  pieoe  goods: 

Gray  (unbleached)  .yards..  -1,  079,  938,  865 

1,138,343,726    1,105,844,908 

1,356,278,808     1,180,175,270 

White  (bleached)   ...do...|    342,376,839 

277,  875,  450 

279,  123,  208 

387,101,415  !       320,463,785 

Colored,  printed,  or  dyed                        , 

yards..      299,536,491 

315.  345,  829 

355,  845,  715 

412,  036,  168         339,  102,  827 

Handkerchiefs  and  shawls 

in  piece  No  .  . 

17,  001,  262 

13,  997,  942 

17,  928,  893 

16,  449,  480 

16,  449,  480 

Other  sorts  yards  .  . 

162,  133 

186,  981 

310,  583 

293,  994 

293,  994 

1 

VALUES. 


Yarns  and  textile  fabrics  : 
Twist  and  yarn..  pounds.. 
Manufactures,  pieco  goods: 
Grey  (unbleached).  yards.. 
White  (bleached)..  '..do  .. 
Colored,  printed,  or  dyed 

$11,  553,  14'} 

39,  996,  969 
15,101,025 

15  5°0  217 

$11,  201,  398 

40,  921,  335 
12,328,233 

15  733  948 

$10,  573,  610 

39,  655,  612 
11,889,110 

17  110  212 

$11,  061,  256 

48,  673,  668 
15,871,796 

20  007  184 

$11,  939,  687 

44,  338,  443 
15,  429,  491 

14  292  771 

Handkerchiefs  and  shawls 
in  piece       .  ...     ..No 

742,  298 

677,  593 

739,  925 

613,  886 

698  897 

Other  sorts  yards  .  . 

29,  180 

32,  061 

53,  559 

50,  160 

57,  571 

B. — Place  of  manufacture  and  whence  imported. 


Quantities. 

Value. 

Quantities. 

Value. 

Yarns  and  textile  fab- 
rics, twist  and  yarn  : 
United  Kingdom... 

Pounds. 
50  728,356 

$11  722  435 

Piece  goods,  etc.  —  con- 
tinued. 
Austria  

Yards. 
1  057,401 

$112  104 

574  440 

157  748 

22  325 

1  077 

Belgium  .. 

122  340 

32  026 

France    .... 

20'>  123 

22  662 

2  300 

626 

Italy 

726  338 

83  198 

Italy 

31  900 

8  661 

Eastern    Coast 

Aden    

5,  500 

1,266 

of    Africa 

Arabia 

2  595 

627 

245  010 

20  296 

Ceylon    

28  162 

9  545 

Egypt 

43,  249 

5  300 

China,  Hong-Kong 

28,  730 

2,588 

Aden  

6,578 

335 

Straits  Settlements 

16  428 

3  g4Q 

Ceylon 

51,  736 

4  026 

Other  countries  

1,798 

322 

Straits    Settle- 

2  314  834 

166  927 

51,  542,  549 

11,  939,  684 

Other  countries 

11,  804 

1,008 

Manufactures  : 

320,  463,  785 

15,426,150 

(  unbleached  f: 
United     King- 

Yards. 
1  178  757  7°6 

44  584  741 

Colored,  printed,  or 
dyed: 
United     King- 

i 

Austria 

6  165 

334 

dom  

332,  599,  443 

16  941,362 

France  

6,240 

755 

Austria  

2,  601,  382 

167,  194 

Italy 

25  096 

4  555 

Belgium  

149,  904 

15  218 

Egypt  

16,  650 

681 

France  

1,  667,  255 

285,  028 

687  000 

46  837 

Germany      .... 

58  870 

5  159 

Aden  

121,  528 

7,971 

Holland  

16,  028 

1  900 

21  600 

713 

Italy 

642  070 

47  220 

379  849 

18  630 

FjfYDt 

29  620 

3  342 

Persia  

11,  756 

440 

i*->r?  
Arabia  

82,  350 

Ii!l88 

Straits    Settle- 

Ceylon 

14,  886 

1  178 

ments  ...... 

133,  768 

5,823 

China,     Hong- 

Other  countries 

7  892 

293 

8  096 

1  207 

28  704 

1  970 

1,  180,  175,  270 

44,  671,  773 

Straits    Settle- 

1  188  236 

139  315 

Piece  goods,  white 
(bleached)  : 

Turkey  in  Asia 
Other  countries 

5,  425 

10,  558 

354 
469 

dom 

315  782  387 

15  009  287 

339  102  827 

17,  626,  104 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOK'KICN    COUNTRIES. 


101 


Statement  showing   piece    goods  imported  into    Calcutta  each   month  from  1883  to  1888, 

inclusive. 

[Compiled  from  the  Monthly  Statement  of  Imports,  published  by  D.  M.  Traill,  20  British   ludian 

street,  Calcutta. 

1883. 


Mouths. 

Gray  goods. 

Shirtings. 

|i 

j 

1 
S 

| 

S 
1 

>o 

eo 

37  to  39  inches. 

44  to  45  inches. 

! 
! 

oo 
•** 

,2 

•* 
•* 

• 

3 
o 
ft 

to 
2 

C-* 

•# 

"~ 
a 

00 

« 

_o 

«* 

0 

• 
rS 

<o 

c 

2 

kd 

| 

1 
oo 
« 

| 

40 

t- 

1 

1 

JM 
t^ 

2 

«? 

t> 

00 

rs 

a 
s 

oo 
oo 

3 
** 

oo 

| 

1 

o 

5 

0 

1 
1 

t- 

1 

a 

00 

1 
p 

o 
A 

0 

Jan 

288 
78 
221 
191 
122 
66 
35 
178 
76 
179 
219 
138 

671 
280 
518 
465 
454 
269 
232 
•-'87 
209 
2<>:j 
295 
356 

20 

240 
157 
322 
547 

141 
127 
77 
63 
138 
51 
77 
30 

24 
42 
53 
66 
109 
68 
84 
117 
32 
127 
24 
25 

594 
122 
577 
862 
1,033 
484 
463 
464 
114 
15f> 
150 
46 

401 
118 
476 
599 
852 
573 
215 
233 
387 
428 
222 
149 

8,  332 
3,  417 
7,056 
9,  052 
6,719 
6,652 
5,971 
8,034 
4,370 
5,  849 
5,  438 
4,277 

5,356 
3,212 
4,697 
5,018 
3,646 
3,511 
3,565 
5,751 
3,833 
5,773 
5,523 
4,842 

8 
12 
5 
21 
13 
13 
7 

"44" 
43 
7 
8 

38 

26 
46 
29 
46 
48 
32 
48 

723 
599 
694 
857 
690 
620 
559 
869 
552 
627 
568 
426 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

8 
2 
49 
44 
71 
63 
106 
68 
8 

11 

14 

22 

May 

48 
29 
20 
31 

77 
40 

7 

Jane 

July   

Sept   

"Y 

7 

Oct 

50 
63 

57 

Nov 

Dec      .  .   .. 

Total... 

1,791 

4,329 

419 

63 

273 

1,970 

771 

5,064 

4,  653   75,  167  j54,  727 

181 

483 

7,784 

Months. 

Gray  goods. 

Shirtings. 

Madapollams. 

Jaconets. 

Mulls. 

50 
inches. 

54 
inches. 

32  inches. 

] 

50 

nches. 

1 

i 

1 

5 

I 
1 

i 

3 

5 

.  a 

5 

1 
51 

s 

3 
8 

ri 

rs 

a 
P. 

o 

1 

a. 

00    00 
WTS 

SS 

31 

«»          ^oo 

0^3             Or3 

"a        3  a 

£23           co  3 

-S.     "I 

4 

•^ 

10 

Jan... 

41 

145 
15 
24 
54 
34 
98 
160 
307 
233 
521 
298 
149 

43 
50 
69 
40 
115 
99 
134 
163 
52 
123 
98 
61 

251           115 
95             32 
157             68 
516           129 
473           160 
327             44 
i:;r.           63 
368           126 
359             84 
588           296 
636           327 
312           194 

144 
114 
54 
10 
38 
35 
113 
183 
68 
126 
102 
99 

429 
231 
533 
427 
419 
547 
578 
606 
285 
659 
373 
399 

1,006 
479 
909 
755 
962 
658 
1,022 
1,214 
756 
1,129 
914 
723 

6 

67 

Feb 

63 

Mar  .... 

25 
43 
57 
48 
137 
697 
544 
660 
264 
128 



30 
24 

97 
92 
176 
130 



Apr  ... 

May 

j  une  

July 

4 
2 
6 
17 
17 
2 

--" 

165 
131 
67 
66 



Aug  .  . 

Sept 

Oct.! 

Nov... 

25 

Dec.     . 

8 

12 



Total... 

2,644 

2,  038 

1,047 

4,  217       1,  638 

1,086   f.,486 

10,527 

48 

68 

1,091 



102       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc.— Continued. 
1883— Continued. 


• 

Months. 

Gray  goods. 

T-cloths. 

BJ 

tc 

q 

"S 

y> 

£ 

05 

q 

cS 
V 

T3 

q 

^n 

*C 
Q 

Chudders. 

! 

P 

3,959 
2,H5 
4,210 
4,557 
4,417 
4.392 
4,246 
7,300 
4,267 
5,978 
5,  862 
5,  024 

Dhooty  bordered. 

Sundries  not  classified. 

• 

i3 

a 

1 
•* 

_o 

as 

5  pounds. 

6  pounds. 

7  pounds. 

Shirtings. 

Madapollams. 

5 

« 

1 

J2 

3 

T-cloths. 

Jan 

569 
373 
403 
195 
275 
267 
275 
494 
244 
239 
226 
214 

361 
93 
176 
35 
11 

"74 

44 
12 
4 
50 

263 
88 
138 
122 
108 
72 
119 
411 
306 
262 
65 
51 

287 
52 
41 
23 
133 
75 
88 
190 
115 
123 
124 
115 

28 
16 
24 

2 
2 
18 
9 
4 
73 
10 
5 

729 
408 
863 
246 
196 
147 
98 
371 
322 
321 
350 
208 

295 
67 
98 
53 
89 
351 
233 
988 
1,122 
1,305 
913 
367 

25 
29 
48 
8 
21 
13 
37 
37 
14 
4 
24 
4 

50 
52 
87 
24 
65 
41 
31 
6 
10 

50 
18 
70 
10 
29 
14 
13 
37 
73 
46 
56 
10 

Feb... 

Mar  
Apr 

May 

June  
July  
Aug  

Sept  
Oct 

Nov  

40 
49 

Dec  
Total  .  .  . 

— 



3,779 

860 

1,005 

1,366 

196  14,259 

5,881 

56,  657 

264 

455 

426 

Months. 

White  goods. 

Shirtings. 

Jaconets. 

Mulls. 

Cambrics. 

| 

I 

Book  muslins. 

of 

Jl 

ti 
f* 

ifi 

Lappets. 

39  inches. 

44  inches. 

39  inches. 

A 

V 

1 
9 

*•     1 

.g-es         o 
0         2 

*s     s 

Jan  

1,357 
822 
1,113 
1,391 
961 
575 
670 
1,004 
753 
830 
891 
834 

925 
611 
905 
871 
701 
642 
65L 
1,045 
814 
1,065 
1,047 
968 

761 

407 
748 
625 
'  870 
1,049 
862 
1,369 
864 
1,103 
906 
631 

469 
224 
496 
614 
447 
459 
472 
581 
292 
484 
471 
517 

710 
437 
1,314 
1,153 
687 
410 
738 
1,110 
567 
732 
87fi 
698 

259         36 
45       211 
186         47 
120       244 
160       263 
52       632 
62         61 
209       264 
198    
100        146 
161  i     210 
152        432 

27 
15 
79 
65 
63 
69 
21 
12 

20 
42 
20 

344 
64 
127 
104 
218 
164 
144 
104 
112 
140 
26 
2 

81 
62 
45 
56 
28 
32 
57 
36 
41 
72 
38 
71 

85 
35 
159 
233 
245 
296 
207 
206 
110 
134 
173 
87 

452 
269 
368 
430 
297 
177' 
398 
417 
H6 
390 
335 
261 

Feb  

Mar 

Apr  

May 

June 

July... 

Au- 

Sept  .  . 

Oct 

Nov     . 

Dec  

Total  . 

11,  201 

10,  245 

10,  195 

5,526 

9,432 

1,  707  J2,  546 

440 

1,549 

6J9 

1,970 

3,940 

1 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 


103 


1883—  Continued. 


Mouths. 


Jan  ........ 

Feb  ........ 

Mar  ....... 

Ar  ....... 


June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec... 


Total 


Months. 


Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 


Dec. 


Total.. 


White  goods. 


I 


733 

484 

K49 

980 

948 

1,066 

1,  074 

1,799 

1,049 

1,541 

1,  037 

870 


64 

90 
50 
97 
M 
50 
69 
121 
30 
76 
50 
40 


308 
136 
267 
258 
265 
180 
424 
672 
328 
495 
489 
428 


12,  380  I     776  |4,  250 


7614,2 


f- 


114 


772 


Colored  goods. 


Turkey-red. 


Cambrics. 


7-8. 


2,276 

1,221 
986 

1,221 
780 
830 
574 

1,112 
764  | 
959  j 
996  i 
558  ! 


9-8. 


102 

66 

291 

299 

114 

39 

7 

88 
70 
119 
69 
26 


12,277  j     1,290 


773 
490 
395 
531 
387 
427 
448 
531 
316 
534 
412 
402 


5,646 


49 
12 


78 
53 
is 
47 
69 
10 
40 
26 
II 


258 

121 

85 

199 

81 

14 

23 


10U 
10 


488    1,076       142 


Colored  goods. 


Turkey-red. 


Prints. 


7-8. 


31 
165 
100 

75 
210 

68 
183 
139 

84 


9-8. 


167 

95 

56 

56 

92 

155 

04 

226 

84 

213 

147 

127 


1,114       1,482 


167 
113 
80 
128 
120 
144 


121     

172  5 


154 
156 


341  1,497 


Dyed. 


95 

63 

81 

66 

54 

58 

66 

111 

132 

276 

105 

55 

1,162" 


8- 
8 

F,  . 

21 

28 

46 
131 
156 

5'{f> 


2 
1 
6 
4 
6 

1 

47 

20 

L'9 

(5 

'l22 


201 
108 
151 
180 
122 
210 
246 
334 
339 
592 
4fil 
187 


3, 131 


J 


11 


358 
190 
168 
280 
180 
178 
2.r>3 
48H 
277 
366 
361 

I", 


520 


3,254 


104  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOKEIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1883-  Continued. 


Months. 


Jan.. 
Feb.. 
Mar. 
Apr  . 
May. 
June 
July  . 
Aug. 
Sept. 
Oct.. 
Nov  . 
Dec.. 


Total.. 


Colored  goods. 


Printed. 


264 


636 

962 

758 

750 

1,841 

2,883 

4,160 

1,  630 

2,173 

1,211 

575 


18,  576 


82 
99 
64 

105 
65 
42 

117 
74 
54 
21 


24 

3 

27 

103 
60 
43 

117 

136 
72 
76 

130 


Woolens. 


21 
8 
8 

19 

37 

64 

50 

177 

126 

74 

52 

666 


23 

21 

7 

108 
199 
284 
473 
249 
380 
270 
118 

2, 164 


254 


49 

30 

24 

10 

21 

65 

47 

105 

153 

113 

78 

55 


750 


4 

24 

119 

164 

80 

37 

140 


655       525 


§•8 


319 
201 

95 
165 

87 
115 
195 
380 
349 
557 
495 
203 

3, 163 


Sundries. 


Months. 


Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec 


93 
23 
73 
46 
45 
42 
33 
26 
33 
12 
64 
109 


Total 


55 
27 
19 

44 
47 
60 
94 
82 
136 
90 
87 
51 


47 
16 

23 
34 

58 
38 
15 
50 
62 
67 
Cl 
37 


25  ! 
9  1 
43 

ia 

a 

14 
12 
'28 

!) 

7 

1 
10 


63 
72 
12 

133 
56 
78 
90 
94 
42 
54 

122 


171 

17 
14 
47 
161 
179 
290 
414 
557 
447 
427 
205 


792       507       172       896  j     389   2, 929 


Thread. 


Cotton. 


342 

238 
223 
164 

98 
145 
141 

75 

158  i 
103   ; 

257 
2,136 


18:5 


258 
174 
233 
155 
113 
161 
215 
422 
380 
405 
387 
204 

3,107 


658 
407 
639 
635 
524 
257 
218 
357 
279 
404 
289 
330 

4,997 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COl'NTKIi  105 

Statement  ahowiny  piecs  good*  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 


1883— Continued. 


Months. 

Yarn  and  twist. 

Gray  yams. 

00 

3 

I 

.1     ' 

! 
1 

"5 

44,  725 
24.  L'O'J 
138,532 

42,  607 
36.  326 
35,  083 
35,648 
54,470 
34,  870 
47,  452 

33,'  023 

i 

£ 
<] 

1 

c 

3 

11 
I 

25 
41 
125 

<K 

i 

i 

1 

i 

I 

19 
45 
37 

35 
40 

21 

| 

i, 

p 

21 

a 

18 

8 
23 
114 
3.) 

21 

+3    ^ 

fl 

4 
1 
1 

3 
17 

9 
36 

4 

1,654 
1,263 
1,381 
9*8 
1,156 
1,355 

645 
442 
MO 
1,362 
982 
1,009 
685 
1,377 
503 
1,115 
7H2 
421 

117 
35 
266 
270 

202 
120 
70 
174 

13 

63 
61 

112 

63 

97 
215 

127 
r,:j 

70 
228 
78 
109 

45 

59 

64 
121 
77 
71 
54 
81 
129 
84 
91 

84 
95T 

39 
47 
83 

38 
57 
68 
114 
69 
71 
35 
56 

22 

20 
41 
46 
46 
15 
26 
45 
20 
:«:{ 

1C 

256 
251 
66 
431 
316 
184 
180 
153 
147 
234 
167 
165 

1,301 
753 
938 
816 
761 
690 
1,078 
1,144 
580 
1,109 
1,  230 
779 

Feb 

68,  934 
107,  466 
150,  073 
186,  399 
221,482 
257,  130 
311,  480 
346,  350 
393,  802 
435,  321 
468,  344 

Mar  . 

Apr 

May  
Jnut*  

July  
Au<r  .  .  . 

1,530 
1,310 
2,047 
1,884 

i,m 

'io' 

~70 
100 
48 

Sept 

Get 

Nov 

Dec 

Total    .  . 

17,706 

548 

9,  892 

1,563 

1.318 

734 

406 

351    312 

I 

124 

2,550 

11,  179  |468,  464  12,  946,  781 

1884. 


Gray  goods. 


Shirtings. 

37  to  39  inches. 

44  to  45  inches. 

Months. 

1 

« 

g 

| 

• 

"8 

4 

a 

j 

3 

OD 

i 

| 

a 

H 
S, 

1 

g 

4 

O 

& 

1 

| 

o 
JS 

8 
1 

4  to  4.8 

«n 

_o 
M 

4  to  5.8 

to 
c> 

CM 

I 

GO 

W 
^ 

c 

3 

t^ 

3 

00 

co 

CO 

_o 
•<n 

ft 

S 
2 

1 
1 

£ 

I 

1 

n 

n 

•*• 

•*« 

d 

id 

•-• 

t~ 

t> 

co 

0 

c- 

co 

s 

Jan 

110 

°45 

8 

34 

15 

119 

168 

5  021 

5  945 

2 

U 

474 

Feb 

73 

394 

8 

30 

f, 

140 

158 

3*  892 

4*  761 

17 

4 

388 

Mar 

116 

430 

22 

39 

291 

204 

1  55H 

5*578 

18 

12 

339 

Apr  .. 

77 

554 

3 

3 

89 

28 

720 

357  i  6,615 

7  4.79 

•  38 

479 

May.. 

82 

634 

16 

11 

11 

3? 

584 

257  i  5.035      r»  912 

253 

Jane  

51 

586 

20 

71 

58 

2fi4 

5  491      5  047 

9 

Q 

972 

July  

123 

385 

40 

5 

161 

122 

891 

561 

fi  45.-.      S  M7 

314 

Auc 

266 

547 

55 

5 

40 

218 

1911 

MM 

805     fi  f>°ri      r.  987 

18 

392 

Sept  

185 
272 

586 
1  031 

58 
20 

13 
10 

49 
33 

244       82       489 

185       f>8       701 

1    010 

5^219 
7  773 

4,219 
8  042 

20 
23 

37 

8 

569 

888 

Oct 

Nov  

111 

784 

15 

52 

18 

77      10O        2ft3    1*  101 

6  006 

5  513 

8 

65 

737 

Dec 

128 

894 

14 

213 

78 

9Qfi 

1   151 

7  247 

«    Qrtft 

34 

in 

800 

Total... 

1,594 

7,070 

211 

96 

189 

1,355 

738 

5,630 

6,742 

69,  337 

70,986 

142  i    211 

5,905 

106  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 


1884— Continued. 


Months. 

Gray  goods. 

* 

Shirtings. 

Madapollams. 

Jaconets. 

Mulls. 

50 
inches. 

54 
inches. 

32  inches. 

50 
inches. 

1 

a 

10  pounds. 

11  pounds. 

3* 

CO 

co 

CO   « 
CO 

5.4  pounds. 

a 

i 

357 
433 
313 
482 
309 
510 
547 
537 
487 
830 
486 
478 

.9 

49  to  50 

39  inche 

44  inche 

Jan   . 

127 
78 
30 
42 
59 
55 
255 
680 
705 
634 
175 
96 

112 

37 
40 
61 
42 
156 
372 
702 
617 
1,081 
348 
132 

119 
32 
52 
135 
54 
84 
14 
146 
193 
507 
282 
265 

478 
170 
209 
514 
98 
135 
112 
216 
248 
357 
126 
99 

148 
166 
208 
370 
83 
105 
205 
327 

310 
199 
111 

148 
8.5 
36 
119 
125 
78 
80 
146 
121 
35 
42 
93 

691 
600 
686 
845 
489 
535 
583 
732 
424 
555 
383 
502 

10 

4 

6 
20 
5 
15 
8 
14 
8 
6 

23 
14 
31 
94 
99 
63 
88 
87 
65 
69 

Feb  

Mar 

Apr  

6 

6 

io 

8 
24 
26 
5 
23 

May  

June  
July  

A  Off 

Sept  



Oct 

Nov 

61 

Dec 

10 

75 

Total... 

2,936 

3,700 

1,883 

2,  762 

2,156 

1,114 

5,  769 

7,025 

122 

92 

769 

4 

Months. 
1 

Gray  -goods. 

T-cloths. 

Sheetings. 

Drills  and  jeans. 

Chudders. 

Dhooties. 

Dhooty  bordered. 

Sundries  not  classified. 

M  ts  ro  *-> 

«a  —  oo  co 

3  to  4  pounds. 

5  pounds. 

6  pounds. 

7  pounds. 

1 
1 

Maflapollams. 

1 

at 

4S 
3 

T-cloths. 

Jan 

382 
240 
249 
227 
338 
425 
665 
392 
381 
459 
382 
615 

120 
140 
43 
76 
44 
44 
129 
384 
93 
289 
173 
223 

179 
79 
70 
173 
135 
282 
185 
122 
70 
338 
145 
180 

295 
289 
88 
183 
82 
185 
188 
256 
91 
86 
74 
220 

4 
5 
20 
20 
36 
10 
4 
10 
5 
11 
103 
6 

493 
706 
375 
856 
495 
305 
507 
1,736 
121 
328 
557 
694 

250 
85 
49 
63 
35 
169 
352 
158 
1,048 
2,  "32 
617 
215 

4,719 
4,  246 
3,508 
4,608 
3,851 
4,  (546 

K  556 
4.  678 
4.847 
3,377 
3,553 

7 

Feb 

53 
3 
6 

""ie 

24 
23 
28 
59 
5 
70 

16 
32 
29 
21 
12 
21 

Mar 

Apr 

Mav 

11 
42 
43 

74 
26 
20 
13 

July 

Aug  

Set>t 





Oct 

Nov 

22 
90 

Dec 

* 

Total... 

4,755 

1,758 

1,958 

2,037 

234 

7,173 

5,273 

53,  588 

,287 

250 

307 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

.  Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1884- Continued. 


107 


Months. 

White  goods. 

Shirt- 
ings. 

Jaconets. 

Mulls. 

Cambrics. 

Tanjibs. 

Bouk  muslins. 

•Z. 

M 

8  o 
•§* 

li 

•s  * 
53 

00 

! 

39  inches. 

44  inches. 

39  inches. 

44  inches. 

50  to  64  in- 
ches. 

} 
i 

36 

39i 

Jan 

844 
760 
654 
628 
419 
641 
526 
9B8 
468 
1,110 
935 
1,331 

965 
570 

502 
402 
234 
268 
256 
151 
248 
261 
221 
382 

86 
179 
I    108 
134 
41 
111 
130 
134 
8!{ 

286 
70 
118 

l.i'Sl 
409 

5i;j 

510 
390 
611 

8ld 
»if.l 
620 
071 
6,16 
516 

528 
512 
300 
381 
-m 
RM 
591 
470 

:{;w 
748 
428 
6KJ 

907 
1,321 

1,  4:i2 
1,  559 
801 
921 
809 
788 
<JV(l 
788 
T47 
549 

279 
217 
226 
279 
109 
164 
192 
240 
175 
148 
150 
127 

334 

LM; 

279 
355 
561 
276 
162 
10 
14 
19 
;-> 
68 

32 
46 
If. 
14 
25 
54 
32 
42 
13 
•  47 
41 
34 

25 
35 

20 
7!) 
32 
12 
1] 

156 

71 
86 
ll:t 
107 
56 
97 
42 
14 
90 
111 
66 

109 
81 
133 
171 
is; 
201 
156 
102 
37 
109 
119 
120 

468 
505 
316 
505 
281 
306 
488 
2.'2 
114 
299 
208 
285 

Ft'b 

Mar  

Apr    
May  

June  

July    

Aug  

Sept 

Oct 

Nov  

Dec  ..     .   . 

Total... 

8,704 

4,460 

1,450 

7,403 

5,946 

11,090 

2,306 

2,  299       396 

214 

1,008 

I,  528 

3,997 

Months. 

White  goods. 

Colored  goods. 

| 

Sarries. 

1 
I 

Drills  and  jeans. 

Sundries  not  class- 
ified. 

Turkey-red. 

Cambrics. 

Shirtings. 

_« 

>-3 

A 

3 

Mull  stripes. 

Twills  and 
diuieties. 

3 

B 

! 

7.8. 

3 

Jan  ......... 

1,071 
1,075 
1,065 
1,251 
809 
737 
1,239 
1,127 
962 
1,076 
1,048 
1,009 

33 
57 
34 
41 
17 
26 
39 
20 
10 
44 
18 
23 

494 
395 
432 
476 
314 
357 
702 
499 
455 
6(>8 
322 
333 

37 
34 
23 
39 
6 
20 

ie 

16 

4 
?:« 
1 
10 

51 

75 
108 
103 
93 
90 
114 
122 
57 
60 
24 
42 

670 
1,  075 
638 
8)9 
485 
718 
853 
684 
477 
736 
624 
731 

164 
104 
114 
262 
129 
167 
144 
42 
148 
14", 
29 
28 

399 
663 
605 
989 
721 
l,i>79 
957 
776 
820 
1.IM4 
794 
76-< 

51 
58 
1 
3 
29 
68 
82 
12 

"49" 
23 
61 

45 
66 
52 
71 
128 
116 
198 
126 
112 
312 
168 
195 

7 
20 
14 
33 



i 

Feb  

Mar 

\pr 

May 

7 
3 
39 
19 

20 
47 
16 
12 

June  

24 
27 
53 

20 
48 

2G 

"14" 
15 

29~ 

Julv  

Aug  . 

Sept  .  .  . 

Oct 

Nov  .. 

Dec  

Total  .  .  . 

12,469 

369   5,  387 

282 

939       8,510       1,474 

9.  60."i 

437    1,589 

280 

164 

108       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1884— Continued. 


Months. 

Colored  goods. 

Turkey-red. 

Dyed. 

Prints. 

Scarfs. 

Sarries  and  dresses. 

Sundries  not  clas- 
sified. 

02 
t/, 

a 
t« 

1 

Jaconets. 

fl 

0 

3 

Cambrics  aud  road- 
ie pol  lams. 

•% 
'£ 
P 

Sundries  not  clas- 
sified. 

7-8. 

9-8. 

Jan  ........ 

76 
153 
65 
140 
117 
127 
176 
155 
119 
147 
149 
42 

195 
80 
111 
87 
27 
28 
66 
71 
43 
61 
40 
64 

76 
110 
14 
73 
57 
110 
118 
74 
61 
108 
58 
34 

90 
145 
113 
114 

72 
39 
29 
42 
25 
18 
34 
75 

796 

100 
50 
48 
70 
45 
44 
25 
20 
10 
32 
43 

14 

3 

39 

105 
210 
265 
283 
137 
156 
170 
125 
127 
171 
143 
148 

2,070 

57 
25 
20 
3 
35 
14 
6 
7 
27 
30 
10 
82 

316 

211 

254 
178 
158 
•      76 
149 
212 
252 
267 
509 
186 
122 

2,574 

Feb  

Mar 

16 
1 
5 
11 
...... 

11 

5 

Apr  

11 

May 

June  

2 

3 

3 
2 
4 
1 
1 
1 
5 

152 

July  .  .  . 

Aue 

Oct 

1 
1 

Nov 

3 

Dec 

Total  .  .  . 

-IT 

~~487~ 

1,466 

873 

48 

888 

Colored  goods. 

Printed. 

Woolens. 

. 

? 

02 

a 

X 

i 

Months. 

"C 

*s 

9 

| 

I 

0 

a 

•s  . 

i'g 

« 

to 

i'g 

• 

03  cc3 

0 

P 

9 

• 

fe 

cocfl 

| 

a 

1 

1 

o 
| 

6 

.rq 

o 
1 

1 

M 

*3 

l" 

6 

jn 

i 

« 

O 

£ 

S 

s 

E 

PQ 

0 

cc 

Jan 

362 

53 

43 

19 

87 

10 

41 

15 

77 

193 

Feb 

76 

431 

37 

49 

12 

24 

30 

12 

71 

176 

Mar  

40 

291 

57 

26 

20 

10 

9 

30 

3 

27 

89 

Apr 

67 

502 

36 

27 

15 

47 

6 

57 

4 

38 

137 

May  

7 

489 

28 

22 

12 

155 

6 

12 

3 

36 

134 

June 

38 

1  024 

29 

10  1             8 

116 

4 

11 

32 

46 

123 

July  

2 

1,751 

49 

35 

39 

393 

47 

84 

36 

42 

344 

Aug 

f) 

1  826 

61 

48 

74 

5-^8 

51 

148 

71 

57 

572 

Sept  

8 

1,835 

55 

45 

133 

351 

24 

125 

87 

546 

Oct  

2,426 

91 

119 

82 

454 

85 

157 

84 

TT 

682 

Nov    . 

1  424 

27 

65 

99 

191 

29 

88 

70 

430 

Dec  

944 

52 

34 

71 

143 

13 

56 

72 

110 

207 

Total  .  .  . 

240 

13,  305 

575 

523 

584 

2,499 

284 

819 

466 

702 

3,633 

COTTON'    TKXTILKS    IX    FOKKI^N    COUNTRIES.  109 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1884— Continued. 


Months. 

Sundries. 

I 

i 

tt 

Z 

| 

1 

1 
H 

4 

C3 

8 

t 
! 

a 

6 

i 

$ 

Thread. 

a 

3 

j| 

1 

1 
I 

t> 

Cotton. 

| 

13 

K 

8 

Jan 

» 

44 

72 
34 
33 
18 
24 
4 
13 
40 
76 

43 
35 
39 
29 
25 
30 
70 
125 
88 
176 
67 
104 

69 
56 
67 
21 
21 
30 
52 
41 
90 
65 
43 

2 

1 
•> 

6 

5 

11 
2 
6 
8 

11 

70 
138 
79 
171 
71 
197 
1-20 
86 
51 
74 
71 
55 

46 
60 
26 
17 
11 
19 
6 
5 
5 
10 
17 
34 

137 
26 
13 
66 
113 
99 
299 
641 
412 
589 
310 
137 

92 
33 
99 
38 
40 
45 
114 
196 
309 
414 
200 
85 

245 
210 
155 
181 
1(50 
169 
230 
159 
114 
265 
•J47 
369 

33 
21 
1-2 
20 
18 
19 
•21 
27 
33 
19 
26 
4i 

111 

71 
52 
78 
34 
69 
81 
96 
159 
279 
121 
90 

665 
701 
(119 
776 
710 
852 
K>7 
624 
475 
722 
454 
439 

Fob 

5 

Mar  

A  pi- 

23 
4 
8 
5 

10 

"~3 
1 

May  . 

Jnlv 

Allff 

Sen; 

Oct    ...     . 

Nov 

Dec 

1 

Total  .  .  . 

505       831 

609 

5'J    1.183 

256 

2,842 

1,659 

2,  504 

293 

59 

1,241 

7,894 

Yarn  and  twist. 


Gray  yarns. 

.2 

' 

a 

g 

•^  i.' 
a  <o 

m! 

| 

1 

>> 

1 

05 

CST3 

*  — 

g 

^ 

3 

"c8 

i 

i 

1 

1 

i 

t 

i 

I 

1 

!» 

•x  •z 

a 

1 

^ 

g 

Jan 

1  816 

14 

628 

fifi 

47 

84 

63 

ti 

38 

31 

1 

°33      1  379 

37  534 

Feb.  

1,606 

109 

1,161        64 

39 

40 

38 

24 

19 

•23 

10 

431      2,  1'26 

35,061 

72,  595 

Mar 

1  702 

80 

874       66 

86 

59 

28 

-  1 

T 

295      i   fi.'U. 

32  916 

105  511 

Apr  

1,  372 

743       54 

92 

GO     67     38 

41 

28 

4 

265 

2,  378 

43,  005 

14«,  516 

May 

1  254 

17 

445        78 

56 

52     26     21 

21 

20 

2 

168 

993      30.  755 

17!)  ->71 

June  

1  296 

9        78ti      :;r> 

25 

57     51      24 

21 

0 

293 

2,088 

36,298       215.569 

July 

738 

764 

Q'» 

150 

39     °5 

45 

13 

6 

449 

1  824 

43  411        *>S8  980 

622!       47 

71 

Bfl 

14 

IS 

22 

503 

1,290 

44  096 

303,  076 

Sept  

1  012     57         833      115 

31      51 

15      17      17      IS 

1 

27 

1576      36.  477 

339,  553 

Oct 

2  389      70     1  277 

150 

«t     61     r>\     27     •>?)     :;<> 

7 

302 

1  220 

55  640 

395  193 

Nov    . 

2  430     55         969 

61          55      56      36      14      14      10        3 

394 

1,035 

38,  795 

433,  988 

Dec  

1,832 

17     1.104 

169        134     47     85     24      20      12    .... 

229 

1,088 

43,  049 

477,  037 

Total  .  .  . 

19,  171 

=• 

866 

740    561    299 

307 

265 

63 

37589 

17,  751 

10,200 

1,003 

477,  037 

2,  929,  289 

110       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc.— Continued. 

1885. 


Months. 

Gray  goods. 

Shirtings. 

34  inches  and  under. 

35  and  36  inches. 

37  to  39  inches. 

1 

O 
& 

0 

3 
••* 
•^ 

• 

rr 

Q 

1 
P» 

iri 

3 
•& 

02 

'O 
0 
B 

C 

o 

1 
o 
fk 

<N     ' 

0 

'h 

| 

1 
o 

<£ 

<rs 
O 
p 
p 

CO 

t^ 

|         X 

1 
S 

0 

4 

a 
y 
c 

fL, 

S 

a 
1 
at 

^0 
Cl 

2 

9.  12  to  10.  11  pounds. 

"d 
a 

|| 

2  * 

S* 
o 

^2 

CO 

»ft 

»n 

0 

co 

CO 

i-ij 

to 

_0 

'      •"* 
t> 

406 
7K3 
746 
1,091 
535 
713 
469 
673 
934 
278 
231 
207 

oo 

3 

00 

Jan  

204 
174 
144 
96 
237 
169 
58 
50 
144 
162 
59 
20 

853 
1,  331 
1,  329 
1,503 
6<i6 
942 
542 
1,719 
1,404 
956 
1,  631 
2,084 

7!) 
219  i 
243 
185 
44 
53 
46 
6 
41 
3 
47 
38  ; 

13 
76 
264 
27 
57 
68 
37 
27 
27 
25 
50 
26 

697 

170 
92 
477 
360 
71 
127 
65 
51 
30 
58 
87 
99 

3,579 
4,  606 
6,  932 
6,361 
2,995 
4,033 
3,091 
5,  402 
4,337 
3,380 
2,840 
2,  962 

2,801 
3.  770 
3,646 
3,  064 
1,852 
3,  249 
2,178 
4,  003 
3,  254 
2,714 
2.680 
2,  628 

1,  795 
1,874 
2,  092 
1,884 
986 
1,352 
1,582 
3,057 
.  3,028 
2,481 
1.960 
1,680 

495 
632 
385 
438 
298 
170 
380 
650 
899 
955 
787 
651 

Fob 

l 

132 
162 
10 

8 
3 

18 
57 

""is 

Mar  

Apr  
May 

July 

46 
34 
20 
40 
31 
15 

14 
69 

Au"- 

Sept  

Oct  

11 

7 

47 
6 

Nov      ..     . 

Dec 

Total... 

1,517 

14,  960 

491 

29 

226  ;  1,004 

1,687 

7,066 

50,518 

35,  839 

23,771     6,740 

Months. 

Gray  goods. 

Shirtings. 

Madapollams. 

Jaconets. 

42  to  45  inches. 

47  to  51  inches. 

52  inches  and  up- 
wards. 

32  inches  and  under. 

45  inches  and  up- 
wards. 

| 

y 

a 

C5 

co 

271 
322 
855 
1,055 
434 
957 
687 
1,237 
1,078 
931 
631 
526 

05 

O 
^3 
O 

<t> 
A 
o 

_g 

i 

3 

O 

f 

7.7  pounds 
and  tinder. 

t~ 

«« 

£1 

oo  ^ 
t-- 

8  8  pounds 
and  upwards. 

oo 
c4    . 

H3 

3  ° 

TJ<  ft 
ci 

M  .  ! 
s| 
si 

frl 

•<K 

s| 

O 

cc  a 

CO 

Jan  

32 
42 
35 
30 
21 

15 

23 

j 

527 
986 
1,0.-)  1 
764 
470 
434 
307 
521 
571 
546 
592  1 
470 

46 
87 
183 
74 
82 
103 
2!0 
528 
788 
320 
177 
129 

20 
36 
24 
48 
20 
50 
272 
529 
517 
384 
273 
65 

128 
96 
342 
364 
202 
252 
164 
147 
123 
173 
117 
43 

88 
133 
J88 
192 
168 
233 
128 
389 
200  i 
90 
127 
3 

100 
234 
198 
310 
263 
214 
100 
155 
234 
172 
98 
56 

56 
48 
32 
21 
10 
40 
58 
171 
96 
35 

'"48" 

288 
400 
449 
653 
517 
812 
.412 
'-  548 
447 
269 
154 
178 

Feb 

3 
5 

25 
4 

~"io 

47 

21 

12 

Mar  

Apr  
Miiv  

July 

Au<r  

:M>pt 

41 

Oct  .  .. 

N«»V 

Dec 

Total... 

160 

178 

7,239 

2,677   2,238 

2,151 

1, 

939  j 

2,  134 

615 

8,984 

5,127 

127 

cor  ION    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Statement  *ho icing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1885— Continued. 


111 


Gray  goods. 

Mulls. 

T-cloths. 

Dhooty  bordered. 

I 

OD 

3 

Months. 

i 

I 

I 

« 

S 

1-g 

i 

• 
o 

— 

. 

_= 

| 

oc 

1 

•f 

1 

1 

1 

| 

1 

1 

1 

a 

5* 

= 

C5 
CO 

1 

3' 

1 

"* 

3 

CO 

1 
m 

1 

CO 

1 

I 

1 

s 
A 
O 

| 

1 

I 

I 
** 

1 

3. 
o 

H 

1 

Tan 

10 

10 

314 

186 

189  '      ""> 

4 

349 

79 

I  939 

44 

25 

°6 

269 

115 

261 

70 

34 

39 

3,267 

4 

8 

14 

Mar 

g 

64 

293 

177 

150 

«>0 

335 

46 

3,  721 

o 

IS 

A  nr 

"0 

75 

358 

42 

86  i      67 

1 

17 

4  632 

56 

10 

M  iv 

30 

185 

48 

103  j      34 

4 

676 

67 

3  020 

9 

0] 

55 

391 

86 

110         72 

1° 

1  923 

208 

5,  032 

28 

»i 

14 

T  11  1  v 

41 

243 

4 

52 

149 

17 

188 

228 

3  394 

5 

?7 

44 

627 

105 

83 

126 

58 

210 

254 

5.953      14 

in 

34 

Sept 

fi 

91 

484 

93 

123 

162 

T> 

648 

1,  256 

5,  973     31 

17 

44 

2 

24 

318 

48 

109 

133 

64 

301 

1,166 

4,754 

78 

37 

77 

X,,v       

9 

Q- 

280 

81 

137 

77 

9 

265 

806 

3,  332 

14 

i 

68 

Dec 

SO 

185 

125 

33 

78 

44 

163 

930 

3,  408     Itt 

ft 

50 

Total 



ia    =>m 

3  947 

1  110 

1  436 

1  111 

282 

5  504   5  1^" 

.18  4.1  8     9  U 

•>14 

338 

'1 

Months. 

I 
1 

Jaconets. 

Mulls. 

00 

1 

"O 

I 

1 

O 

1 

S 

1 

m 

S 
f 

1Y 
p,® 

s 

0 

! 

1 

SSi 

11 

s 

i 

| 

1 
3 
31 

& 

14 

H 

1 

a 

s 

*s 

is 
f 

f 

*g 

§•§ 

f 

O 

! 

3 

3 
3 

1 

Q 

5 

3 
§ 

1 

5 

o 

973       326 
918       608 
923       733 
997       636 
620        250 
610       374 
458        267 
828       606 
780       361 
692       22C 
602       221 
392       168 

189 
345 
349 
343 
134 
192 
251 
•240 
221 
182 
193 
231 

549 
995 
1,  026 
858 
496 
684 
669 
1,588 
1,206 
1,185 
692 
440 

256 

221 
274 
135 
21 
89 
8 
137 
107 
103 
105 
76 

97 
120 
183 
159 
60 
97 
34 
148 
133 
66 
37 
68 

577 
•937 
975 
718 
413 
582 
604 
893 
821 
569 
527 
589 

66 
121 
86 
102 
81 
57 
104 
59 
131 
149 
186 
188 

2 
50 
71 
13 
59 
24 
1 
9 
8 
7 
9 
5 

25 
37 
42 
16 
34 
22 
16 
42 
18 
74 
36 
100 

30 
19 
51 
57 
20 
44 
27 
24 
41 
35 
37 
70 

148 
96 
140 
129 
49 
75 
30' 
60 
62 
55 
55 
36 

035 

106 
79 
169 
134 
41 
154 
37 
147 
97 
82 
102 
92 

574 
347 
359 
645 
152 
320 
69 
273 
123 
621 
161 
244 

Feb 

M:ir  
Apr 

Mav    

June  

Julv      . 

Sept 

Oct  

Nov 

Dec  

Total  .  . 

8,  793   4,  776 

2,882 

,10,388 

1,532    1,202 

8,205    1,333 

258 

462 

455 

1,240 

3,888 

11 2        COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1885— Continued. 


Months. 

White  goods. 

Colored  goods. 

4 

1 
1 

1 

p 

306 
295 
254 
144 
108 
444 
339 
594 
487 
333 
281 
122 

05 
a 

cS 
<u 
«n 

13 

a 
a 

02 

33 
21 
36 

10 
23 
6 
30 
13 
31 
36 
14 

Sundries  not  clas- 
sified. 

Turkey 

-red. 

Cambrics. 

bC 

a 

OQ 

656 
1,121 
935 
1,442 
1,  151 
1,000 
770 
870 
541 
710 
437 
568 

j 

1 

1-3 

70 

191 
130 

59 
114 
8 
75 
73 
48 
29 
5:{ 

^ 

<~. 

235 
194 
248 
145 
158 
158 
72 
210 
33 
4-2 
44 
70 

1,609 

i 

ij 

00  ."tf 

p 

15 

1L 

9 
20 
11 
37 
27 
15 
4 

7-8. 

8-9. 

Mull  stri 

Jan  

551 
1,009 
1.307 
719 
597 
886 
964 
1,853 
1,354 
1,  053 
1,100 
7^ 

23 
22 
32 
68 
21 
96 
31 
121 
63 
60 
68 
49 

24 
34 
105 
97 

28 
54 
45 
128 
9(5 
85 
41 
12 

467 
655 
914 
1,066 
940 
1,402 
900 
1,  621 
1,219 
1,  290 
1,  200 
1.018 

30 
118 
125 
244 
110 
341 
326 

230 
242 
216 
195 

Feb  

38 

Mar  

Apt- 

12 
6 
10 
15 
6 

6 

May  
June      

July  

Aug  

Sept  '. 

Oct  

14 
9 
3 

"Vov 

5             1 

5  ;          1 

Dec 

Total  .  . 

12,165       651    3,707  i     260 

i                      ! 

749 

12,  692 

2,460 

10;  201 

922 

113 

36 

125 

Months. 

Colored  goods. 

Turkey-red. 

Dyed. 

Prints. 

| 

ca 
o 
W2 

Sarries  and  dresses. 

Sundries  not  classi- 
fied. 

| 
J5 

QQ 

16 
55 
28 
44 
37 
145 
194 
260 
131 
54 
110 
47 

Jaconets. 
Mulls. 

Cambrics  and  mad- 
apollams. 

28 
59 
73 
68 
17 
6 
55 
42 
47 
31 

»,7o 

'i' 

a 

"o 

i-i 

IT 

r3 

164 
169 
145 
168 
62 
158 
203 
450 
516 
165 
260 
143 

7-8. 

9-8. 

Jan       

38 
45 
162 
93 
65 
173 
82 
199 
133 
160 
109 
90 

12 
171 
56 

82 
167 
74 
67 
57 
59 
100 
68 
77 

"~3 
33 

10 
..... 

55 
7 
103 
59 
122 
110 
53 
161 
127 
162 
127 

•       20 
18 
5 
4 
8 
5 
22 
22 

*        , 

32  |          13 
36  !           14 
8             19 
10  i            4 
17               1 
21               7 
34  ;             1 
59  :             1 
23               1 

125 
345 
162 
128 
108 
396 
266 
323 
184 
323 
252 
209 

Feb  
Mar      

Apr    

May 

June 

July  

A\\" 

Sept  
Oct  

Nov 

Dec  



141 

24               1 

Total  

1,349 

990 

47 

1,227 

104 

1,121 

284             63 

2,  821 

449 

2,  603 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.       113 

Statement  showing  piece  yoods  inserted  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1885-Continued. 


Mouths. 

Colored  goods. 

Printed. 

Woolens. 

ICmdii 

Cambrics. 

Ilandkerchiefs  and 
scarfs. 

Sundries  not  classi- 
fied. 

Broadcloths. 

Other  woolens. 

Meriuoes 

Flannels. 

Braid  (worsted). 

Sundries  not  classi- 
fied. 

a 

II 
r 

8 

aj 

r 

OverSOinrlirs. 

Jan       

28 
8 

10 

918 
618 
743 

947 
736 
1,233 
866 

2,847 
2,  504 
1,917 
1,787 
1,392 

191 
435 
358 
326 
244 
318 
296 
240 
467 
172 
218 
307 

82 
66 
44 
29 
25 
lit 
58 
54 
119 
31 
45 
8 

12 
113 
54 
78 
37 
37 
64 
73 
35 
84 
88 
9 

24 
13 
26 

28 
26 
46 
82 
107  i 
111 
98 
78 
58 

72 
36 
32 
45 
108  i 
213  ; 

195  ; 

519  i 
645 
295 
283 

147 

11 

1 
2 
5 
1 
28 
51 
13 
15 
22 

26 
26 
41 
14 
25 
39 
57 
282 
225 
111 
67 
61 

89 
39 
66 
55 
]07 
54 
56 
91 
58 
86 
65 
76 

115 
137 
155 
80 
131 
349 
181 
451 
429 
321 
309 
213 

Ptob 

Mar  
Apr     

45 
23 

Q 

32 
11 

4 
71 
33 
77 
12 
G 
34 

298 

Mav 

Juue..  
July 

An-  
St-pt      

8 
6 
13 

Oct  

Xov 

Dec  

141 

Total... 

16,  508 

3,572 

580 

684 

697 

2,590 

156 

974 

842     2,  871 

Months. 

Sundries. 

Nrts  (cotton). 

Silks  and  satins. 

Sati  ens,  (cotton,  white 
.UK!  colored). 

Canvas. 

Shawls. 

Cotton  thread. 

Fancies  and  sundries. 

Umbrellas. 

•3s* 

03 

§             1 

«             3 

U            W 

, 

Reel  and  card. 

Jan  
Ssb  .. 

108 

1J2 

59 
M 
33 

21 

L^ 
40 

n 

HI 

2o 

63 
4i  > 
39 
16 
37 
31 
42 
15* 
270 
178 
128 
94 

14              60 
3<.)             22 
67             71 
43           136 
i:>         124 
14           249 

41            146 
53             58 
8             70 
12             87 
6           116 

7 
4 
20 
120 
107 
208 
94 
492 
636 
459 
287 
193 

24             49 
44 

3             67 

4              34 
6             24 

13             68 
14             39 
150            182 
2136           254 
47           208 
9,r>            155 
56            124 

254 

302 
426 
350 
220 
240 
185 
201 
185 
210 
138 
227 

25 
13 
31 
20 
16 
23 
14 
19 
52 
29 
16 
19 

143 
118 
184 
111 
87 
200 
276 
310 
331 
189 
215 
212 

437 
649 
745 
635 
203 
299 
182 
148 
264 
258 
202 
204 

«,-  :: 

Apr  
May  

Jmif 

July  

V)ct 

SOT 

Total.... 

602 

1,092 

323       1,292       2.627           678       1,248 

!                     i                     : 

2,938 

277 

2,  376  .      4,  226 

1 

60SA- 


114       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  Into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1885— Continued. 


Months* 

Yarn  and  twist. 

Gray  yarns. 

8 
15 
31 
37 
13 
26 
25 
27 
18 
31 
21 
17 

269 

1 

Colored  yarns. 

.2 

i 
i 

H 

Monthly  total. 

Totals  from  Jan.  1. 

$  « 

01 

g 

I 

1 

i 

§ 

1 

79 

53 
29 
51 
56 
127 
90 
194 
139 
111 
69 
28 

t- 

jj 

110s.  and  up- 
ward s. 

Assorted 
numbers. 

2  055 

638 
600 
812 
1.272 
879 
1,  195 
808 
1,700 
557 
405 
789 
788 

28 
35 
37 
85 
97 
91 
151 
173 
177 
64 
108 
18 

1,064 

38 
30 
95 
81 
24 
64 
29 
36 
35 
56 
30 
63 

37 

23 
52 
78 
20 
39 
55 
57 
40 
78 
48 
35 

11 
15 
34 
34 
13 
19 
14 
18 
12 
26 
22 
16 

4 
17 
27 
19 
9 
12 
5 
14 
19 
15 
21 
14 

1 
8 
2 
10 
12 

2 
1 

12 
52 

148 

209 
304 
316 
258 
157 
169 
167 
190 
181 
283 
278 
395 

1,103 
1,245 
1.188 
1J327 
909 
1,186 
441 
755 
539 
739 
923 
1,041 

29,  016 
36,  488 
42,  164 
41,  437 
25,  614 
38,  712 
28,516 
51,904 
47,  655 
37,  854 
32,  510 
31,  623 

Feb 

1,  542 
1,179 

842 

1 
6 
42 

65,  504 
107,  668 
149,  105 
174,  719 
213,431 
241,987 
293,  891 
341,  546 
379,  400 
411,  910 
443,  533 

Mar  

Apr 

May 

Juno  

1,176 
1,  492 
2,175 
2,190 
1,070 
701 
2,230 

38 

32 

20 
25 
2 

July  

All£ 

Sept  

Oct  
Nov  
Dec  

Total.... 

17,  378 

248 

10,  443 

1,026 

581 

234 

176 

2,907 

11.  396 

443,  493 

2,822,  694 

1880. 


Months. 

Gray  goods. 

Shirtings. 

I* 

o> 

"3 

a 
3 

«g 

o 
• 

1 

o 
p 

JJ 

CO 

<K 

<S 
A 
O 

a 

CD 

co 

A 
in 

CO 

37  to  39  inches. 

03 

Pi 

0 

^* 

o 

•* 

-* 

5 

36 

"46 

57 
58 
56 
9 

173 

1 

W 

10 

.8 

-* 

q 

1 

o 

in 

o 

CO 

in 

£ 

<M 
(0 

_0 

in 

03 

0 

1 
0 

«d 

o 

IP 

24 
72 
46 
151 
338 
144 
95 
54 
20 
40 
105 
38 

173 

s 

p< 

CO 

t> 

_o 

cs 

4 

t 

I 

m 
t^ 

3 
•<*< 
t-^ 

rf 

p 

p 

0 

Pi 

00 

o 
oc 

1 
• 

o 

04 

ai 

£ 

54 

CO 

93 

T3 
p 

1 

.H 
O 

_o 

w 

os 

^3 

d 

il 

l| 

f» 

s  ^ 

Jan 

154 
210 
189 
98 
107 
130 
118 
55 
152 

2,689 
3,  158 
4,046 
5,317 
5,  129 
6,  433 
5,846 
4,840 
6  492 

13 
..... 

11 
23 

39 

11 

2 
49 
93 
67 
65 
107 
38 
32 
74 
2 

32 
114 
95 
117 
237 
168 
44 
66 
13 
8 

25 

195 

246 
552 
351 
344 
322 
317 
162 
45 
31 
30 

405 
507 
657 
7'»1 
470 
938 
618 
360 
336 
240 
281 
360 

3,378 
3,723 
4,  334 
5,433 
4,  954 
5,  034 
4,797 
3,  355 
3,064 
1,  885 
2,496 
2,155 

3,013 
3.304 
3,151 
3,544 
3,  079A 
2.  924* 
2,  835 
1,828 
1,806 
1,224 
1,025 
1,310 

2,299 
2,876 
2,  941 
3,332 
2,252 
1,  637 
1,495 
1,435 
1,115 
653 
710 
704 

846 
910 
1,325 
1,203 
509 
571 
494 
574 
509 
226 
320 
346 

Feb  

Mar  
Apr  
May  
June  

July  

Aug  

Sept      ... 

Oct 

140 
88 
136 

5,013 
5,  988 
8,274 

"10 



Nov 

Dec 

Total.  .. 

1,577 

62,  225 

271 

105 

529       925   1,  127" 

2,873 

5,873 

44,  608 

29,  043 

21  449 

7,833 

COTTON   TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  115 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1886 -Continued. 


Months. 

Gray  goods. 

Shirtings. 

Madapollama. 

Jaconets. 

42  to  45  inches. 

47  to  51  inches. 

It 

=  s 
& 

32  inches  and  under. 

45  inches  and 
upwarda. 

39  inches. 

44  iuches. 

49  to  50  inches. 

7.7  pounds 
mid  under. 

=4 

S| 

•  a 

S.Spounds 
iilld  up- 
wards. 

00 

-.3 

«s 

M    "* 

n 

si 

li 

si 

923 

1,380 
1,617 
1,645 
941 
1,016 
964 
664 
540 
468 
898 
793 

167 
157 
194 
241 
<;;* 
216 
389 
804 
767 
571 
486 
177 

40 
56 
39 
127 
176 
81 
383 
692 
523 
382 
260 
179 

46 
170 
131 
124 
90 
181 
191 
•J85 
453 
378 
449 
343 

74 
159 
197 
309 
333 
157 
260 
144 
I'O 
138 
195 
175 

242 
195 
218 
226 
136 
203 
221 
279 
190 
89 
39 
59 

63 
96 
93 
132 

6H 
89 
27 
54 
GO 
23 
11 
15 

429 

811 
730 
1,000 
1,138 
743 
1,241 
1,190 
1,216 
1,200 
1,150 
1,571 

196 
291 
292 
332 
316 
381 
480 
425 
450 
216 
141 
216 

3 

»1> 

7 

116 
195 
301 

112 
17 
52 

Mar 

4 

8 
15 
16 
17 
7 
18 
25 
13 
11 

Apr  

MAY 

12 

17 

July 

A  ne 

10 

Sept 

Oct     ...     . 

34 

Nov 

Dec 

5 

Total... 

80 

798 

11,849 

4,232   2,938       2,841 

2.271 

2,  097 

731 

12,  419 

3,736 

137 

Months. 

Gray  goods. 

Malls. 

T-cloths. 

1 

1 

02 

B 

T; 

g 

I 

1 

1 
1 

Dhooty  bordered. 

Sundries  not  classi- 
fied. 

1 

D 

ja 

i 

3 

— 

o 

= 

3 

1 

TJI 
3 

n 

a5 

! 

! 

d 

3 
t~ 

1 
*J 

i 

1 

1 

4 

• 

^ 

,3 

9 

1 
H 

Jan  

10 
14 
8 
14 
41 
18 
40 
15 
20 

60 

84 
107 
123 

74 

75 
24 
18 
21 

224 
426 
375 
675 
367 
376 
298 
535 
485 
391 
498 
422 

127 
174 
66 
72 
65 
104 
78 
38 
31 
51 
224 
242 

62 

34 
75 
43 
145 
123 
84 
43 
40 
14 
9G 
124 

159 
113 
112 
168 
110 
67 
71 
91 
23 
37 
81 
144 

15 

71 
20 
6 
8 
26 
30 
7 
26 
14 

392 
293 
1542 
530 
505 
371 
223 
416 
555 
557 
715 
953 

109 
46 
49 
136 
40 
299 
286 
780 
866 
1,783 
1,438 
254 

2,856 
3,514 
4,506 
5,001 
4,654 
5,103 
7,053 
6,045 
7,274 
4,892 
6,190 
7,173 

64,  261 

20 
25 
36 
23 
36 
28 
44 
16 
11 
23 
36 
11 

30 
40 
30 
24 
1 
8 
13 
17 

46 
38 
40 
22 

Feb    

Mar  
Apr  
May  

5 
50 
92 
85 
46 
56 
79 

July     . 

Sept 

Oct  

8 

Xov 

Dec 

15 

Total  .  .  . 

180 

726 

...5,072 

1,272 

883 

1,176 

233  |6,  152 

6,086 

309 

171 

559 

116  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1886— Continued. 


Months. 

"White  goods. 

& 
a 

2 
cc 

Jaconets. 

Mulls. 

<n 
| 

o 
o 

r3 

a 
c 
1 

6 

in 

^3 

f 
£ 

3 

*» 

p 

3 

M 

88 
66 
90 
126 
37 
64 
48 
22 
10 
38 
33 
108 

1 
'J 

CO 

«"q 

8,1 

B 

CO 

dj 

1 
O 

a 

1 
h-) 

<T3 

a 

<»£ 

|1 

to 

CO 

x 

<u 
A 
u 
fl 

s 

o 

f 

1 

** 
8*2 

A  <s 

§1 

•-  p 

s 

T3 
§ 

CS 

l| 

sl 

8 

f 
$i 

<£>^=t 
CO  0 

O 

i 

S 
A 

o 

.2 

\n 
«W 
_0 

o 

ro 
V 

A 
o 

a 

'5 

_0 

o 
•^ 

I 
a 
ft 

i 

h 

9 

> 

O 

25 
36 
9 
10 
30 
67 
19 
9 
16 
29 
13 
38 

Jan 

650 
636 
652 
1,141 
689 
1,069 
1,137 
1,199 
1,164 
1,103 
1,164 
1,069 

139 
209 
331 
563 
481 
418 
392 
510 
599 
445 
391 
405 

196 

524 
338 
415 
315 
466 
513 
477 
713 
382 
383 
383 

579 
8!-0 
1,  282 
1,  659 
1,145 
935 
1,738 
1,557 
1,569 
1,108 
1,172 
1,  052 

67 
186 
168 
208 
157 
138 
226 
116 
173 
74 
187 
147 

98 
110 
155 
183 
140 
140 
260 
256 
366 
229 
362 
625 

1 

1 
1 

1 

723 
867 
796 
346 
983 
076 
003 
836 
660 
738 
812 
,235 

94 
150 
212 
237 
279 
240 
233 
167 
90 
142 
96 
63 

13 
26 
38 
54 
34 
18 
23 
18 
26 
3 
7 
4 

69 
54 
98 
132 
111 
60 
«4 
113 
136 
76 
72 
54 

168 
172 
123 
157 
220 
231 
201 
114 
93 
132 
127 
127 

522 
492 
369 
374 
253 
272 
272 
99 
400 
160 
251 
398 

Feb  

Mar  
Apr    

May  

July  

Aug  ........ 

Sept 

Oct  

Nov  

Dec 

Total... 

11,  673 

1.883 

5,  135  j  14,  676 

1,847 

2,  924  ill 

075 

2,003 

301 

264 

1,059 

730 

1,865 

3,862 

Months. 

White  goods. 

Colored  goods. 

<£ 
1 

i 

I 

j 

2 

| 
P 

i 

I 

"3 

rt 

« 

"S 

p 

*» 

•8-d 
s« 

«,S 
2  °° 

1 

§ 

Turkey-red. 

Cambrics. 

| 

1 

,a 
cc 

n 

1 

1 

,2 

"3 

.1 

£ 

B 

3 

ij 

=! 

|S 

! 

7-8. 

9-8. 

Jan 

666 
946 
953 
909 
998 
,033 
,361 
,435 
,674 
,445 
,319 
,109 

76 
70 
57 
65 
73 
54 
84 
73 
64 
63 
107 
111 

282 
241 
215 
2-22 
170 
302 
307 
370 
417 
235 
235 
389 

86 
56 
110 
56 
121 
67 
70 
20 
30 
19 
29 
2t 

49 
35 
94 
59 
100 
70 
45 
9 
41 
15 
41 
54 

1,  458 
1,460 
1,468 
1,737 
1,670 
1,854 
2,425 
1,868 
1,776 
1,017 
1,905 
2,  099 

57 
171 
134 
155 
210 
23!) 
167 
187 
154 
333 
234 
109 

398 
695 
678 
1,038 
1,  206 
1,201 
1,540 
1,  102 
906 
735 
1,022 
1,299 

29 
39 
70 
61 
38 
47 
100 
93 
70 
29 
18 
18 

108 
210 
169 
45 
100 
95 
139 
103 
115 
69 
21 
45 

Feb  

3 
17 
2 

2 

9 

7 

Mar 

Apr  

""37" 
6 

5 

May 

Jnlv 

4 

Au2 

46 
9 

20 

28 
25 



Sept  

Oct 

Nov 

14 
11 

37 

Dec  

3 



Total  .  .  . 

13,848 

897 

3,385 

685 

612 

20,  737 

2,150 

11,  820 

612 

1,219 

1$2 

109 

COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Statement  shouting  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1886— Continued. 


117 


Months. 

Colored  goods. 

Turkey-red. 

Dyed. 

Prints. 

£ 

Sarries  and  dresses. 

o 
|« 
a 

03 

Shirtings. 

•j 

1? 

1= 

Cambrics  and  mad- 
apollams. 

A 

g 

Sundries  not  classi- 
fied. 

7-8. 

9-8. 

Jan  

Feb             ..    . 

90 
140 
61 
102 
81 
53 
286 
256 
198 
163 
168 
129 

65 
84 
94 
79 
47 
118 
184 
46 
10 
5 
62 
31 

182 
128 
99 
178 
113 
110 
135 
133 
245 
119 
154, 
156 

74 
114 
188 
210 
97 
115 
48 
101 
182 
67 
94 
28 

49 
14 
46 
32 
2 
12 
3 

20 
7 
10 
5 
4 

153 

180 
230 
301 
180 
213 
178 
164 
280 
94 
175 
105 

9 
30 
24 
93 
55 
47 
48 
16 
17 
26 
51 
48 

190 
210 

206 
258 
225 
202 
334 
325 
323 
202 
165 
159 

~2,~799 



M  ir 

5 

15 

Mav  

.Inn.-     
Julv       .   . 

3 

0 

An--    

10 

Sept 

3 

12 
28 

3 
4 

Oit  

•to* 

3 
11 

Dec     .  .     . 

is 

3 

56 

Total  

1,727 

825 

45 

1,752 

23 

1,318 

201 

2,253 

464 

uoiorea  gooas. 

Printed. 

Woolens. 

Months. 

Cambrics. 

•d 

1 

S 

J 

% 

§ 

i 

•N 

d 

| 

1 

0 

1 

II 
----- 

w   aj 

^ 

i 

i 

|1 

** 

"3 

<~z 

"o 

a 

.2 
"3 
a 

I 

•c 

s 

f 

f 

a; 

£ 

H 

1 

K 

e 

— 

O 

S 

i 

1 

Jan   

2        43 

979 

249 

15 

53 

50 

103 

27 

27 

69 

138 

F.-I,  

37 

595 

202 

32 

22 

14 

79 

9 

14 

45 

106 

Mar  

17 

863 

316 

28 

51 

19 

75 

16 

29 

79 

227 

Apr    1 

74 

900 

476 

34 

68 

27 

80 

3 

22 

57 

134 

M  'iv 

4 

8L 

ills'.)           690 

39 

64 

10 

77 

14 

59 

109 

JllllH 

51 

1   ti1'1'           70(5 

37 

58 

79 

230 

30 

13 

25 

235 

Julv                        <; 

115 

2  496           ^"'l 

95 

64 

CO 

639 

on 

70 

45 

orin 

An" 

173 

2  950           "•*' 

19° 

83 

140 

661 

65 

203 

60 

508 

4 

172 

3,679 

1,052 

50 

52 

238 

626 

67 

19J 

80 

669 

0<-t  



M 

1,900 

900 

10 

184 

190 

361 

36 

97 

74 

351 

Nov  

4 

131 

1,735 

533 

50 

64 

192 

365 

38 

76 

103 

383 

Dec  

2 

n 

934 

310 

7 

29 

77 

220 

2 

25 

72 

260 

Total... 

22 

1,046 

19,592 

7,126 

589 

792 

1,094 

3,516 

323 

789 

768 

3,420 

118  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1886— Continued. 


Months. 


Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

June 

July 

Aug 

Sept 

Got 

Nov 

Deo... 


Total 


Sundries. 


79 

45 

41 

103 

51 

38 

39 

9 

43 

7 

3 

44 


502 


1,780 


13 
24 
25 
32 
23 
29 
2(3 
23 
21 
20 
8 
10 

"254" 


76 
69 
52 

48 
95 
68 
76 

110 
69 
26 

126 
93 


Shawls. 


"3  a 

as 


67 

7 
14 

8 
51 

28 
233 
829 
990 
743 
462 
115 


3,547 


23 

22 

43 

85 

198 

150 

96 

30 

42 

706 


w 


128 
39 
27 
34 

20 

27 

59 

91 

168 

154 

193 

106 

1,049 


Cotton  thread. 


159 
175 
158 
243 
125 
152 
160 
197 
235 
166 
217 
143 

2, 130 


54 
25 
10 
37 
7 

14 
24 
29 
12 
55 
55 
28 

350 


190 
261 
276 
189 
155 
194 
205 
271 
446 
225 
210 
162  I 

2,784 


4,  IK; 


Months. 


Jan 
Feb 
Mar 
Apr 
May 
June 


Yarn  and  twist. 


Gray  yarns. 


Aug  ________ 

Sept  ........ 

Oct  ......... 

Nov  ........ 

Dec  ......... 

Total... 


2,082 
1,732 
2,013 
1,570 
1,104 
1,609 
1,  783 
3, 176 

837  ! 

738 
1,352 
1,720 


19,  716 


1,146 
1,561 
948 
502 
811 
817 
291 
435 
690 
901 


9,607 


57 

60 

118 

210 

359 

91 

105 

145 

99 

54 

81 

100 


1,279 


100  41 

71  '  45 

165  I  58 

121  47 

92  80 
51  57 
29  i  49 
53  40 

93  j  80 
83  34 

140  32 

127  59 


1,125 


(i22 


a? 


10  18 

30  24 
26 

30  !  27 

28  !  24 


255  265 


455 
287 
220 
260 
346 
321 
479 
236 
97 
29 
308 
300 


1 


1,  240 
1,213 
1,425 
1,317 
1,409 
1,770 
2, 230 
1,597 
1,431 
624 
735 
1,082 


34,  587 
39,  028 
44, 497 

52,  571 
44,818 
46.  749 
55,  035 
51,  755 

53,  000 
38,  495 
43,  929 


88  3,338  16,073  550,103  3,46i.6:>2 


COTTON   TEXTILES   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  119 

Statement  slowing  piece  goods  imported  Into  Calcutta,  i't<:—  Continued. 

1887. 


Months. 

Gray  goods. 

Shirtings. 

1 

rz 
- 

c; 

1 

=. 
A 

35  to  39  inches. 

41      to      44 
inches. 

47  to  51  inches. 

j  52inclu's  and  ujiv, 
t-  ^i  , 

,2 
| 

* 

••* 

o 
••* 

• 
\ 

0 

o 

3 

r2 

s 

I 

0 

227 
170 
374 
91 
10 
75 
84 
366 
279 
183 
238 
157 

| 

| 

ift 

t^ 

o 

t~ 

00      . 

t3 

I 
2 

2 

00 

•r 

1 

5 

2 

CM 

cc 

9.12tol0.11iHMinds. 

10.12  pounds  and 
upwards. 

1      1 

11     \ 
a°    | 

t-                      X 

OD              * 

168 
123 
52 
146 

137 
94 



49 
36 
88 
35 
214 
42 
46 
59 

~  50 
15 
28 

1,021 
1,155 
1,232 
1,418 
1.470 
1,087 
720 
1,592 
1,445 
1,604 
1,174 
899 

4,024 
4,674 
5,  754 
5,  306 
4.H54 
3,961 
4,069 
4,  99'2 
4,  094 
5,  434 
5,086 
4,374 

2,454 
3,569 
3.747 
5,829 
4,181 
3,209 
3,  204 
3,  251 
2,  925 
3,732 
4,460 
3,  418 

1,  897       456 
2,040       645 
2,841       5  1C 
4,003    1,013 
3,  099       697 
2,  070       498 
1,816       314 
3,  144       673 
2,  569       675 
3,  295       888 
3,086    1,031 
2,909    1,015 

"54" 

12 
3 
13 

525 

896 
667 

S94 
800 
443 
4-j:; 
636 
488 
104 
068 
980 

18 
64 
6-2 
171 
100 
If  7 
251 
501 
482 
473 
204 
138 

Feb 

Mar 

5 

52 

74 

Apr 

7 
64 

176 
169 
565 

554 
548 
175 
16 

May... 

Julv 

103 
154 
121 
278 
244 
250 

3 

10 

""5 
.... 

Si-pt  
Oct 

15 
.->     1 
5    1 
9 

Nov  
Dec  

Total... 

1,878 

147 

662 

2/254 

14,  817 

56,  622 

43,  979 

32,769   8.421       118    8,924 

2,631 

2,  282 

Mouths. 

Gray  goods. 

Madapollams. 

Jaconets. 

Mulls. 

T-cloths. 

32  inches   and 
under. 

t;>  in.  In  .naiid  up- 
\\  ards. 

I 

Q 

s 

g 

1 
o 

H> 

-!• 

1 

i 

s 

» 

•^« 

A 

V 

1 
g 

• 
6 

| 
H< 

T 

| 

$ 

2 
g 

• 
HI 

2 

CO 

m 
| 

i- 

no 

"^ 

•o 

•/ 

1 

i- 

00 

li 

p 

14 

-i  3 

C4 

"* 

si 

si 

Jan  

108 
133 
113 
132 
143 
61 
109 
149 
185 
237 
184 
81 

121 
89 
6.'. 
167 
287 
215 
262 
354 
2.^7 
•299 
278 
115 

117 
71 
1G4 
241 
154 
2u6 
91 
292 
177 
MS 
390 
134 

30 
63 
87 
17 
59 
119 
76 
33 
25 

"is" 

1,112 
1,214 
862 
806 
905 
910 
978 
1,611 
1,030 
1,097 
1,357 
862 

90 

170 
14-2 
163 
189 
9-2 
18:5 
218 
131 
209 
267 
241 

6 

5 

& 

31 
6 
6 
14 
3 
2 
8 
21 

17 
5 
15 
46 
52 
66 
18 
44 
21 
16 
8 
27 

5 

34 
58 
69 
40 
18 
35 
57 
20 
24 
35 
40 

277 
262 
.      386 
.      484 
143 
.       1!»U 
.      201 
.      235 
.      117 
.      236 
.      879 

92 

102 
07 
166 
89 
15 
19 
63 
6i 
143 
37 
29 

78 

77 
74 

e7, 

2 
80 
119 
5'2 
39 
18 

74 
75 
94 
99 
40 
97 
53 
•J7 
35 
62 
66 
37 

Feb  
Mar  
Apr  

M»y  

June  

""5 


July    
Aug  
Sept  
Oct    . 

Nov  

DIM-  

Total  ...  1,  63f.  2,  469 

•2,  r,«c 

527 

12,744   2,095 

156 

335 

4:5.-) 

5  |3,324 

8fc'8 

120       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1887— Continued. 


Months. 

Gray  goods. 

White  goods. 

1 
1 

QQ 

13 
P 

i 

6 

t 

1 
P 

Dhooty  bordered. 

|S 

p 
p 
02 

& 

a 

1 

Jaconets. 

t/ 

a 

tj 

0 
^3  cs 

5 

CO 

1 

1-5 

13 

03 

J5 
H 

CD 

CO 

< 

•4 

I 

'! 
$ 

ll 

"3  £ 

o  ° 

Jan     .  ... 

379 
889 
381 
132 
149 
581 
140 
384 
588 
891 
531 
641 

84 
83 
145 
105 
229 
224 
491 
1,383 
1,193 
1,149 
730 
388 

4,213 
5,640 
6,  074 
6,890 
5,911 
5,403 
6,405 
7,721 
4,531 
4,388 
3,946 
3,  675 

23 
11 
41 
66 
45 
41 
101 
90 
42 
97 
140 
102 

17 
13 
3 
22 

720 
824 
853 
1,129 
1,093 
651 
853 
842 
424 
765 
1,033 
949 

8U 

431 
445 
269 
132 
145 
156 
184 
140 
177 
179 
157 

345 
225 
201 
228 
184 
238 
222 
258 
259 
371 
595 
410 

488 
646 
903 
1,230 
850 
550 
586 
832 
746 
863 
843 
732 

Feb 

13 
18 
35 
31 
36 
13 
14 
24 

Mar  

13 

17 

.Apr  

May 

June  

11 

4 
17 

58 
57 
67 
63 

28 

July  

Aug  

20 
14 

8 
7 
7 

Sept  .  . 

Oct.. 

Nov      . 

11 
9 


204 

Dec  

4 

Total  .  .  . 

5,686 

5,204 

34,  797 

799 

97 

f 

4 

349 

10,  136 

2,729   3,536 

9,268 

Months. 

White  goods. 

Mulls. 

p 

3 

1 

cS 

I 

cd 
0 

03 

I 

Book  muslins. 

Checks,  spots,  stripes, 
etc. 

Lappets. 
Scarfs. 

2 

P 

1 
"3 

3 

P 

1 

1 
'3 

o 
p 

I 
1 

£ 

a 

ft 

ja 

f 

t> 

O 

4 

o 

•8 

o 

t 

A 
O 

a 

i 

I 
J 

O 

Jan  .  .  . 

141 
195 
205 
216 
64 
75 
83 
115 
88 
67 
39 
15 

699 
404 
178 
345 
280 

405 
216 
128 
107 
143 
93 

j     501 
1,058 
1,054 
1,039 
968 
661 
381 
627 
540 
669 
678 
604 

139 
73 
112 

125 
«3 
80 
88 
163 
59 
86 
129 
102 

14 
30 
8  ! 
14 
17 
14 
46 
28 
12 
8 
21 
7 

5 

21 
16 
9 

'"l2 
10 
33 
17 
15 
29 
10 

34 

7 

' 

10 
29 
11 
10 
55 
4 

"22" 
35 

51        108       548         682 
78  i     160       357  !       905 
73       183       288  1  1,  'J38 
117         99       412     1,032 
56       165       228         904 
24         77  j       92         630 
54         63       205      1,203 
75       132       256     2,142 
49         42       122     1,246 
158         68       302     1,621 
117         87       313     1,180 
185         90       265         677 

136 
115 
40 
83 
85 
52 
130 
215 
45 
32 
70 
56 

420 
537 
406 
262 
363 
303 
499 
935 
400 
371 
337 
34| 

26 
63 
44 
44 
101 
50 
51 
90 
44 
93 
49 
105 

27 
27 
98 
178 
88 
31 
97 
63 
51 
85 
138 
177 

Feb  
Mar  

Apr  

May     . 

June.  

July 

Aug 

Sept  

Oct 

Nov  
Dec 

Total  .  .  . 

1,303 

3,267 

8,780 

1,239 

219 

177 

235 

937    1,274   3,383   13,460 

1 

1,059 

5,178 

760 

1,060 

COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued, 

1887— Continued. 


121 


Months. 

Colored  goods. 

Turkey-red. 

Cambrics. 

Shillings. 

d 

<u 
g 

»? 

1 

3 

Mull  stripes. 

Twills  and  dim- 
ities. 

Prints. 

Sarries  and 
dresses. 

Sundries  not 
classified. 

7-8. 

9-8. 

_2 
|         7-8.        9-8. 

a 

Scarfs. 

Jan  
Feb 

1,  427 
1.491 

i.  ir,-j 

1,  146 
1,117 
1,025 
1,197 
1,  556 

r.8;{ 

837 
1,439 
1,178 

93 
54 
26 
120 
49 
111 
145 
6f> 

55 

45 
23 

590 
777 
,037 
,690 
,428 
,596 
,057 
,618 
809 
,368 
,381 
929 

39 
45 
18 
95 

43 

24 
41 
44 
17 

22 
5 

•-' 

54 
107 
22 
82 
95 
28 
72 
119 
68 
83 
86 
82 

5            99        106 
9             79          34 
9             61          53 
4             35          25 
5        167 

10 
5 

97 

197 
119 
222 
128 
187 
200 
403 
96 

2 
1 
7 
24 
2 
2 
2 
3 

1 

Mar 

5 
1 

Apr  

Mav 



10 
10 

~mi  

60        112 

lulv 

12             60         17". 
27           165        274 
12           148          47 
36           113          94 
41             80          87 
12        .       7          98 

5 

Auj;  
S«.pt  

Oct 



212           26 
119           43 
1'Jl           90 

Nov 

Dec 





Total  .  .  . 

14,  148       786     14,  280 

395 

898 

6 

1 

167           914     VJti'J 

40  J2,  171         202 

Months. 

Colored  goods. 

Dyed. 

Printed. 

Shirtings. 

• 

^3 
£ 

.2 

"z, 

Cambrics  and 
madapollams. 

oc 

5= 

•£ 

- 

Sundries  not 
classified. 

Muslins. 

Cambrics. 

Handkerchief  8 
and  scurfs. 

Sundries  not  clas- 
sified. 

fe«       8 

^            £j 

Sg     a-g 

°f-       1-5 

t-CJ                0 

Over  30 
inches. 

Jan    

25 
54 
121 
37 
9 
6 
8 
11 
7f. 

i:n 

84 
13 

7 
5 
7 
3 
2 

84 
79 
93 
77 
97 
88 
8L 
21)3 
123 
200 
184 
97 

16 
3 
22 
46 
75 
19 
20 
94 
M 
48 
7/ 
49 

181 
187 
128 
159 
116 
119 
228 
£48 
157 
232 
215 
212 

5 
10 
.A... 

5 

33           399 
82           577 
321 
«2           601 
2.1           565 
696 
30           Mi:i 
74      ],•<:«] 
12U           G7f> 
22           722 
47           598 
10           293 

308 
561 
331 
496 
475 
252 
523 
424 
282 
470 
380 
252 

44 
70 
58 
41 
15 
12 
133 
113 
30 
45 
67 
52 

36 
74 
68 
65 
30 
25 
52 
60 
46 
58 
55 
136 

Feb 

20 
29 
23 
1 

Mar  
Apr      

il.lS 

•Jinn-     .     ... 

Julv  

An" 

"23" 

oU 
7 
4 

4 
3 
3 
14 

11 

Sept  

O.T      . 

Nov. 

Dec   

Total  .  . 

j         574 

159 

59 

1,316 

529 

2,174 

25  i        570       7,352 

4.754 

680 

705 

122       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1887— Continued. 


Months. 


Jan  ......  . 

Feb  ......  . 

Mar  .....  . 

Apr  ......  , 

May  ..... 

June  ..... 

July  ..... 

Auij  ...... 

Sept  ..... 

Get  ...... 


Dec 


Total  . . 


Colored  goods. 


Woolens. 


84 
52 

44 

03 

73 
64 
243 
084 
537 
551 
470 
107  i 


742   3,032    1521,172 


If) 
•24 
37 
Ifl 
34 
52 

12' 

2:: 

21!  7 

209 
98 
1)3 


Sundries. 


627|  1,495   225   1,38   2,230 


52 

58 

67 

151 

94 

111 

114 

2C3 

124 

109 

141 

101 


Shawls. 


o  a 
.23 


|I 


i 

20 
87 
263 
614 
605 
377 
131 


1 1 


57 
42 
71 
74 
71 
50 
102 
258 

1771  263 
102  339 
45i  173 
49,  123 


16 
125 


Cotton 
thread. 


213 
189 
211 
245 
175 
105 
112 
129 

47 
111 
112 

93 


142 
185 
157 
157 

218 
177 
226 
433 

273 
387 
315 

27:; 


5971,623  1,742!  136J2,  943  5,  676 


261 
420 
622 
833 
687 
562 
563 
664 
179 
327 
263 
275 


Yarn  and  twist. 


Gray  yarns. 


Months. 


Jan 

Feb 

Mar 

Apr 

May 

June 

July 


Sept  .....  . 

Oct  ...... 

Nov  ...... 

Dec... 


1,327 
1, 925  22 
1,720  j  65 
1,049  132 
986  " 
2,270 
1,849 
2,091 
1,  628 
1,576 
1,922 
2,074 


Total  ...  20.417   339 


667 
896 
1,181 
1,217 
250 
322 
59!) 
466 
717 
815 
479 
978 


8,587 


1,125 


37  50 
23  59 

83  I  63 
48  f78 
•M  52 
15  35 
103  40 
113  j  98 
98  54 
140  81 
123  83 
89  94 


908 


787 


19 
.12 
20 
25 
14 
18 
32 
40 
25 
29 
32 
23 

289 


Is 


£ 

H 

B 

3 

£ 

'O 

"S 

1 

fl 

e 

5 

5 

« 

,£3 

o 

^ 

fl 

"o 
O 

H 

o 

H 

297 

1,078 

31,  667 

216 

1,  182 

38,  822 

70,  489 

245 

1,  198 

40,  632 

111,121 

292 

1,  993 

47,  828 

158,  949 

383 

1,677 

39,631 

198,  529 

110 

1,225 

34,  225 

232,  754 

235 

823 

36,  469 

269,  223 

403 

1,124 

51,  272 

320,  495 

253 

681 

37,  092 

357,  587 

376 

1,059 

46,  167 

403,  754 

485 

1,246 

44,  000 

4  1  7,  185 

443 

1,  022 

36,  653 

484,  153 

3,738 

14,  308 

484,  45fc 

3,  054,  239 

COTTON   TEXTILES    IX    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
Statement  allowing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 


Mouth*. 

Gray  goods. 

Shirtings. 

9 

1 

3 

36  to  39  inches. 

41  to  44 
inches. 

B 
O 

A 
% 

io 

2 

s 

OB 

• 

£ 
Pi 

Z 

1 

as 

i> 

| 
£J 

00 

-3 

s 
1 

•* 

d 

9 

«o 
tfj 

2 

10 

<9 

1 

JO 

2 
3 

0 

1 
1 

to 
t~' 

3 

t- 

4 
I 

r-t 

3 

3 

CO 

| 
I 

£H 

0k 

2 
S 

1 
1- 

0 

3 
S 

»o 

1! 

i» 

c_=_ 

ss 

2 

1 

11 

a0 

t- 

00 

i 

ft 

oo 

oo 

Jan 

168 

35 

*> 

231 
194 
270 
473 
578 
645 
460 
607 
511 
492 
304 
316 

1,  080     3,  234 
1,  140     3,  589 
1,  092     4,  476 
1,  567     5,  282 
1,470     4,835 
1,  492     5,  965 
1,  655     4,  128 
1,981     5,126 
1,839     5,314 
1,  840     5,  536 
2,  125     6,  852 
1,  885     5.  220 

3,245 
3,  632 
3,343 
3,112 
2,671 
3,104 
2,189 
3,265 
2,817 
3,130 
4,460 
3,594 

2,679 
2,377 
2,  22! 
1,850   ] 

,9H  ; 

,977  1 
,085 
,529 
,765 
,582 
2,288 
2,356 

23,620   i 

840 
994 
969 
,116 
705 
666 
290 
494 
647 
732 
744 
508 

19 

MB 

1,298 
1,306 
Qpfi 

806 
1,018 
555 
890 
989 
1,311 
1,  193 
1,070 

81 
30 
21 
4(1 
20 
124 
78 
51.1 
507 

f.f.O 
2(52 

6 

18 

Feb  

Mar 

114           2 

101 

21 

.    .. 

Apr  
Mav 

207 
124 
196 
142 
214 
263 
256 
441 
291 

3 
9 
90 
70 
29 
40 
36 
55 
39 

125 
120 
110 
165 
76 
62 
39 
69 
111 

17 
28 

1IC 
3M 
-l(il 
556 
502 
133 

y*J  

June  
July 

25 
11 
G 
16 
26 
15 
13 

Aug     ... 

Sept 

Oct  

Nov 

Dec  

Total... 

2,577 

373 

938   5,081    19,166 

1 

59,557 

38,  582 

J,  705 

152 

L2.327  3,167 

J,  199 

Months. 

Gray  goods. 

Madapollams. 

Jaconets. 

Mulls. 

T-cloths. 

32    inches    and 
under. 

If 

o  f 
a  P. 
.«  p 

3 

z 
1 

i 

1 

o 

— 

I 

| 

i 
3 
sf 

• 
• 

§ 

I 

9 

I 

o 

s 

2 
S 

! 

•^ 
3 

eo 

<o 

1O 

• 

a 
to 

1 

3 

o 
I- 

00 

-1    90 

88 

5* 

w 

sj 

2% 
ZA 

I* 
*l 

s» 

Jan  .  .  . 

44 
61 
69 
107 
49 
75 

u 

l« 

179 
82 
102 
41 

89 
153 
134 
215 
163 
208 
145 
310 
145 
144 
M6 
262 

132 

105 
205 
200 
111 
184 
109 

12*5 
194 
H71 
»l 

35 
23 

47 
55 
5 
42 
6 
30 
38 
70 
106 
49 

1,034 
1,009 
1,058 
1,017 
1,181 
1,120 
1,262 
1,760 
1,600 
1,906 
2,247 
1,  558 

225 
201 
100 
157 

10» 

200 
173 
148 
107 
12ii 
148 
124 

i 

5 
7 
17 
5 
7 
5 
4 
10 

122 

47 
33 
104 
44 
78 
24 
38 
7 

50 
141 
50 
56 
33 
42 
31 
24 
14 
9 

2 
4 

3 

400 
608 
581 
601 
429 
366 
351 
129 
214 
88 
55 
57 

78 
73 
8 
19 
8 
72 
13 
6 
5 
39 
29 
79 

10 
28 
107 
32 
23 
4 
52 
8 
5 
15 
1 
44 

15 
3 

77 
*9 
2t 
2 
9 
95 
•>:{ 
34 
49 
80 

Feb  
Mar  .... 

Apr 

Mav"' 

June 

July 

Aug  

Sept 

Oct 

Nov 

2 

7 

28 
26 

13 

18 

"io" 

Dec.. 

Total... 

942 

2,276 

2,067       506 

16,752   1,818 

70 

551 

481 

19 

3,859 

429 

329 

477 

124       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1888— Continued. 


Months. 

Gray  goods. 

White  goods. 

1 

1 

GO 

• 

13 

s§ 

Q 

i 

A 
0 

1 

e 

D  booty  bordered. 

3 

cd 
"S 

1 

•4J 

I 

-5 
a 

E 
CC 

S, 

p 

Ti 
1 

Jaconets. 

1 

2 
cc 

• 
S 

S3 

"3 

3 

« 

1 

^ 

09 

*3 

s 

! 

"o 

H 

ti 

o 

15 
p 

1 

1 

o 
a 

i 

m 

i> 

^3 
O 

S 

|4H 

a> 

CO 

_o 

i 

599 
537 
663 
849 
849 
I  '044 
787 
1,071 
866 
828 
1,024 
555 

P< 
p 

M 

S0 
«> 

= 

0 

Jan  

15 

7 
28 
4 
12 
33 
7' 
63 
9 
8 
10 
7 

261 
200 
552 
655 
544 
710 
686 
907 
686 
594 
1,116 
965 

280 
620 
260 
464 
408 
356 
556 
1,385 
1,282 
2,142 
1.221 
927 

4,309 
4,823 
4,686 
4,642 
5,973 
5  892 

65 
123 
78 
115 
74 
40 

5 
1 
19 

28 

7 

8 
17 

,151 
,  130 
,461 
,  528 
,334 
1,  495 
9!),r) 
977 
863 
776 
952 
721 

312 

479 
311 
426 
294 
282 
166 
230 
171 
222 
295 
264 

812 
925 
9S7 
,458 
,187 
,501 
,076 
,  432 
,588 
,108 
832 
480 

Feb  

Mai- 

Apr  .. 

11 
5 
25 
45 
80 
90 
56 
56 
38 

May 

June..  .. 

July... 

4,  731 
6,688 
6,697 
5,421 
6,215 
4,992 

18 

All**  . 

Sept  

12 

97 
156 
90 

Oct  

2 

4 
2 

Nov. 

Dec  

Total... 

203 

7,876 

9,901  165,069 

868 

68 

...1  

431 

13,383   .0,452 

),672   13,386 

1 

Months. 

"White  goods. 

Mulls. 

rr. 

S 

O 

ts 

S 

CS 
01 

.2 

,s 

O 

J 

? 
H 

03 

a 

"a! 

s 
S 

1 

"1 

is 

s- 

of 

1 
ft 

O 

.2 
a> 

1 

• 

1 

1 

1 

| 

1 

S 

• 

p 

CS 

S 
T3 

S 

1 

96 
94 
111 
133 
186 
226 
46 
103 
97 
62 
,     69 
55 

1 

o 

~0 

p 

05 

'G 
1 

p 
p 

ni 

o 

ac  t 
I* 

O 

.9 
8 

£ 

Si 

sl 

b 
O> 

S 

i 

1 

3 

_o 

5 

1 

0 

.S 
$ 
3 
% 

1 
s 

1 

O 

Jan     ....... 

49 
47 
31 
138 
101 
197 
51 
52 
135 
81 
143 
83 

169 
182 
173 
149 
214 
233 
2;i9 
510 
613 
525 
525 
481 

67* 
846 
737 
650 
489 
512 
385 
476 
598 
860 
880 
799 

161 
231 
225 
197 
183 
116 
164 
112 
89 
107 
151 
308 

11 

58 
21 
31 
51 
13 
61 
81 
32 
141 
30 
16 

29 
53 
90 
24 
15 
16 
37 
20 
20 
22 
36 
26 

388 

67 
53 
26 
32 
22 
9 

""29 
11 

75 

21 

lie 
10< 
15< 
12? 
9£ 
5S 
64 
104 
66 
72 
174 
74 

66 
11J 
87 
157 
176 
log 
12? 
130 
104 
85 
34 
85 

50? 
401 
39f 
294 
22C 
9C 
354 
]4C 
21  f 
318 
342 
246 

983 
1,762 
1,  161 
975 
i727 
,023 
,099 
,614 
,498 
,390 
,462 
956 

9' 

184 
13C 
9t 

7* 
¥1 
5C 
7C 
11C 
71 
46 
49 

390 
3«S 
317 
344 
178 
253 
35(j 
613 
526 
823 
271 
151 

113 
100 
187 
124 
150 
99 
92 
55 
35 
81 
36 
79 

Feb  

Mar 

May  

Jnlv          -  . 

Ansr    . 

Sent 

Oct 

Hov  

Dec 

Total... 

1,109 

4,013 

7,910 

2,044 

546 

345 

1,211 

1,328 

3,  524 

14,  650 

1,011 

4,110 

1,278 

1,151 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IX    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  125 

Statement  shomny  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 
1888-Continued. 


Months. 

Colored  goods. 

Turkey-red. 

Cambrics. 

Shirtings. 
Jaconets. 

1 
1 

Mull  stripes. 

Twills  and 
dimities. 

Prints. 

(H 
1 

Sanies  and 
dresses. 

Similri' 

classified. 

i 

1 

t  :i 

1 

00 

Jan  

,384 
,408 
,405 
.466 
,463 
1,564 
1,316 
1,  001 
975 
996 
1,  051 
903 

23 
83 
98 
83 
23 
73 
93 
16 
26 
14 
64 
16 

662    

535          5 
735        2g 
1,011         53 
958         46 
955         71 
1,  343         99 
847         39 
717         21 
1,  1*9         42 
1,  557         80 
1,  186         27 

137 

107 
100 
118 
95 
101 
143 
211 
136 
122 
170 
130 

10    ... 

17 
107 
37 
176 
141 
73 
185 
115 
60 
60 
17 

46 
59 
69 
91 
75 
90 
89 
32 
75 
47 
60 
17 

lO'J 
LTO 
181 
157 
334 
68 
287 
307 
186 

-.": 

141 

113 
86 

10 
12 
19 
19 
12 
56 
44 
56 



Mar  

i 

Mav 

10 

1 

12 
2 

July 

57    

5 
3 
6 
18 
16 
7 

Sep't 

Oct 

19 

1 

If  ov  
Dec 

Total... 

14,  932 

612      11,695       511    1,570 

57    66           988 

750 

45   2,345 

! 

492 

Months. 

Colored  goods. 

Dyed. 

Printed. 

Shirting* 

Jaconets. 

3 

Cambrics  and  madapol- 
lams. 

§ 

Sundries  not  classified. 

Muslins. 

Cambrics. 

Handkerchiefs  and  scarfs. 

Sundries  not  classified. 

7-8,  under  25  inches. 

9-8,  26  to  30  inches. 

8 

1 

o 

p 
0 

Jan 

22 
21 
87 
5 

15 
4 

10 

3 
3 
11 
9 
16 
8 
14 
4 
10 
16 
1 
4 

82 
147 
147 
132 
85 
69 
99 
171 
207 
158 
129 
77 

103 
96 
36 
42 
58 
73 
67 
56 
47 
45 
27 
56 

295 

298 
317 
282 
240 
175 
166 
246 
306 
206 
231 
223 

24 
13 
18 
47 
14 
67 
11 
183 
143 
65 
187 
121 

893 

214 
352 
265 
389 
336 
428 
823 
889 
867 
1,030 
1,002 
539 

248 
239 
452 
485 
489 
471 
578 
630 
838 
744 
571 
432 

103 
86 
59 
83 
49 
61 
57 
297 
37 
69 
34 
41 

57 
125 
45 
88 
98 
193 
211 
379 
174 
65 
52 
33 

Feb.  . 

5 

Mar  

Apr 

9 

30 
20 

""5" 
2 
9 

4 
1 

May  

15 
26 
39 
50 
60 
65 
17 
29 

10 

June 

July  .  . 

Aug 

Sept  .  .  . 

Oct 

Nov 

Dec  

Total... 

376 

49         99 

1,503 

706 

2,985         85 

7,134 

6.177 

976 

1,520 

126 


COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


Statement  showing  piece  goods  imported  into  Calcutta,  etc. — Continued. 

\ 
1888-Continued. 


Colored  goods. 

Sundries. 

Woolens. 

0! 

Shawls. 

Cotton 

•Jj 

thre0'1 

CQ 

a  • 

£      . 

W) 

a 



•3 

Months. 

a 

<u 

. 

.2 

ll 

1 

« 

o 

•n 

'o 

o 

4 

S 

"c§ 

| 

1 

11 

.22 

rt 

TS 

S 

a? 

cS 

h 

0 

o> 

a 

— 

.2'S 

«, 

5 

o  1 

to 

CS 

§^ 

9 

£? 

oo 

8 

1 

~ 

O 

'C 

3 

a 

CS 

I 

3 
CG 

05 

^A 

I 

a 
O 

§ 

"o 
O 

1 

1 

OJ 

1 

1 

g 

Jan  

26 

169 

35 

30 

84 

226 

66 

109 

4? 

100 

11 

20 

119 

15 

250 

508 

Feb  

14 

32 

2 

63 

78 

110 

110 

64 

45 

76 

5 

18       74 

174 

12 

215 

Mar  

55 

34 

4 

56 

62 

204 

116 

94 

50 

39 

3 

18 

65 

175 

230 

987 

Apr  
May  

381       40 
31        67 

3 
1 

39 
60 

81 
150 

147 

102 

98 
22 

92 
135 

2! 
32 

102 
«•? 

9 
2 

7 
H 

97 

144 

111 

14 
11 

352 

949 
918 

June  

47     201 

36 

59 

55 

181 

64 

23       96 

14       8       81        104 

15     299 

999 

July 

431     193 

Ifi 

77 

79 

235 

134 

9!      95 

1871     381       76 

120 

14     359 

657 

Aug    .   .  .  

80'     498 

27 

174 

89 

634 

4 

39      104 

934     38  1     99A 

173 

14i     420 

419 

Sept  

63!     451 

53 

18V 

82 

453 

17 

169 

30       83 

651!  127 

426 

61 

7!     350 

289 

Oct 

102     276 

50 

185 

75 

477 

4 

125 

5o|       74 

518     89 

371 

144 

19 

303 

499 

120     150 

45 

267 

103 

329 

25 

145 

4       81 

498     851     Sfi.> 

132 

8 

306 

480 

Dec 

471       99 

50]     117 

222 

7 

70 

\')\     102 

216 

23 

141 

186 

16 

219 

414 

Total  .  .  . 

666 

i     1Uw 

2,210 

2851,24211,055 

3,320 

483 

1,331 

357 

1,034 

3,048 

475 

2,167 

1,643 

145 

3,556 

7,885 

Months. 

Yarn  and  twist. 

Gray  yarns. 

Colored  yarns. 

If 

"1 

1 
>) 

1 

H 

Monthly  total. 

Totals  from  Jan.  1. 

S3 

9 

^ 

cS^ 

I 

I 

J 

1 

1 

1 

55 
45 
76 
88 
62 
87 
49 
69 
44 
38 
50 
75 

, 

I 

110s  and  up- 
wards. 

Assorted 
numbers. 

Jan 

2,055   133 
2,328|     15 
1,  229J     49 
770     36 
898     15 
1,2731     27 
3,  412     20 
2,346       5 
2,  689i     11 
1,676!     88 
1,293     84 
2,  940  .... 

757 
1,008 
937 
893 
939 
865 
841 
698 
535 
1,199 
1,120 
908 

76 
129 
93 
104 
18 
50 
100 
152 
57 
149 
175 
139 

94 
146 
196 
175 
143 
77 
65 
62 

8 

2 

63 
63 

100 
130 
84 
71 
46 

s 

?! 

71 

27 
27 
42 
38 
17 
37 
21 
32 
21 
28 
28 
29 

21 
38 
39 
30 
16 
21 
18 
34 
25 
23 
27 
26 

26 
40 
31 
18 
13 
20 
19 
36 
17 
21 
18 
16 

"*3 

o 
3 
4 

"*6 
11 
1 
1 

2 
4 

429 
575 
642 
662 
445 
170 
161 
164 
151 
257 
527 
633 

1,498 
1,240 
1,333 
1  429 
1,264 
841 
880 
564 
457 
636 
925 
1,026 

36,  848 
40,  847 
40,  362 
42,  267 
39,  669 
42,  732 
38,  867 
48,  642 
46,  752 
47,  224 
52,  491 
42,  779 

Feb 

77,  695 
118,  057 
160,  324 
199,  993 
242,  725 
231,  592 
330,  234 
376,  986 
424,210 
476,  701 
519,480 

Mar 

Apr  

May  
June  

July  

Aucr 

Sept  

Oct 

Nov  

Dec  
Total... 

22,  909 

483 

10,7001,2421,192 

919 

738 

347 

318 

275     37   4,816 

12,  093 

519,  i  80  3,207,997 

COTTON    TEXT1LKS    IN    roiJKKiX    COUNTRIES. 


127 


BOMBAY. 

THE  CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE, 

Bombay,  July  24,  1889. 
B.  F.  FARNHAM,  Esq., 

Consul  for  the   rnitcd  States,  Bombay  : 

DEAR  SIR  :  With  reference  to  your  letter  No.  476  of  the  18th  instant, 
I  am  directed  by  the  committee  of  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  to  hand 
you  the  accompanying  statements  showing  the  quantities  and  values 
of  textile  fabrics  imported  into  Bombay  from  foreign  countries  during 
the  years  1887->88  and  1888-'89.  As  to  the  weight  per  yard,  I  regret  it 
is  not  possible  to  give  this  in  each  particular  case,  but  the  average 
values  of  the  different  descriptions  of  goods  imported  have  been  shown, 
and  these  may  also  give  you  an  idea  as  to  how  the  various  goods  are 
purchased.  As  regards  the  place  of  manufacture,  this  also  can  not  be 
given,  but  the  countries  from  which  the  goods  have  been  imported  are 
shown  as  fully  as  possible. 

There  are  no  import  duties  on  any  kind  of  cotton  goods. 
I  am,  dear  sir,  yours  faithfully, 

JOHN  MANHALL, 

Secretary. 


Quantities  and  values  of  cotton  textile  fabrics  imported  into  Bombay  from  foreign  countries 
during  the  official  years  1887-'88  and  1888-'89. 


Articles  and  countries  whence  imported. 

1888-'89. 

1837-'88. 

Quantities.          Value. 

Quantities. 

Value. 

PIECE    GOODS. 
Gray  (unbleached)  : 

Yards. 
324,974,641 
8,717 
8,000 

:;«.»,  740 

1,550 
2,  5J8,  800 
44,790 
10,433 
44,  029 

Rupee*.* 
37,  256,  705 
4,113 
3,906 
21,  650 
325 
548,  333 
9,544 
2,226 
7,773 

Yards. 
299,224,112 

Rupees* 
32,  653,  295 

\  ii-itvia 

Italy 

25,096 
1,  950 
627,  000 
121,  528 
21,600 
64 
78 
10,156 
900 

13,566 
230 
128.  512 
23,  914 
2,  141 
13 
7 
1,020 
150 

United  States  

Aden 

Arabia                      .              

China 

JYrsia                          

3,015 
2,157 

280 

:<27 

Straits  Settlement 

Total 

'r!7,  C66,  47* 

37,  855,  182 

300,  032,  484 

32,  822,  848 

White  (bleached): 
United  Kingdom 

176,017,058 
375,  499 
6,800 
134,  962 

21,  480,  823 
117,  541 
900 
49,007 

118,  564,  498 
562,383 
22,  325 
34,879 
436 
350,945 
2,000 
245,  000 

15,  900,  841 
177,  018 
3,231 
11,187 
463 
110,  954 
600 
60,888 

Austria                                          

France 

<  r^nnanv  -  - 

Italy 

793,  783 

230,  179 

United  States                   

600 
100 
2,912 
4,600 
3,580 
3,191 
4.138 

225 
22 
315 

890 
1,  l!r, 
630 
692 

Natal...     .                       .       . 

\<lfii 

6,578 
1,150 

1,016 
375 

Arabia  

(Vylnn  .    

<  'iiina 

160 
872 

70 
141 

.Mi  aits  Settlement.. 

*One  rupee  -  32.3  cents. 


128  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Quantities  and  values  of  cotton  textile  fabrics  imported  into  Bombay,  etc. — Continued. 


Articles  and  countries  whence  imported. 

1888-89. 

1887-m 

Quantities. 

Value. 

Quantities. 

Value. 

PIECE  GOODS—  continued. 
White  (bleached)  : 

Yards. 
4,600 
40 

Rupees  * 
835 
5 

Yard*. 
1,  206 
1,  592 
2hO 
20 

Rupees.* 
134 
255 
56 
16 

Madagascar  

Total  

177,  351,  863 

21,883,559 

119,  794,  324 

16,  267,  245 

Colored,  printed,  or  dyed: 
United  Kingdom  

148.  562,  785 
400,  847 
117,  178 
426,  433 
54,  221 
13,  945 
920,  869 
20,  148 
16,  508 
5,430 
174 
8,168 
29,  219 
1,932 
1,610 
679 
43,  996 
36,  054 
5,378 

21,  281,  954 
102,  052 
30,  663 
273,  817 
17,  745 
5,  042 
178,  801 
4,  653 
5,100 
543 
68 
1,087 
16,  834 
869 
514 
171 
8,  242 
7,790 
957 

132,178,916 
881,  622 
127,  567 
1,  268,  763 
56,  754 
11.250 
280,  988 
1,  108 
10,  886 

19,417,850 
173,  767 
37,  754 
718,  807 
14,  554 
3,500 
80,  112 
187 
3,598 

Austria 

Holland  

It'll  V 

Zanzibar  .  -. 

Natal       

Aden 

3,  8l'6 
82,  350 
44 
4,  820 
144 
13,  615 
28,  704 
5,  425 

560 
45,  558 
35 
2,066 
48 
2,  821 
5,912 
1,062 

China                                 -         ... 

Straits  Settlement 

Total         

150,  665,  574 

21,936,902       134,956,782 

20,  508,  191 

Handkerchiefs  and  shawls: 

Number. 
11,  891,  244 
99,  582 
1,596 
22,  660 
65,  856 
4.080 
74 
288 
108 
2,  616 
3,604 
181 

1,  280,  520 
24,  363 
996 
21,  556 
15.  876 
4J6 
100 
72 
9 
436 
1  06 
61 

Number. 
10,  796,  875 

8,  060 

1,  133,  995 
6,117 

25,  264 

8,  772 
8,020 

21,  480 
2.  36!> 
1,470 

Italy 

-Egypt          

China 

1,  200 

50 

Straits  Settlement  

36 
3,330 
199 
64 

5 
6,  985 
66 
128 

Turkey  in  Asia  

Victoria         ..          

180 

20 

24 

9 

Total                                                < 

12,  092,  06!) 
=  1,007,672 
dozens. 

S     1,  345,  041 

i  10,  851,  8-14 
<    —904  390 

V       1,  172,  674 

"I 

Lace  and  patent  net: 
United  Kingdom      

(     dozens. 

Yards. 
1,  264,  866 
86,  087 
10,  009 
53,  5*8 
6,  231 

283,  538 
39,  2(i9 
6,  524 
29,  3U6 
1.724 

Yards. 
1,804,409 
67,  462 
11,919 
31,  575 

I          387,611 
38,  :«:!9 
5,  525 
20,  172 

Italv        

EffVDt 

Cevlon             .        ...... 

200 
353 

100 
104 

451.  851 

China 

Total  

1,  420,  781 

360,  421 

1,915,918 

Thread,  sewing: 
"United  Kingdom  

Pounds. 
308,  928 

463,  490 

Pounds. 
361,  075 
760 
2,  857 
2,526 

484,  792 
713 
2,671 

2,  647 

Austria 

Belgium              .  . 

426 

2,  254 
186 
7,206 
70 

155 
2,856 
343 
1,328 
70 

Germany  

Aden 

Persia 

China       

1,000 
1 
3 

2,500 
1 
1 

Straits  Settlement 

Turkey  in  Asia  

Total 

319,  070 
rupee  =  32.3  ce 

468,  242 
tits. 

368,  222 

493,  325, 

*One 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  129 

Quantities  and  values  of  cotton  textile  fabrics  imported  into  Bombay,  etc.— Continued. 


1888 

-'89. 

1887 

-'88. 

Quantities. 

Value. 

Quantities. 

Value. 

PIECE  GOODS  —  continued. 

Hosiery,  canvas,  etc.: 
United  Kingdom 

Yards. 

Rupees.* 

046  M) 

Yards, 

Rupees.* 
615  136 

Austria          

61  176 

17  396 

18  135 

9  217 

France 

1  310 

'g96 

33  415 

6  096 

8  182 

882 

pt              

75 

580 

United  States 

37 

29 

488 

150 

Ceylon         

146 

175 

177 

Straits  Settlement  

g 

62 

547 

6  778 

Turkey  in  Asia  

1  665 

Total  

776  651 

658  226 

Total  imports  of  cotton  fabrics 

84,  625  998 

79  374  350 

*  One  rupee  =  32.3  cents. 


UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Bombay,  July  26,  1889. 


B.  F.  FABNHAM, 

Consul. 


CEYLON. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  PATERSON. 

(1)  The  quantity  imported  per  annum  is  about  3,000,000  pieces. 

(2)  The  weight  per  yard  depends  on  the  kind.    Gray  shirting,  for 
instance,  varies  from  7  to  12  pounds  per  piece  of  30  yards. 

(3)  They  are  purchased  by  the  piece. 

(4)  They  are  manufactured  chiefly  in  and  imported  frqm  the  United 
Kingdom  and  British  India. 

(5)  The  duty  charge  is  5  per  cent. 

W.  B.  PATERSON, 

Vice-Consul, 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Colombo,  September  2,  1889. 
608A 9 


130 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


CHINA. 


CHIN  KIANG. 

Table  of  cotton  goods  imported  at  Chin  Kiang  (from  Shanghai  and  Hong-Kong)  during 

1888. 


"Weight 

] 

Duty. 

Description  of  goods. 

Pieces. 

Length. 

per 
piece. 

Per 

piece. 

Total. 

Shirtings  : 
Gray  plain    .  .  . 

892  971 

Yards. 
39 

Inches. 
39 

Pounds. 
10 

m.  c.  c. 
080 

Hk.  tls.m.c.c. 
71,  437  6  8  0 

Manchester,  England. 

White,  plain  

113,  894 

40 

36 

7 

080 

9,  111  5  2  0 

Do. 

White,  figured,  etc. 
Dyed  plain  .... 

50 
770 

40 
40 

36 
36 

7 
6 

100 
150 

5000 
115  0  0  0 

Do. 
Do. 

Dyed,  figured,  bro- 
caded etc 

19  936 

40 

36 

7 

150 

2,  990  4  0  0 

Do. 

T-cloths     

06,  481 

24 

32 

7 

040 

3,  859  2  4  0 

Do. 

Drills: 
English          

41,216 

40 

29 

15 

100 

4,  121  6  0  0 

Do. 

Dutch      

2,280 

40 

30 

15 

100 

228  0  0  0 

21  660 

40 

30 

15 

100 

2,  166  0  0  0 

Massachusetts. 

Jeans  : 
English 

1  810 

30 

31 

8 

075 

135  7  5  0 

Manchester,  England. 

American 

280 

30 

31 

8 

075 

21  0  0  0 

Massachusetts. 

Sheetings: 
English 

38  565 

40 

36 

15 

080 

3,  085  2  0  0 

Manchester,  England. 

American      .... 

1,548 

40 

36 

15 

080 

123  8  4  0 

Massachusetts. 

Chintzes,  furnitures, 
etc 

69  213 

24 

30 

5 

070 

4,  844  9  1  0 

Manchester,  England. 

Printed  twills  

12,  993 

25 

31 

3 

070 

909  5  1  0 

Do. 

Turkey  red  cottons  
Cotton  las  tings,  plain 
and  figured  

30,  926 
44,  475 

25 
30 

31 
31 

4 
5 

150 
200 

4,  638  9  0  0 
8,895  000 

Glasgow. 
Manchester,  England. 

403 

40 

36 

10 

200 

80  6  0  0 

Do. 

Velvets                

2,846 

35 

22 

6 

180 

512  2  8  0 

Do. 

Velveteens    

1.112 

35 

18 

9 

150 

166  8  0  0 

Do. 

Jaconets  and  cambrics. 
Lawns  and  muslins  
Dimities 

V  6,  150 

<        24 
]       12 
f       12 

30 
42 
40 

7 
2 
3 

SO  7  0 

430  5  0  0 

Do. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Chin  K.iang,  November  8,  1889. 


A.  C.  JONES, 

Consul. 


FOO-CHOW. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  CAMPBELL. 
COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  CHINA. 

The  principal  imports  from  foreign  countries  into  China  are  received 
first  at  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  and  from  thence  are  carried  by 
coasting  vessels  to  other  points  and  find  their  way  into  the  country 
Regular  communication  by  steam-ships  and  sail  vessels  is  kept  up  be- 
tween the  great  shipping  centers  of  the  world  and  these  two  ports. 
The  carrying  trade  with  foreign  country  is  largely  done  through  this 
medium,  coasting  vessels3  however,  run  regularly  from  these  points  to 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


the  several  ports  along  the  sea-board  thus  distributing  the  cargoes  dis- 
charged at  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai.  The  returns  made  by  the  cus- 
tom-house officials  of  imports  received  at  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai 
should  show  from  what  countries  the  goods  received  at  these  points 
were  imported,  whereas  at  other  points  all  imports  received  through 
these  two  places  are  tabulated  under  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  re- 
spectively. This  statement  is  made  to  show  that  there  is  no  way  of 
;isrt'i'tainiiig  here  the  place  of  manufacture  of  the  goods  received  here 
i  through  Hong-Kong  or  Shanghai. 

FOO-CHOW  IMPORTS. 

The  importation  of  cotton  textiles  for  the  year  1888  shows  an  increase 
over  the  preceding  year. 

The  total  importation  of  cotton  goods  of  all  kinds  in  1887  amounted 
i  to  762,046  taels ;  in  1888  the  imports  amount  to  783,792  taels,  showing 
a  net  increase  of  21,746  taels.    The  cotton  productions  of  America 
i  show  an  appreciable  gain  over  the  preceding  year. 

The  value  of  American  drills  imported  in  1887  amounts  to  13,313 
taels.  In  1888  the  returns  show  their  value  to  be  15,330  taels.  There 
is  quite  an  increase  in  the  imports  of  English  drills.  Iii  1887  the  fig- 
ures were  927  taels,  while  for  this  year  they  are  3,226  taels. 

Coit-jns  imported  into  Foochow  in  1888. 


Kinds. 

Value. 

Kinds. 

Value. 

Shirtings: 
Plain 

Tael*. 
139  763 

Cotton  damasks          .  ..............  . 

Taels. 
456 

A\*hit«  

68,321 

10  004 

Dyed 

8  218 

285 

Fi  "ured  etc 

6  044 

Jaconets,    cambrics,    lawns    muslins 

T-cloths 

464  703 

11  351 

Drills- 

5  967 

English                 

3,226 

Towels                     ..           

1  363 

15  330 

1  738 

Jeans  English 

870 

Cotton  goods  un  classed 

3  677 

Sheetings,  English     

7 

Cotton  yarn  ....  ...... 

4  285 

Ch'ntzes  and  furniture 

9  533 

Cotton  thread 

2  606 

984 

Turkey  red,  cottons     

16,884 

Total  

783,792 

Cotton  lastings,  plain  and  figured  

8,175 

IMPORTS  PROM  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

There  are  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  kind  and  quality  of  goods 
imported  at  this  port.  There  are  two  large  American  houses  engaged 
in  trade  here,  but,  strange  to  say,  most  of  the  goods  sold  are  pur- 
chased from  London  instead  of  from  American  cities.  Various  explana- 
tions are  given  for  this,  but  the  most  convincing  is  that  goods  can  be 
laid  down  here  at  less  cost  from  London  than  from  the  United  States 
cities.  Trade  is  rarely  governed  by  patriotic  principles ;  profit  is  its 
guiding  star. 


132       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

It  is  certainly  true  that  the  American  merchants  do  not  exercise  that 
care  and  judgment  in  packing  goods  shipped  to  foreign  countries  that 
the  English  or  Germans  do,  and  this  is  having  a  deleterious  effect  upon 
the  American  foreign  trade.  « 

I  witnessed  an  English  ship  discharging  its  cargo  here  and  the  dif- 
ference in  the  packing  of  goods  put  up  in  London  and  San  Francisco 
was  plainly  seen.  There  was  not  that  strength  and  neatness  in  the 
packages  from  San  Francisco  as  in  those  from  London.  The  officers  of 
the  ship  spoke  of  this,  and  demonstrated  clearly  the  loss  and  damage 
which  resulted  from  careless  and  insufficient  packing.  The  English 
predominate  in  business  affairs  in  this  country.  The  banking  houses 
and  steam-ship  companies  are  largely  under  the  control  of  the  English. 

DUTIES  ON  IMPORTS. 

The  officials  at  this  port  do  not  keep  a  separate  record  of  the  amount 
of  duties  paid  on  piece  goods  alone.  If  imported  from  Hong- Kong  full 
import  duties  would  be  charged  thereon,  but  if  imported  from  Shanghai 
or  other  Chinese  ports  they  would  probably  be  covered  by  exemption 
certificates,  and  therefore  would  not  be  chargeable  with  import  duties  at 
this  port.  The  import  duties  are  levied  in  accordance  with  the  British 
Treaty  of  Tientsin  of  1858,  agreed  upon  at  Shanghai  in  November  1858. 

This  tariff  is  identical  with  the  tariff  appended  to  the  treaty  between 
China  and  the  CTnited  States  of  America  concluded  Juy  3,  1844,  and 
proclaimed  April  18,  1846.  Class  10  of  that  tariff  covers  all  cotton 
fabrics  and  is  as  follows. 

\Extractfrom  Chinese  tariff.} 

*T.M.  o. 
Fabrics  of  cotton  and  canvas  : 

From  75  to  100  chik  long  and  1  chik  to  2  chile  2  tsun  wide,  per  piece 0    5    0 

Cotton,  allowing  5  per  cent,  for  tare,  per  100  catties 040 

Long  white  cloths  75  to  100  chik  long  2  chik  2  tsun  to  2  chik  6  tsun 
wide,  formerly  divided  into  superior  and  inferior  fine  cotton  cloth,  per 

piece 015 

Cambrics  and  muslins  from  50  to  60  chik  long  and  2  chik  9  tsun  to  3 

chik  3  tsun  wide,  per  piece 015 

Cottons,  gray  or  unbleached  domestic,  etc.,  from  75  to  100  chik  long  and  2 
chik  to  2  chik  9  tsun  wide,  formerly  classed  as  coarse  long  cloths,  per 

piece 0    1    0 

.Twilled  cottons,  gray,  same  dimensions,  per  piece 0    1     ^ 

Chintz  and  prints  of  all  kinds  from  60  to  75  chik  long  and  from  2  chik  9 
tsun  to  3  chik  to  3  tsun  wide,  formerly  called  ornamental  or  flowered 

cloths,  per  piece 020 

Cotton  yarn  or  cotton  thread,  per  100  catties 1    0    0 

Linen,  fine,  not  formerly  in  the  tariff,  from  50  to  75  chik  long  and  1  chik  9 

tsun  to  2  chile  2  tsun  wide,  per  piece 001 

Bunting,  per  chang 0    0  1| 

*The  tael  is  the  Haikwan  tael,  and  of  the  value  of  $1.21  in  gold.  1  Haikwau 
tael  equal  10  mace.  10  mace  equal  100  caudareens.  100  caudareeus  equal  1,000  cash. 
T.  stands  for  tael.  M.  for  mace.  C.  for  candareeua. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.       133 

All  other  imported  articles  of  this  class,  as  ginghams,  pulicats,  dyed 
cotton,  velveteens,  silk,  and  cotton  mixtures  and  mixtures,  of  linen  and 
cotton,  etc.,  5  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

Articles  not  enumerated  on  the  tariff  list  nor  on  the  free  list  pay  an 
ad  valorem  duty  of  5  per  cent. 

CONCLUSION. 

There  is  no  information  obtainable  covering  the  manner  of  purchas- 
ing from  abroad  of  goods  imported,  nor  is  it  possible  to  give  an  esti- 
mate of  the  weight  per  yard  of  the  cotton  cloth  used  here.  The  greater 
portion  of  it  is  manufactured  in  Manchester,  England.  In  time  the 
manufacturers  of  the  United  States  may  be  enabled  to  increase  the 
sale  of  their  goods  in  the  far  East,  but  competition  is  strong  and  active, 
having  well-established  communication  and  a  net- work  of  agencies  con- 
necting the  treaty  ports  of  China  with  the  places  of  supply.  A  knowl- 
edge of  the  wants  of  the  people  is  almost  indispensable,  but  judgment 
in  the  selection  of  articles,  care  in  packing,  and  quick  dispatch,  should 
never  be  lost  sight  of  by  the  exporter. 

JNO.  TYLER  CAMPBELL, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Foo-Chow,  July  31,  1889. 


HONG-KONG. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  WITHERS. 

Hong-Kong  being  an  entirely  free  port  there  are  no  customs  returns, 
and  as  no  regulations  exist  (with  the  exception  of  those  referring  to 
opium)  requiring  returns  of  merchandise  either  imported  or  exported, 
the  trade  of  Hong- Kong,  large  as  it  is,  is  not  officially  recorded.  In 
the  absence  of  recognized  statistics,  reference  to  figures  is  of  little 
value ;  but  even  a  partial  reply  to  the  inquiries  contained  in  the  circu- 
lar of  instructions  may  be  of  some  interest. 

Hong-Kong  being  a  distributing  center  rather  than  a  place  of  con- 
sumption, the  bulk  of  the  goods  entered  here  find  their  way  by  dif- 
ferent routes  to  the  coast  ports  and  ultimately  to  the  interior  of  China. 

The  greater  part  of  the  cotton  goods  sold  in  Hong- Kong  are  the  prod- 
uct of  Lancashire  looms  and  are  divided  into  two  classes,  plain  and 
colored.  These  are  shipped  to  this  country  direct  from  Liverpool  and 
London.  Some  few  imports  of  cotton  goods  manufactured  in  India 
have  taken  place,  but  so  far  only  in  insignificant  quantities.  The  trade 
done  in  Indian  cotton  yarn,  however,  is  considerable.  American  cot- 
tons that  come  here  are  merely  passing  through  on  their  way  to  Chi- 
nese ports.  Goods  are  purchased  for  cash  by  a  class  of  middlemen 
acting  between  the  importers  and  the  Chinese  dealers. 


134 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


The  following  figures  are  compiled  from  returns  made  to  the  Hong- 
Kong  General  Chamber  of  Commerce  during  the  year  1888,  and  are, 
I  am  informed  by  the  secretary  who  kindly  furnished  them,  incomplete, 
as  a  large  part  of  the  trade  is  carried  on  by  firms  who  are  not  members. 
These  figures  therefore  serve  only  to  show  the  nature  of  the  trade,  as 
they  are  misleading  as  regards  quantities : 


Articles. 

Quantity. 

Weight. 

Width. 

Length. 

Gray  shirtings  
White  shirtings       

pieces.. 
do  

470,  000 
406,  000 

6  to  10  pounds.. 

Inches. 
39 
36 

Yards. 
38A 
40 

T-cloths 

do 

417  000 

6    pounds   to   8 

32 

24 

English  drills 

do 

19  000 

pounds  4  ounces. 

30 

40 

do 

10  000 

do 

11  000 

40 

do 

3  000 

28 

28 

Velvets  black 

do 

4  000 

, 

22 

Velveteens  .      ........  .     ..     ....     .... 

.     do.  . 

3,000 

18 

10  000 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Hong-Kong,  July  30, 1889. 


R.  E.  WITHERS,  JR., 

Vice-Consul. 


NINGPO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PETTTJS. 

I  have  the  honor  to  inclose  my  reports  on  cotton  textiles  imported 
into  this  consular  district  as  instructed.  It  has  been  a  hard  matter  to 
arrive  at  the  facts  outside  of  the  quantity. 

As  I  had  to  procure  information  from  native  merchants,  which  but 
few  of  them  would  give,  my  report  is  not  as  full  as  I  would  wish.  We 
have  no  merchants  here  who  are  direct  importers;  all  cotton  textiles  are 
bought  by  native  merchants  here  from  importers  at  Shanghai. 

I  have  only  given  the  weight  of  cotton  goods  imported  from  and  manu- 
factured in  Europe.  I  find  that  our  American  goods  are  of  full  weight, 
of  better  quality,  and  much  liked  by  the  Chinese. 

They  are  growing  in  favor  with  the  intelligent  Chinese  merchants 
and  customers. 

McCaslin  &  Co.,  American  merchants  here,  inform  me  that  they  have 
just  got  in  a  few  hundred  pieces  of  American  sheetings,  drillings,  etc., 
imported  direct;  this  is  their  first  venture  in  this  direction.  I  hope  it 
may  lead  to  further  importation  of  our  cotton  textiles. 

THOS.  F.  PETTUS, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Ningpo,  August  21,  1889. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.       135 

Import  of  cotton  goods  at  Ningpofor  the  half  year  ending  June  30,  1889. 


Description. 

First 
quarter. 

Second 
quarter. 

One-half 
year. 

EUROPEAN    GOODS. 
Shirtings: 

Pieces. 
88  910 

Pieces. 
171  601 

Pieces. 
260  501 

White                 t     

25  671 

14  413 

40  084 

T-Cloths                   

50,  695 

53  520 

104  215 

Drills  English 

1  260 

690 

1  950 

JVans: 
English... 

425 

370 

795 

Dutch           -•                                      . 

180 

180 

Sheetings  English        

1,545 

2  833 

4  378 

Chintzes 

3  976 

3  327 

7  303 

Turkey-red  cloths 

3  630 

963 

4,  593 

Velvets    

100 

144 

244 

AMERICAN  GOODS. 

Drills                      ...                                   .  . 

1  875 

1  410 

3  285 

Sheetings         

6  120 

6  580 

12  700 

American  goods  imported  into  Ningpo  (in  bales)  via  Shanghai,  in  the  year  1883. 


Articles. 

Quantity. 

Weight 
per  yard. 

Drills  

13  984 

Ounces. 
jj 

4,060 

G  to  8 

Sheetings                   .                                . 

17  270 

5  to  5J 

T-Cloths   

1,000 

4. 

European  cotton  piece-goods  imported  (via  Shanghai)  into  Ningpo  in  the  year  1888. 


Description. 

Quantity. 

Weight 
per 
yard. 

Manufact- 
ured. 

Duty,  United  States  Gold. 

Shirtings  ^rav  Dlain 

Pieees. 
421,  786 

41,893 
30,496 

200 
2,195 
141,  876 

7,730 
60 

9,900 
2,670 
4,250 
11,660 
3,202 

1,676 

8,820 
840 

Ounces. 
2-5 

3-5 

5i-6 
3MJ 

4i-5 
4i-5 
51 

"ilsi" 

4-5J 
2-2* 

England  .  . 
....do  
....do  

....do  
....do  
....do  

....do  ...  . 
Holland    . 

England   . 
Holland    . 
England   . 
do  
....do  

....do  

....do  
....do  

?  Per  piece  40  yards  by  —  inches, 
£     8.  8  cents. 

Per  piece  40  yards  by  —  inches, 
1.  65  cents. 
Not  over  24  yards  by  34  inches, 
4.  4  cents  ;  over  24  yards  by  34 
inches,  8.  8  cents. 

Not  over  30  inches  by  40  yards,  11 
cents  ;  not  over  30*  inches  by  30 
yards,  8.  35  cents. 

Per  piece,  8.  8  cents. 
Per  piece,  7.  7  cents. 
Not  over  34  inches  by   48  yards, 
8.  8  cents;    not  over  34  inches  by 
24  yards,  4.  4  cents. 
Exceeding  34  inches  by  40  yards, 
8.  8  cents. 

Not  over  46   inches  by   24  yards, 
7.  7  cents. 
Not  over  46  inches  by  12  yards.3.85 
cents. 

Do 

White  Irishes 

Shirtings,  dyed  : 
Plain 

Figured,  brocaded,  and  spotted. 
T-Cloths  

Drills: 
English 

Dutch  

Jeans  : 
English                       .  . 

Dutch  

Sheetings,  English  

Chintzes  and  furnitures  
Printed  T-cloths  

Printed  cotton  twills  

Turkey  red: 
Shirtings 

Cambrics  

136  COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

European  cotton  piece-goods  imported  (via  Shanghai)  into  Ningpo,  etc. — Continued. 


Description. 

Quantity. 

Weight 
per 
yard. 

Manufact- 
ured. 

Duty,  United  States  Gold. 

Cotton  lastings: 
Plain 

Pieces. 
1  584 

Ounces. 

Figured            »               ..... 

60 

Cotton,  Italian  : 
Plain                          .  .. 

2  248 

Italv 

Per  piece,  3.  85  cents. 

Figured    . 

910 

do 

"Velvets 

1  320 

England 

Velveteens                      ..      ....... 

102 

do 

Not  over  34  yards  long,  1.  65  cents. 

Muslins    

3  550 

do 

i  Not  over  46  inches  by  24  yards, 

Taffachellas 

5  781 

5-10 

do 

>     8.  35  cents  ;  not  over  46  inches 

Blue  Denims.  . 

300 

6 

do 

>     by  12  yards,  3.  85  cents. 

Cottonades  

20 

5-8 

do 

Dyed  shirtings,  shortcuts  (5  yards 

840 

*3i 

do 

Japanese  cotton  cloths  ......... 

1,715 

Japan 

Cottton  goods  unclassed. 

624 

*  Average. 

PROVINCE  OF   KWANGTUNG. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SEYMOUR,   OF  CANTON. 
QUANTITY  AND  KIND  IMPORTED  PER   ANNUM. 

The  official  return  of  the  six  Imperial  custom-houses  at  the  coast 
port  of  the  province  of  Kwangtung,  show  that  in  1888,  which  was 
nearly  an  average  year,  cotton  manufactures  or  textiles  were  imported 
to  the  value  of  $3,062,640  United  States  currency.  Of  this  amount 
about  three-fourths  (or  $2,300,000)  consisted  of  white  and  gray  shirtings ; 
including  the  better  qualities  gray  shirting  cloths,  which  are  designated 
in  custom-house  returns,  and  by  British  traders  and  merchants  in  mar- 
ket reports,  as  T-cloths,  which  are  really  "  gray  shirtings." 

The  other  fourth  of  imported  cotton  textiles  (stated  in  their  relative 
order  as  to  value  of  imports),  consists  of  chintz  and  furnitures,  velvets 
and  velveteens,  dyed,  figured,  brocaded,  and  spotted  shirtings,  drills, 
towels,  plain  and  printed  cambrics,  muslins,  and  lawns,  damasks,  quilts, 
and  handkerchiefs,  cretonne,  mosquito  netting,  Turkey  reds,  etc. 

WEIGHT  AND  QUALITY. 

The  circular  called  for  "  weight  of  cotton  textiles  per  yard ;"  t>ut  in 
China,  as  in  all  other  countries,  such  goods  as  "  gray  and  white  shirt- 
ings "  are  described,  bought,  and  sold,  with  reference  to  width,  length, 
and  weight  per  piece ;  and  buyers  and  sellers  also  take  into  considera- 
tion the  fineness  or  coarseness  of  texture,  and  styles  of  dressing,  with 
the  presence  or  absence  of  pipe-clay  or  other  materials  affecting  weight 
and  appearance;  as  many  European  goods  are  "loaded."  Gray  ehirt- 
ings  in  lengths  of  38£  to  39  yards,  and  from  36  to  39  inches  in  width, 
vary  from  6  to  10  pounds  per  piece  in  weight. 

Gray  T-cloths  (gray  shirtings)  in  lengths  of  24  yards,  and  32  inches 
in  width,  vary  from  6  to  8J  pounds  per  piece.  White  shirtings,  in 


COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES.  137 

lengths  of  40  yards,  and  36  inches  in  width,  vary  in  weight  from  9  to 
13  pounds,  or  even  more  for  strong  cloths ;  and  are  designated  as  to 
quality  by  reeds  54  to  56  reeds  being  common,  58  to  60  reeds  middling, 
64  to  66  being  good. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Having  carefully  compared  the  descriptions  and  valuations  of  custom- 
house appraisers  at  Canton,  with  the  commercial  reports  of  the  Hong 
Kong  Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  the  most  reliable  trade  reports  of 
Shanghai,  for  the  week  ending  July  26, 1889,  and  reduced  the  Mexican 
dollar  currency  of  Hong  Kong,  the  "  commercial  taels"  of  Shanghai, 
and  of  China  generally,  and  the  "  Haikwan  taels"  of  the  Chinese  Im- 
perial Customs,  to  the  standard  of  United  States  gold  currency,  I  beg 
to  state  the  following  particulars,  showing  how  cotton  textiles,  and 
especially  gray  and  white  shirtings,  are  bought  and  sold  in  Canton, 
and  at  the  two  great  or  chief  mark  ets  for  cotton  textiles  on  the  coast 
of  China,  or  Eastern  Asia,  for  Chinese  consumption,  or  use. 

Canton  and  the  other  ports  of  Kwangtung  province  and  of  southern 
China  get  or  buy  imported  or  foreign  textiles  principally  in  Hong-Kong, 
where  stocks  are  kept  by  the  large  and  wealthy  foreign  merchants,  who 
are  well  and  widely  known  as  commission  merchants,  ship  agents,  and 
owners,  etc.,  to  whom  consignments  are  made  direct  from  Europe  and 
America — sometimes,  perhaps,  on  joint  account. 

The  sales  are  made  through  Chinese  brokers  and  compradores  to 
native  jobbers  and  dealers  in  Hong-Kong  and  Canton  ;  and  payments  are 
usually  made  promptly,  or  within  a  week  or  ten  days,  if  not  on  de- 
livery of  the  goods. 

At  Canton,  as  at  most  of  the  Chinese  ports,  the  foreign  merchants 
give  their  attention  chiefly  to  execution  of  orders  from  Europe  and 
America  for  the  productions  of  China. 

The  two  ports  at  which  foreign  cotton  textiles  are  bought  and 
sold  in  large  quantities  are  Hong-Kong  (for  southern  China  trade)  and 
Shanghai  (for  central  and  northern  China  trade).  The  quotations  of 
prices  at  Hong-Kong  are  given  or  stated  in  trade  circles  in  Mexican  dol- 
lars and  cents  currency ;  74  cents  United  States  currency  being  about  the 
present  value  of  the  Mexican  dollar.  When  the  goods  are  purchased 
in  Hong-Kong  they  have  not  been  subjected  to  any  duty,  as  that  is  a 
free  port;  but  upon  reaching  Canton  and  other  ports  of  China  the 
Chinese  imperial  customs  collect  a  specific  duty  on  the  goods  on  the 
basis  of  pure  silver,  stated  in  the  Haikwan  taels,  of  the  value  of  about 
$1.56  Mexican  currency,  or  about  $1.15  United  States  currency.  At 
Shanghai,  as  throughout  China,  the  commercial  tael  is  about  $1.39 
Mexican,  equal  $1.04  United  States  currency;  and  the  price  quoted 
includes  the  duty. 

Traffic  between  Canton  and  Shanghai  is  extensive  enough  to  keep  in 
motion  about  fifteen  steam- ships,  aggregating  20,000  tons.  Freights 
are  moderately  low.  The  trip  seldom  exceeds  four  days  each  way.  Can- 


138  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

ton  capital  seeks  aiid  finds  employment  and  investment  in  all  portions 
of  the  Chinese  Empire  and  along  the  cost  of  eastern  Asia,  between 
India  and  Japan,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  Canton  merchants 
watch  the  markets  of  Shanghai  and  Hong-Kong  to  get  the  benefit  of 
the  lowest  prices  of  imported  cotton  textiles,  although  the  two  markets 
might  be  supposed  to  assimilate  by  the  ordinary  tendency  of  trade. 

Fluctuations  in  prices  of  imported  cotton  textiles  are  more  frequent, 
sudden,  and  severe  in  Shanghai  because  of  the  prevalent  custom  in  that 
city  of  selling  these  goods  at  auction  sales,  which  occur  several  days  in 
each  week,  and  tend  to  disturb  and  unsettle  valuations. 

Thus  Canton  and  other  Chinese  trade  centers  have  to  look  to  the  two 
prominent  markets-- of  Hong-Kong  and  Shanghai  for  supplies  of  im- 
ported cotton  textiles,  and  the  prices  of  those  two  markets  determine 
valuations  of  cotton  goods  of  foreign  manufacture. 

At  Shanghai  and  Hong- Kong  regular  and  accurate  trade  reports  are 
published  on  Friday  of  every  week. 

It  should  be  kept  in  view  that  the  Hong-Kong  markets  are  reported 
in  Mexican  dollars  and  cents,  and  the  Shanghai  markets  are  reported 
in  commercial  taels,  and  the  Chinese  custom-house  tariff  of  duties  and 
valuations  is  in  Haikwau  taels.  Quotations  need  explanation.  In 
each  tael  are  10  mace.  In  each  mace  are  10  candarines.  In  each  can- 
darinej  are  10  cash.  The  value  of  the  cash  i»  about  1  mill,  or  one- 
tenth  of  a  United  States  cent.  The  commercial  tael  is  about  $1.39 
Mexican,  equal  to  $1.04  United  States  currency,  and  the  Haikwan  tael 
is  about  $1.56  Mexican,  equal  to  $1.15  United  States  currency. 

PRICES. 

Cotton  textiles,  mostly  for  this  province  of  Kwangtung,  were  sold 
in  Hong- Kong  during  the  week  ended  July  26,  1889,  as  follows  (United 
States  currency): 

Gray  shirtings,  36  to  39  inches  wide,  3&£  yards  long  : 

6  pounds  weight - -- $0.  89 

7  pounds  weight 1.40 

8J  pounds  weight (3,550  pieces) 1.37-1.80 

9  to  10  pounds  weight  (1,550  pieces) 2.00-2.25 

T-cloth,  32  inches  wide,  24  yards  long  (ordinary) : 

6  pounds  weight --.  .89 

7  pounds  weight 1.22 

T-cloths  (Mexicans),  32  inches  wide,  24  yards  long  : 

7  pounds  weight  (7,650  pieces) 1. 37-1. 80 

8  to  8£  pounds  weight  (1,250  pieces) 1.52-1.63 

Drills  (English)  14  pounds  weight,  40  yards  long  (300  pieces) 2.  03-2. 26 

White  shirtings,  36  inches  wide,  40  yards  long  : 

54to56  "reeds" 1.27 

58  to  60  "reeds" 1.63 

64  to  66  "reeds"  (1,250  pieces) 1.78-1.85 

Bookfolds  and  fine  (11,200  pieces) 1.27-3. 40 

Bombay  cotton  yarn  (1,490  bales) 45.  00-60.  00 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


139 


The  Canton  or  Chinese  duty,  added  to  the  above  prices,  is  about  10 
cents,  United  States  currency,  per  piece  (8  candarines)  on  gray  shirt- 
ings, heavy  T-cloths,  and  white  shirtings ;  and  5  cents,  United  States 
currency,  on  light  T-cloths  and  about  1  cent  per  pound  on  cotton  yarn. 

Cotton  textiles,  mostly  for  northern  China,  during  the  week  ended 
July  26,  1889,  were  sold  (United  States  currency)  in  Shanghai  (duty 
paid)  viz: 


Article. 

Quantity. 

Weight 
per  piece. 

Price  per 
piece. 

Pieces. 
3  000 

Pounds. 

51 

$0  93 

Do 

3,000 

6 

0  98    1  05 

Do       

3,000 

7 

1.  10    1  65 

Do 

200  000 

g| 

1  42-  2  00 

Do 

9-10 

1  73-  2  45 

Do                   

6,000 

92-11 

2.  08-  '*'.  29 

Do 

12 

2  57    2  70 

T-cloths                                                                 

6 

.  78-  1.  10 

Do 

7 

90     1  25 

T-cloths  (Mexican)                                                                     ... 

6 

1  04-  1  15 

Do 

7 

1.04-  \.40 

Do 

8-8i 

1  40    2  02 

English  drills                                                                                  

15,000 

2.  25-  2.  78 

American  drills                    ..                ..       ...................  ..... 

25,  000 

2.  57-  2.  74 

White  shirtings  

12,000 

1.  69-  2.  10 

English  sheeting's                                                     ...         .... 

30  000 

14 

2.  32-  2.  60 

American  sheetings                 .            ..        

70,000 

«4 

2.  30-  2.  80 

6  000 

8-84 

1  78-  1  82 

Bombay  yarns                                                                     .        ... 

*2,  130 

56.  00-65.  00 

*Balea. 

Probably  three-fourths  of  these  goods  went  to  Tien-Tsin  for  distri- 
bution in  northern  China.  The  yarn  was  for  central  and  southern  China. 

PLACE   OF  MANUFACTURE. 

Fully  nine-tenths  of  the  imported  cotton  textiles  brought  to  Canton 
(exclusive  of  yarn)  were  manufactured  in  England  and  imported  from 
Hong-Kong. 

The  Japanese  cotton  manufacturers  caught  the  idea  of  making  nar- 
row, plain,  and  dyed  cotton  textiles  of  the  ordinary  width  of  native 
cloth  in  China,  viz,  a  Chinese  foot,  or  about  14J  English  inches;  and 
last  year  Canton  imported  these  Japanese  textiles  to  the  value  of  about 
$14,000. 

Probably  three-fourths  or  four-fifths  of  all  imported  cotton  textiles 
in  China  are  of  British  manufacture,  which  are  kept  in  large  quantities 
in  hands  of  foreign  merchants  in  the  two  principal  markets  for  foreign 
goods — Hong- Kong  and  Shanghai. 

With  my  No.  127,  dated  June  30,  1887, 1  sent  to  the  Department  of 
State  twenty-five  specimens  of  native  cotton  textiles,  made  at  Canton 
and  vicinity,  used  in  Chinese  garments. 

Cotton  manufactures  are  being  built  up  in  southern  China.  This 
province  last  year  imported  (mostly  from  India)  yarn  to  the  value  of 
$!>,612,000,  or  more  than  three  times  the  value  of  all  imported  cotton 
goods  besides  yarn,  and  used  large  quantities  of  native  and  imported 


140       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

raw  cotton,  which  are  indications  that  cotton  manufactures  are  here 
assuming  important  and  significant  proportions. 

The  Chinese  will  not  change  the  styles  or  materials  of  garments, 
which  have  been  the  same  for  centuries,  and  they  greatly  prefer  "  home 
manufactures  "  to  foreign  goods  for  use. 

It  is  merely  a  question  as  to  time  when  Chinese  prejudice  against  the 
improved  machinery  of  Europe  and  America  shall  be  cast  aside  for  the 
application  of  cheap  labor  to  manufactures  of  cotton  and  other  goods 
that  formerly  came  from  the  western  nations. 

In  the  meantime  British  goods  take  the  lead,  because  there  are  so 
many  and  strong  British  interests  working  for  the  supremacy  of  British 
commerce  in  the  East  and  throughout  the  world. 

DUTIES  CHARGED  THEREON. 

The  imperial  maritime  customs  tariff  of  duties  is  based  partly  on  the 
ad  valorem  and  partly  on  the  specific  plan. 

On  gray  shirtings,  sheetings,  and  better  qualities  of  T-cloths,  and 
also  on  white  shirtings,  the  duty  is  8  Haikwan  candarines  per  piece 
(about  10  cents).  Narrow  and  light  or  thin  T-cloths  pay  a  duty  of  4 
candarines  (about  5  cents).  Drills  call  for  a  duty  of  1  mace,  or  about  15 
cents  per  piece.  Jeans  duty  is  about  9  cents  per  piece.  Printed  twills 
pay  about  9  cents  per  piece.  Chintz  pays  the  same.  On  spotted  shirt- 
ings (white)  the  duty  is  15  cents  per  piece,  and  on  dyed  spotted  shirt- 
ings the  duty  is  22  J  cents  per  piece. 

The  treaty  provides  for  exemption  of  foreign  goods,  for  interior 
markets,  from  all  likin  and  other  taxes,  upon  payment  of  one- half  ad- 
ditional duty,  but  the  exactions  of  likin-tax  officials  effectually  defeat 
this  treaty  stipulation. 

COUNTERFEITING  AMERICAN  BRANDS. 

I  once  took  the  liberty,  in  my  dispatch  No.  75,  dated  June  15,  1885, 
to  the  Department  of  State,  to  endeavor  to  indicate  "  the  best  means  of 
extending  American  commerce  in  the  East,"  in  competition  with  the 
formidable  organizations  of  British  and  German  merchants,  manufact- 
urers, and  capitalists,  in  strong  and  close  alliance  with  enterprising 
business  friends  from  Europe,  in  all  of  the  cities  and  trade-centers  of 
the  eastern  countries,  and  am  now  more  than  ever  persuaded  and  con- 
vinced that  nothing  short  of  systematic  effort  and  pressure  by  Ameri- 
can manufacturers  and  merchants  upon  native  dealers  in  foreign  mer- 
chandise, through  trained  and  judicious  American  salesmen,  will  secure 
for  American  productions  a  merited  share  in  the  benefits  of  Chinese 
and  other  Asiatic  markets. 

British  cotton  goods  are  branded  to  suit  the  favorable  regard  of 
Asiatic  buyers  with  dragons  in  various  forms,  elephants,  tea-caddies, 
and  Chinese  characters  giving  assurances  as  to  quality,  weight,  etc., 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IX  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        141 

with  occasional  mention  of  the  u  hong  "or  firm  by  or  for  whom  the 
merchandise  was  specially  made  and  imported. 

At  the  Industrial  and  Cotton  Centennial  Exposition  of  New  Orleans, 
in  1885,  were  exhibited,  through  the  attention  of  the  Department  of 
State,  samples  of  cotton  drill,  of  which  large  quantities,  bearing  as  the 
brand  or  trade-mark  the  Dragon  of  China,  and  the  words  "Pure  and 
Best  American  Cotton,"  with  the  name  of  a  German  firm,  found  in  the 
Directory  of  Manchester,  England,  where  the  goods  were  manufactured 
for  the  Chinese  market,  where  I  found  the  goods  on  sale,  and  more  re- 
cently, as  you  are  aware,  I  obtained  from  the  Canton  authorities  a  proc- 
lamation for  the  vindication  of  a  highly  reputable  trade-mark  of  an 
American  firm,  fraudulent  imitations  of  whose  labels  were  used  in  sell- 
ing an  inferior  article  of  food  in  the  Chinese  market.  Such  matters 
need  attention. 

By  concert  of  action,  in  promoting  their  interests  in  these  distant 
markets,  the  American  manufacturers  and  merchants  would  achieve 
many  benefits. 

I  see  no  means  that  would  be  so  effective  in  guarding  and  furthering 
commercial,  manufacturing,  and  industrial  interests  of  the  United 
States,  by  supplying  Asiatic  markets  with  American  productions,  as 
the  adoption  of  a  vigorous  system  of  exploration  and  supply,  by  an 
efficient  corps  of  well-equipped  American  salesmen,  backed  by  strong 
and  enterprising  merchants  and  manufacturers  in  the  United  States. 

CHARLES  SEYMOUR, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Canton,  August  7, 1889. 


SHANGHAI. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  KENNEDY. 

In  making  reports  on  the  trade  of  Shanghai,  which  I  have  done  as 
often  as  the  arduous  and  varied  duties  of  the  office  has  permitted,  I 
have  from  time  to  time  furnished  the  Department  with  all  the  informa- 
tion I  have  been  able  to  obtain  on  this  the  most  important  branch  of 
our  trade.  I  can  not  obtain  such  information  as  will  enable  me  to  give 
a  technical  report  on  the  numerous  phases  of  this  intricate  business. 
The  merchants  here  meet  the  sharpest  of  competition,  and  naturally 
will  not  disclose  their  own  secrets. 

In  answer  to  point  1,  I  beg  to  refer  to  inclosure  No.  1,  which  shows 
the  import  of  cotton  goods  from  foreign  countries  for  1887  and  1888, 
and  inclosure  No.  2,  showing  the  import  and  stocks  for  the  first  half 
year  of  1889.  In  answer  to  points  2  and  5  I  refer  to  inclosure  No.  3, 


142 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOKEIGN    COUNTRIES. 


which  is  a  report  made  by  the  Shanghai  Chamber  of  Commerce,  dated 
July  13,  giving  weight,  duty,  and  market  price  of  the  principal  lines 
of  cotton  goods. 

In  answer  to  points  3  and  4,  our  merchants  either  have  branches  or 
correspondents  in  the  leading  cotton  goods  markets  of  the  United 
States  through  whom  they  buy  or  receive  consignments  on  commission. 
I  have  no  data  regarding  the  place  of  manufacture.  Cotton  goods 
are  imported  from  New  York  principally. 

The  Haikwan  tael,  in  which  the  customs  revenue  is  paid,  is  equiv- 
alent to  United  States  $1.15.  The  Shanghai  tael  and  the  United  States 
dollar  are,  for  all  practical  purposes,  the  same.  The  picul  is  equivalent 
to  133J  pounds  avoirdupois. 

J.  D.  KENNEDY, 

Consul-  General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Shanghai,  July  26,  1889. 


1.  Imports  (net)  of  cotton  goods  from  foreign  countries,  1837-'88. 


1887. 

1888. 

Quantities. 

Value. 

H.  taels. 
7,  122,  074 
3,  624,  469 
3,653 
295,  081 
178,  223 
2,  512,  468 

515,  076 
86,133 
1,  110,  297 

324,  440 
C3,  788 
72,  847 

1,  358,  766 
3.  311,  198 
768,  509 
83,  957 
349,  159 
1.  733,  991 
18,920 
251,  075 
105,  503 

53,  667 
241,  846 
51,  356 
220,  855 
12,  547,  653 
42,  927 

Quantities. 

Value. 

Shirtings  : 
Gray,  plain  
White  plain      

pieces.. 
.   ..do     . 

5,  340,  363 
2,  196,  127 
2,  268 
141,  230 
84,  285 
2,  321,  512 

288,  781 
43,  501 
465,  674 

228,  002 
39,  134 
40,  486 

662,  960 
1,  368,  114 

6,  094,  638 
2,  941,  433 
25,  678 
195,  581 
78,  361 
2,  610,  426 

542,  826 
56,  970 
496,  096 

106,342 
22,  650 
8,  412 

1,  039,  642 
1,  557,  830 
556,414 
182,788    ' 
494,  868 
920,  741 
3,238 
51,  645 
24,  294 

368,  965 
604,  032 
648,  472 
284,  229 
683,  468.  40 
1.  490.  63 

H.  taels. 
8,  389,  516 
5,  108,  698 
39,  726 
330,  106 
169,  973 
2,  973,  875 

982,  324 
113,  940 
1,  244,  193 

149,  251 
35,  787 
15,  603 

2,  128,  646 
3,  894,  641 
689,  394 
A       350,  925 
513,  133 
2,  454,  678 
10,  718 
256,  699 
120,140 

220,  686 
241,  695 
184,  403 
323,  043 
13,427,150 
68,  582 

White!  figured,  brocaded 
Dyed,  plain  

Dyed,  figured,  brocaded, 
T-cloths 

,  and  spotted  .  .  do  
do.... 
and  spotted  .  .  do  
do 

Drills: 
English 

do 

Dutch 

do 

do  .  . 

Jeans: 

...do  .. 

Dutch 

do 

...do 

Sheetings  : 
English 

do 

...do... 

Chintzes,  furnitures,  and  plain  prints  do  — 
Twills  printed                                     -  -      .An  ... 

661,  875 
46,  012 
316,  823 
636,  649 
5,146 
51,  129 
22,  612 

61,  992 
597,  058 
172,  444 
242,  235 
592,  867.  55 
859.  96 

do 

Lastings,  plain  and  figured. 
Damasks  ..     ..     .... 

do.... 
.  do...- 

Velvets 

do 

Velveteens 

.      do   .. 

Jaconets,  cambrics,  lawns,  muslins,  and  dimities 
pieces                                                   -  -        -  -  -  - 

Handkerchiefs  

.   .......dozens.. 

Towels 

do 

Goods  nnclassed  

pieces  .  . 

Yarn  
Thread  

piculs.. 
.do 

Total  

37,  047,  931 

44,  437,  525 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN   FOKEIGN    COUNTRIES. 
2.  Description  of  imports. 


143 


Goods. 

Total  deliveries. 

Total  imports. 

For  the 
fortnight. 

For  the 
year  from 
Jan.  1,1889 

Against 
last  vear 
to  July  12. 

For  the 
fortnight. 

For  the 
year  from 
Jan.  1,  1889 

Against 
last  year 
to  July  12. 

Gray  shirtings  *  pieces  .  . 
T-cloths  : 

161,472 

46,258 
8,314 
45,  919 

7,755 
17,620 

1,060 

3,  050,  592 

750,  893 
184,  182 
1,  002,  562 

147,  518 
163,  803 

64,717 
640 

289,  443 
587,  300 
97,340 

1,754 
17,  359 
130 
140.  540 
85,  381 
43,  041 
209,  657 
17,  579 
6,883 
246,  108 
160,  071 
100 

88,234 
20,75 
48,507 
9,117 
45,  026 
35,  936 
52,  402 
1,040 
244,998 
2,206 
14,745 

3,  374,  115 

778,824 
110,  095 
1,  006,  878 

175,  200 
155,  165 

68,  714 
6,945 

503,  306 
473,  886 
85,  047 

200 
18,765 
600 
146,  099 
99,  133 
47,  736 
204,  091 
13,534 
7,784 
163,  806 
183,  359 
630 

86,629 
26,  718 
19,  915 
11,  067 
48,334 
29,929 
59,  387 
790 
311,  742 
1,039 
17,129 

152,  629 

29,116 
21,155 

47,502 

2,925 
3,435 

4,710 

3,  273,  078 

689,  657 
274,941 
996,  481 

244,934 
344,625 

48,  791 

3,  174,  654 

832,  539 
195,  955 
1,  369,  379 

288,  762 
259,  490 

91,  983 
9,000 

632,  653 
965,  305 
121,477 

2,502 
24,432 
1,132 
218,  880 
107,  564 
103,  411 
242,  077 
27,  386 
9,615 
368,  252 
310,  033 
758 

91,196 
29,  520 
29,480 
16,  228 
43,  268 
41,  237 
80,978 
540 
712.483 
3,296 
18,  216 

36-inch                              .      do 

"White  shirtings  do  
Drills: 
English  and  Dutch.     .     ..do.... 

Jeans  : 
English  and  Dutch  do  

Sheetings: 
.English                                  «do 

21,  250 
42,  075 
2,  740 

107 
1,030 

3,260 
18,  865 
2,332 

182,585 
433,  715 
57,934 

1,006 
13,376 
12 
83,  610 
42,991 
38,961 
185,  427 
11,  495 
7,430 
197,  213 
204,  055 
9 

87,  092 
14,  939 
21,146 
8,243 
56,015 
46,560 
60,  540 
820 
162,  172 
2,002 
9,117 

Brocaded  and  spotted  shirtings  : 
"VVhit6                ...........  do.  

500 

9  895 
4,581 
744 
7,733 
835 
431 
11,990 
5,897 

3,341 
4,128 
4,591 
1,432 
300 
43 
10,533 
13,  691 

630 
54 
746 
126 
2,250 

Liao 

3,730 
*"*6"297' 

Printed  T-cloths  do.... 
Printed  twills         ...  ........do.... 

Turkey-red  shirtings  .....do.  ... 

Velvets                                 -        do 

Velveteens       .      ............  do 

Muslins  pieces  .. 

Dimities                   .--  .....do.... 

Cotton  yarn  : 
Bombay        .  .       ......  parcels 

5,312 
417 
1.162 
253 
2,490 
2,420 
2,156 
50 
11,223 

Spanish  stripes  pieces  .  . 
Medium  and  broad  cloths.  -  .  .  .  .do 

Camlets                                          do 

Long  ells  do  

Lastings  crape  do  
Cotton  lastings  and  Italians.  .  -do  
L/u°*'crs  plain    ....   ..........do 

Figured  Orleans  do  

1,090 

160 

Goods. 

Stocks  at  date  based 
on  the  chamber  of  com- 
merce returns  Jan- 
uary 1,  1889. 

Stock  as 
returned 
by  import- 
ers, June 
30,  1889. 

t  At  date, 
estimated. 

Against 
July  12, 

1888. 

Gray  shirtings*  
T-cloths: 
32-  inch            

pieces.. 
..  do  . 

1,181,625 

385,  034 
232,  514 
571,  056 

359,  601 
183,857 

26,150 

616,  616 

778,824 
83,  400 
449,  987 

190,  334 
88,640 

88,337 
22,260 

326,946 
632,  590 
36,946 

1,  280,  997 

561,  194 
201,454 
565,  866 

338,  409 
170,  610 

28,  703 

do.... 

WTiite  shirtings                    . 

...                 do 

Drills: 

do 

do 

Jeans: 

do 

do.... 

Sheetings: 

do    . 

397,  148 
540,  050 
6,550 

436,  315 
580,650 
21,581 

do.... 

Dyed  shirtings... 

...do... 

*  Including  English  and  Dutch  12-lbs. 

t  Exclusive  of  undeclared  import  cargoes  per  Malwa,  Glenavon.  Ghazee,  Dardanus,  Tangts6,  Glau- 
cus,  Antenor,  Jaeon,  and  Pekin. 


144  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

« 

2.  Description  of  imports — Continued. 


Goods. 

Stocks  at  date  based 
on  the  chamber  of  com- 
merce returns  Jan- 
uary 1,  1889. 

Stock  as 
returned 
by  import- 
ers, June 
30,  188?. 

At  date 
estimated. 

Against 
July  12, 
1888. 

Brocaded  and  spotted  shirtings  : 
White  

302 
3,337 
210 

|     182,  340 

93,380 
154,  960 
16,  800 
9,070 
199,  875 
183,  031 
1,775 

14,  970 
11,820 
22,  152 
27,  610 
31,  749 
30,  575 
72,  748 
660 
409,  140 
530 
24,856 
3,680 

4,400 
4,730 
303 
C       17,  965 
i     263,423 
19,  309 
111,  263 
32,  169 
7,670 
287,  829 
122,  328 
2,753 

10,  904 
7,590 
22,  468 
28,  287 
29,  930 
25,  950 
78,  919 
520 
513,  674 
598 
28,  538 

2,248 
9,259 
4,999 
16,  619 
157,  518 
135,  096 
154,  693 
15,  880 
13,  230 
287,  552 
165,  766 
1,613 

21,  260 
12,  510 
22,  432 
25,  861 
34,  750 
31,  923 
89,316 
1,708 
420,  065 
1,598 
30,  018 
2,050 

Dyed                    .                 .... 

do 

Damasks  dyed  

do 

Chintzes 

do 

Printed  T-cloths  .     .  .                

do 

Printed  twills  

do 

Turkey-red  shirtinga 

do 

Velvets               

do 

do 

Handkerchiefs             .             

Muslins 

do. 

Cotton  yarn: 

English           

do 

Spanish  stripes  
Medium  and  broad  cloths 

pieces., 
do 

Camlets    

do 

Long  ells  .  

do 

Lastin^s          .        ..            ..       .... 

do 

Castings,  crape  -  

do 

Cotton  lastings  and  Italians  

do 

Lusters  plain     .... 

do 

do 

Lusters  crape 

do 

Import  cargoes  declared  during  interval:  Sachsen,  G-lenearn,  Djemnah,  Deucalion,  Ulysses,  addi- 
tionals  ex  Telemachus,  Patroclus,  Kohilla. 

3.  Weights,  duty,  price,  etc. 


Piece  goods. 

Duty  in  Haik- 
wau  Sycee,  at  ex- 
change 111.4  sh. 
tls.  per  100  tls. 

Prices  at  pri- 
vate sale. 

Prices  realized 
at  auction. 

Gray  shirtings,  38J  yards  39  inches  : 
5  and  6  pounds          .                           .per 

piece., 
do 

m.c. 
>0  8   per  piece- 

$0.  86|-1.  11 
1.16|-1.43| 
1.30  -1.90* 
1.83i-2.22i 

1.94  -2.40 

7  pounds       .     ..  

do 

$1.  43-1.  87£ 
2.  06-2.  20 

|                2.29 

9  12  to  10  pounds 

do 

10.8  to  11  pounds  .  . 

do 

Heavy 

do 

Continental  12  pounds      ...     ... 

do 

T-cloths  : 
Mexican  : 

do 

0  8  per  piece  £ 

0  4  per  piece  < 
J                         I 
0  8  per  piece  < 

L87| 

1.00}-1.42i 
H231-1.  65J 

8  pounds 

do 

Common: 
7  pounds                .      ... 

do 

1.05 

8  pounds  ................     

-do 

Printed 

do 

Bombay  : 
6  pounds 

do 

7  pounds  .  .     .  . 

do 

8  pounds  - 

do 

"White  shirtings,  40  yards  36  inches: 
60  to  64  reeds 

do 

1.  721-2.  02£ 

1.41-1.47ft 
1.  61|-1.  90J 
2  07    2.  10| 

66  to  72  reeds  

do 

Fine  to  finest  

do 

"White  Irishes  

An 

2.  50  -2.  21J 

American  drills,  40  yards  '50  inches  do  
American  j<jans,  30  yards  150  inches,  expounds.  do  
American  sheetings,  40  yards  40  inches  do  
English  drills,  40  yards  30  inches,  14  to  15  pounds, 
per  piece  

1  0  per  piece... 
0  7£  per  piece 

2.  671-2.  77i 

0  8  per  piece..  . 

1  0  per  piece... 
0  7i  per  niece... 

2.  20-2.  741 
2.  65-2.  70 

1.62i-2.60i 
1.841-1.85* 

English  Jeans,  30  yards  30  inches,  8i  pounds. 

.do  

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FORE'GN    COUNTRIES. 
3.    Weights,  duty;  price,  etc. — Continued. 


145 


Piece  goods. 

Duty  in  Haik- 
wan  Sycee,  at  ex- 
change 111.4sb. 
tls,  per  100  tls. 

Prices  at  pri- 
vate sale. 

Prices  realized 
at  auction. 

English  sheetings,  40  yards  40  inches, 

14  ponnds, 

0  8   per  piece... 
1  0   per  piece... 

2.25 

2.  10J-2.  56i 

do 

Dutch  drills  30  inches  40  yards 

do 

Dutch  jeans.  30  inches,  30  yards  

do.... 
do 

0  ?i  per  piece... 

1.71 

Handkerchiefs  blue  28  inch 

per  dozen 

Gentian  shirtings  ..... 

.per  piece 

Brocades  and  spotted  shirtings: 
WTiite 

do 

Dved 

do 

2  0  per  piece 

Dvcil  shirtin"9           .           

...  do 

Damasks,  assorted,  40  yards  36  inches  .  . 
Chintz,  assorted,  28  yards  28  inches  
Turkey    reds,     24    yards    32     inches, 

do.... 
do.... 
1}    to     8 
per  pieco 

Velvets  black   22  inches  

.  .  per  yard 

1  8   per  piece 

Velveteens,  black  : 
18  inches          

.do 

]l  5  per  piece  5 
0  3i   per  piece 

.26 

do 

Mnslins  1'*  yards  42  inches     .  .. 

do 

Cotton  varn: 
Bombay  16-24 

>  7  0    per  picul  ^ 

1  1  2  chang  of  C 
5     141  inches.   \ 
1  2    chang     of 
141  inches. 
0  5    chang    of 
141  inches. 

/O  4i  chang  ofC 
5     141  inches.   > 
0  5    chang     of 
141  inches. 

>  0  34  per  piece 

57.25-63.00 

English  04-3'2        

do 

English  twist   28-32 

do 

VV  oidens  and  worsteds  : 
Spanish  stripes: 
Scarlet      
Assorted     

.per  yard.. 
*do  - 

.399-.  471 

tin 

Camlets,  English,  56  yards  31  inches  .  .  per  piece  .  . 
Long  ells: 

Scarlet,  24  yards  31  inches,  12  pounds.  do  
Assorted       .           dn 

8.  88  -10.  28 
4.  60  -5.  17$ 

Lasting*,  30  yards  31  inches  

Cotton  listings  and  Italians  
Orleans,   figured,     30     yards     31 
sorted     .        ...  

do.... 

do  ... 

inches    as- 
per  piece 

6.  25-8.  10 

6.80-8.70 

SIAM. 

REPORl  BT  CONSUL-GENERAL  CHILD. 
Cotton  textile  imports  of  Siam  during  the  year  1888. 


Kind. 

Pieces. 

Value. 

128  729 

$259  458 

177  015 

283  224 

16  180 

2^6  696 

Turkey  red  cloth 

11  030 

14  856 

109  025 

152  275 

245 

1  220 

62  040 

74  448 

9  580 

10  533 

5  090 

7  657 

74  321 

74  321 

653  068 

489  598 

Chowls              ........                                                                               ..... 

102*  587 

671  460 

Total    

1,  146,  910 

2,  265,  746 

COS  A 


-10 


146       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Cotton  textile  imports  ofSiam  during  tbe  year  1888 — Continued. 


Kind. 

Quantity 
in  piece. 

Weight. 

Yards. 
38£ 

Pounds. 
6-12 

38} 

6-10 

* 

These  goods  are  purchased  from  commission  houses  in  Singapore, 
Hong  Kong,  and  Penang. 

They  are  imported  from  Singapore,  Hong  Kong,  and  Penaug,  and  are 
manufactured  in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  Switzerland. 
Three  per  cent,  duty  is  charged  on  these  goods, 

JACOB  T.  CHILD, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Bangkok,  September  8,  1889. 


SPANISH  ASIA. 
PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WEBB,  OF  MANILA. 

As  may  be  supposed,  in  a  country  where  the  climate  forbids  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year  the  wearing  of  woolen  or  other  heavy  clothing,  cotton 
textiles  form  an  exceedingly  important  feature  of  the  imports  of  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands.  The  millions  of  natives,  the  thousands  of  Chinese,  and 
the  majority  of  the  European  residents  here  wear  cotton  clothing,  and,  as 
frequent  changes  are  necessary,  the  latter,  as  a  rule,  consider  it  expe- 
dient to  have  an  abundant  supply  at  all  times.  The  majority  of  the 
natives  and  Chinese  generally  wear  nothing  but  a  shirt  and  pants  of 
the  lightest,  cheapest  cotton  goods,  usually  white,  allowing  them  to 
become  very  much  soiled  before  exchanging  them  for  clean  ones.  But 
as  the  material  is  the  cheapest  and  flimsiest  imaginable,  it  soon  wears 
out  and  the  wearer  is  therefore  continually  replenishing  his  waidrobe, 
thus  assisting  materially  in  sustaining  the  cotton-goods  trade. 

IMPORTS. 

The  only  place  at  which  reliable  statistics  concerning  importations 
can  be  obtained  is  at  the  Manila  custom-house,  but  the  methods  of 
compiling  these  statistics  in  vogue  there  are  so  very  deliberate  that  it  is 
exceedingly  difficult,  not  to  say  impossible,  to  procure  the  footings  of 
recent  entries.  And  as  the  Government  report  for  1888  has  not  yet 
been  issued,  I  am  compelled  to  use  the  report  for  1887  in  order  to  reply 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


147 


to  the  first  question  iu  your  instructions  regarding  the  quantity  and 
kind  of  cotton  textiles  imported  per  annum.  But  as  there  is  no  good 
reason  to  suppose  that  there  was  a  marked  increase  or  diminution  of 
the  cotton  imports  in  1888,  or  that  there  has  been  thus  far  in  the  cur- 
rent year,  the  report  for  1887,  maybe  taken  as  representing  a  fair  aver- 
age of  the  annual  imports. 

In  the  following  table  the  quantities  are  expressed  in  pounds  and 
tons  instead  of  in  yards,  as  the  custom-house  records  show  for  cotton 
goods  kilograms  only,  and  the  weight  per  piece  varying  so  widely  it  is 
impossible  to  estimate  the  yards  imported  with  any  degree  of  accuracy : 


Countries  whence  imported. 


Coarse  goods,  plain,  twilled  ;  fig- 
ured cloth,  double-dyed  and 
stamped,  inclusive  of  warp  and 
woof'connted  under  a  6-milli- 
meter glass. 


Up  to  25 

threads. 


26  to  35 
threads. 


36 threads 

and 
upward. 


Transparent. 


England 

Spain  

Scotland 

Germany 

France  

Switzerland  .. 

Holland 

Belgium 

Austria 

United  States. 
China 


Pounds. 
4,  794,  944 
23,388+ 
37,  019+ 
24,  389+ 


8,  837+ 
792 

2,  017+ 
26+ 
858 

9,  631+ 


Pounds. 
1,  73  9, 837 
30,  278+ 
70,  334 
26.  353+ 
60,9264- 
22,356+ 
402+ 
Nil. 
Nil. 
440 
189+ 


Pounds. 
372,  363+ 
255+ 
3,  920+ 
6,784+ 
17, 591+ 
1,966 
1,553+ 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
90+ 


Pounds. 
524,  334+: 
466+' 
10,922+: 
4,  349+! 
12,432+ 
20,092+' 
3,951+, 
451     : 
Nil. 
Nil. 
264    ! 


Pounds. 
82,  242+ 

8 

4,  017+ 
270+ 
5,880+ 
4,  615+ 
336+ 
1,001 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 


Total. 


Countries  whence  imported. 


Quilts 

and 
piques. 


Velve- 
teens, 
plushes, 
and  veils. 


Tulle, 
lace, 
edging, 
crochet 
cotton. 


Pieces  of 

stufffor 
suits, -etc. 


Total  value 
in  United 
States  gold. 


England 

Spain 

Scotland 

Germany 

France 

Switzerland 

Holland 

Belgium 

Austria 

United  States. 
China 


Pounds. 
17,019+ 

22 

1,715 
1,005+ 

226 
Nil. 
NiL 
NiL 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 


Pounds. 
4, 078+ 
149+ 
NiL 

803 

1,529 

22 

34? 
9 

NiL 
Nil. 


Pounds. 
13,824+ 

242 
NiL 
2,426+ 
1, 141+ 
319 
19} 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 


Pounds. 

9,  477+ 
87,  491+ 
Nil. 
8,186+ 
2,884 
275 


Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 


Total 


Tons. 

3,  779+ 
71+ 
63+ 
37+ 
78+ 

It 

2  + 
*35 
*1,298 
5+ 


$3,  310,  937.  60 

107, 316.  80 

75,  364.  80 

49,  595.  80 

93, 108.  80 

51, 056.  80 

6,  295.  20 

3,  095.  20 

24.20 

472. 00 

655.20 


4,067+ 


3,697,962.40 


*  Pounds. 

Two  thousand  two  hundred  and  forty-eight  pounds  of  cotton  lamp- 
wick,  valued  at  $490.40  (United  States  gold),  was  imported  from  Spain 
during  the  year,  and  242  pounds,  yalued  at  $52.80,  from  the  United 
States;  292  pounds  of  cotton  rubber  cloth,  valued  at  $425,60,  was  also 

imported  flom  the  United  States, 


148 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
WEIGHT  PER  YARD. 


The  weight  per  yard  is  said  to  vary  somewhat  even  in  what  are  classed 
as  the  same  grades  of  goods,  and  hence  it  is  not  possible  to  give  a  fixed 
standard  of  weight  for  each  class.  The  following  tables,  however,  will 
show  the  weight  and  wholesale  price  of,  and  the  duty  charged  on,  eight 
of  the  leading  white  and  gray  staples  : 


Class. 

Width. 

Length. 

Weight. 

Duty, 
Manila 
Currency. 

Wholesale 
price 
per  piece. 

Threads 
counted 
under  a  6- 
millimeter 
glass. 

White  shirtings: 
Fine  white 

Inches. 
31 

Yards. 
40 

Pounds. 
5.70 

$0.  68£ 

*$3.  62i 

44 

Medium  fine      .  .-  

32 

40 

6.25 

•  54J 

2.87£ 

34 

32 

40 

6.80 

.59i 

2.874 

31 

35 

40 

7.25 

.63 

3.00 

31 

32 

40 

6.50 

.354 

2.50 

25 

Gray  shirtings:', 
'JTino  gray      ..  .  

33 

36 

7.50 

.40* 

2.374 

24 

33 

36 

a  50 

.46 

2.50 

23 

Heavy  drill 

30 

40 

14 

1.21 

4,00 

27 

*  The  value  of  the  Manila  dollar  will  average  80  cents,  United  States  gold. 

Colored  goods,  prints,  ginghams,  etc.,  usually  come  in  pieces  of  24 
yards  each,  weighing  3J  to  5  pounds ;  the  wholesale  price  to  jobbers 
is  from  $2.25  to  $5  per  piece,  Manila  currency.  Prints  of  the  ordinary 
grades  sell  to  jobbers  at  from  $1.62J  to$  2.25  per  piece. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Nearly  all  the  large  importing  houses  in  Manila  that  handle  cotton 
goods  are  branches  of  establishments  in  England  or  Scotland,  which 
purchase  their  goods  in  Europe  on  private  terms  and  send  them  here 
for  sale.  The  managers  of  the  Manila  houses  are,  therefore,  principally 
interested  in  the  actual  cost  of  the  goods  and  their  selling  price  here, 
and,  as  a  rule,  are  not  authorized  to  purchase  new  lines  of  goods  with- 
out consulting  the  heads  of  the  firm  in  Europe.  This  applies  to  the 
wholesale  importing  houses  only ;  the  larger  retail  houses  of  course  are 
at  liberty  to  buy  wherever  they  can  make  the  best  terms,  although 
nearly  all  of  them  have  agents  or  representatives  in  Europe  through 
whom  most  of  their  goods  are  bought.  When  goods  of  a  particular 
class  are  needed  by  the  wholesale  houses  a  cablegram  or  letter  is  sent 
to  Europe  and  the  goods  are  sent  on  by  steamer  as  soon  as  possible. 
Goods  are  usually  bought,  I  am  told,  on  thirty  days,  or  longer  time  if 
special  arrangements  are  made  between  seller  and  buyer. 

Agents  or  traveling  salesmen  for  cotton  goods  manufactories  very 
rarely,  if  ever,  come  here ;  a  gentleman  who  represented  an  English 
woolen  house  and  who  made  a  business  trip  to  Manila  more  than  a  year 
ago,  told  me  that  he  could  sell  no  goods  here  as  the  retail  houses  had 
representatives  in  Europe,  and  besides  were  not  willing  to  accede  to 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        149 

any  terms  which  he  considered  would  warnint  his  giving  them  credit. 
He  left,  I  believe,  without  making  a  sale. 

Quantities  of  fancy  cotton  goods  are  consigned  to  the  larger  houses 
to  be  sold  on  commission,  but  nearly  all  the  staples  are  purchased  reg- 
ularly at  thirty  and  sixty  days. 

PLACE  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

As  will  be  seen  by  the  first  table,  England  furnishes  the  greatest 
amount  of  cotton  textiles  to  the  Philippines,  the  major  portion  of  which 
comes  from  Manchester.  Probably  75  per  cent,  of  all  the  white  cotton 
fabrics  received  at  Manila  come  from  and  are  manufactured  in  that 
city.  Last  year  there  were  imported  from  Manchester  alone  4,374 
bales  of  50  pieces  each,  and  13,200  cases  or  41,087,164  yards  of  plain 
cottons ;  7,603,542  yards  of  dyed  and  colored ;  50,964,227  yards  of 
prints,  and  1,074,700  yards  of  twist.  Much  of  the  underwear  found  in 
the  larger  retail  stores — the  better  class  of  goods — is  imported  from 
Spain  and  France.  These  stores  are  generally  conducted  by  Spaniards, 
and  as  all  goods  imported  from  Spain  are  admitted  free  of  duty  they 
quite  naturally  give  the  preference  to  them,  although,  as  a  rule,  the 
prices  are  considerably  higher  than  those  asked  for  the  corresponding 
classes  of  English  and  German  goods. 

It  will  be  seen  that  American  cotton  fabrics  are  not  largely  repre- 
sented in  the  list  of  imports,  and  although  very  few  of  them  are  seen 
in  this  market  their  reputation  is  excellent,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
English  made  goods  are  stamped  "American"'  in  order  to  give  them 
character.  I  was  shown  recently  a  piece  of  goods  made  at  Manchester, 
which  was  stamped  in  large  blue  letters,  "Gray  American  drill,"  while 
2  or  3  inches  below  in  very  small  letters  were  the  words :  "  English 
manufacture."  The  merchant  who  had  these  goods  told  me  that  the 
American  cotton  fabrics  were  much  better  and  more  durable  than  those 
now  sold  here,  and  that  this  fact  was  generally  admitted,  but  that  the 
prices  were  too  high  to  justify  their  importation.  The  masses,  he  said, 
wanted  cheap  goods,  and  while  those  of  American  manufacture  would 
wear  much  longer  than  any  other,  this  was  not  deemed  a  sufficiently 
strong  consideration  to  warrant  the  payment  of  the  extra  price  asked; 
that  several  houses  here  had  tried  the  experiment  of  importing  Ameri- 
can cotton  goods,  but  it  had  never  been  successful. 

AMERICAN  VS.   ENGLISH   COTTONS. 

This  information  is  given  me  by  English  merchants  and  importers, 
who  are  of  course  interested  in  English  trade  and  in  maintaining  the 
credit  of  their  country  and  the  reputation  of  its  exports.  There  is  no 
American  house  here  that  imports  cotton  goods.  In  reply  to  my  ques- 
tions upon  the  subject  propounded  to  merchants  here,  the  statement  is 
invariably  made  that  the  high  price  of  American  cottons,  as  well  as  of 


150       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

some  other  classes  of  goods,  is  what  keeps  them  out  of  this  market, 
but  it  seems  to  me  that  I  have  seen  better  muslin  retailed  for  5  cents  a 
yard  in  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  than  that  which  retails  here  at  7  and  8 
cents  a  yard.  It  appears  possible,  therefore,  that  American  muslin  could 
compete  here  with  the  English  and  German  goods  if  the  proper  effort 
were  made  to  push  it  into  the  trade.  The  market  is  here,  and  it  re- 
mains with  American  merchants  and  manufacturers  to  say  whether  it 
shall  be  monopolized  by  England  and  Germany  without  a  vigorous 
effort  at  competition.  While  I  have  received  circulars  and  letters  from 
American  manufacturers  of  other  goods  who  are  showing  a  disposition 
to  get  into  this  market,  I  have  never  seen  any  evidence  that  the  cotton 
manufacturers  desired  to  place  their  products  in  this  archipelago, 
where  there  are  over  7,500,000  who,  as  a  rule,  wear  nothing  but  cotton 
clothing. 

At  present  there  is  not  a  single  house  here  that  imports  American 
cotton  goods  direct  from  the  United  States;  those  that  come  here  are 
usually  shipped  from  England  or  are  brought  in  by  the  captains  of  sail- 
ing vessels  who  have  a  piece  or  two,  sometimes,  to  give  or  sell  to  friends 
here  who  want  something  better  than  can  be  had  in  the  stores  at  about 
the  same  price  they  would  have  to  pay  to  a  Chinese  peddler  for  English 
or  German  cotton. 

Spanish  cottons  would  be  quite  as  scarce  as  American  were  it  not  for 
the  fact  that  they  are  admitted  free  of  duty,  for  their  price  to  the  im- 
porter, I  am  told,  is  very  little,  if  any,  less  than  that  of  the  latter,  and 
their  quality  is  not  as  good  generally. 

-German  and  Swiss  muslins  and  ginghams  have  a  better  reputation 
here  than  those  of  any  other  country,  as  it  is  believed  that  they  hold 
their  color  better. 

The  "  American  drill  of  English  manufacture,77  just  referred  to,  comes 
in  pieces  of  30  yards,  31  inches  wide,  weighing  11  pounds,  and  costs 
$1.87  J  per  piece,  Manila  currency ;  the  duty  of  96  cents  per  piece  added 
runs  the  total  wholesale  cost  up  to  $2.83  J.  American  goods  of  the  same 
weight  cost,  I  am  told,  at  least  $1  more  per  piece.  There  are  shirtings 
of  English  and  German  make  that  cost  $3.50  per  piece  laid  down  here; 
American  goods  of  the  same  grade,  it  is  asserted,  cost  $4.50  per  piece. 
An  English  importer  tells  me  that  a  good  American  brown  cotton*drill, 
30  inches  wide  and  40  yards  long,  weighing  14  or  15  pounds,  would  have 
a  large  sale  here  if  it  could  be  bought  for  from  $4.31J  to  $4.37J  per 
piece. 

THE  RETAIL   TRADE. 

Excepting  the  half-dozen  large  retail  dry  goods  stores  on  the  Escolta, 
the  principal  business  street  of  Manila,  and  a  few  little  shops  kept  by 
natives  in  San  Fernando,  the  entire  retail  trade  in  cotton  goods  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  Chinese.  They  occupy  little  shops  or  dens,  perhaps  8  feet 
wide  and  10  deep,  against  the  three  walls  of  which  are  piled  or  stored  in 
compartments  their  stocks  of  English  and  German  cotton  fabrics.  Some 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.       151 

of  the  Chinese  merchants  have  quite  large  and  attractive  stores,  but  the 
majority  are  the  little  dens  just  described.  They  fill  one  entire  side  of 
a  wide  street  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long,  called  the  Kosario,  a 
small  portion  of  the  Escolta,  and  one  side  of  a  block  of  Calle  Nueva. 
Many  of  them  sell  at  wholesale  to,  or  supply  on  commission,  hundreds 
of  Chinamen  who  plod  about  the  streets  of  the  city  and  suburbs  with 
packs  of  prints  and  white  goods  on  their  backs,  or  follow  a  coolie 
who  carries  a  load  of  cotton  goods  large  enough  for  a  horse  at  each  end 
of  a  bamboo  pole  resting  on  his  shoulders.  They  sell  to  Europeans  as 
well  as  to  natives,  and  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  cotton  goods 
sold  at  retail  are  disposed  of  in  this  way,  for  the  climate  is  not  favorable 
to  "  shopping/7  and  white  goods  can  frequently  be  bought  more  cheaply 
from  the  Chinese  peddlers  than  at  the  stores  or  shops.  The  peddler 
usually  fixes  his  price  at  from  50  to  100  per  cent,  more  than  he  expects 
to  receive,  and  trusts  to  the  ignorance  or  indifference  of  his  customer  to 
regulate  the  amount  of  his  profit. 

I  was  somewhat  surprised  to  learn  that  the  average  profit  made  by 
one  of  these  peddlers  on  a  piece  of  cotton  goods  of  30  or  40  yards  was 
not  more  than  5  or  6  cents;  that  the  profit  made  by  the  Chinese  jobber 
was  from  2j  to  3  cents  a  piece,  and  that  the  importer  was  quite  well 
satisfied  if  he  made  from  5  to  8  per  cent*  on  his  stock.  For  instance,  a 
piece  of  gingham,  24  yards  long,  of  the  best  English  or  German 
make,  costs  $5,  list ;  the  Chinese  jobber  gets  a  discount  of  5  per  cent, 
by  paying  cash  and  divides  this  discount  with  the  peddler.  The  latter 
will  at  first  ask  $7.50  for  the  piece  but  will  sell  it  for  $5  rather  than 
lose  the  sale.  It  has  become  a  fixed  rule  among  people  who  have  re- 
sided here  any  length  of  time  never  to  pay  the  first  price  asked,  but  to 
offer  from  50  to  100  per  cent.  less.  Occasionally  a  peddler  will  meet  a 
stranger  who  will  pay  him  a  profit  of  a  dollar  or  more  on  a  piece  of  cot- 
ton goods,  but  this  is  always  considered  an  unexpected  bit  of  good  luck. 
But  the  profit  of  the  importer  and  jobber  is  invariable,  and  the  mar- 
gins being  so  small  it  will  be  seen  why  the  extra  price  said  to  be  asked 
for  American  goods  may  act  as  a  bar  to  their  importation. 

DUTIES. 

The  import  duty  on  cotton  goods  is  as  follows: 

Up  to  25  threads  counted  under  a  six-millimeter  glass,  per  kilogram 10 

From  26  to  35  threads,  inclusive 16 

From  36  upward 22 

Diaphanous  cotton  goods  up  to  30  threads 22 

From  31  threads  up 34 

Added  to  this  is  20  per  cent,  for  the  construction  of  the  new  port. 

EXPERIMENTS  IN  COTTON   GROWING. 

Until  a  comparatively  few  years  ago  considerable  bush  cotton  was 
raised  in  the  Philippine  archipelago,  and  nearly  all  of  it  was  made  into 


152  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

coarse  cloth  for  the  natives,  by  means  of  rude  machinery •;  but  it  was 
found  that  the  English  ami  German  cotton  fabrics  could  be  bought  for 
very  much  less  than  the  Philippine  goods,  and  the  industry  was  allowed 
.to  languish  until  it  died  out  entirely.  The  rapid  growth  of  the  hemp 
and  sugar  trade  here  probably  contributed  largely  to  this  result,  for  the 
natives,  as  well  as  the  Europeans,  soon  learned  that  there  was  much 
money  to  be  made  out  of  hemp  and  sugar  and  very  little,  if  any,  out  of 
cotton. 

But  within  the  past  two  years  interest  in  the  subject  of  cotton  grow- 
ing has  been  revived  by  the  experiments  made  with  American  and 
Egyptian  cotton  seed  by  some  Spaniards  and  Mestizos,  who  have  con- 
ceived the  idea  that  the  Philippines  can.  be  made  to  yield  to  Spain  a 
rich  revenue  if  the  plant  is  cultivated  after  modern  methods.  The  cli- 
mate and  soil  in  some  parts  of  the  archipelago  have  been  declared  fa- 
vorable to  the  rapid  growth  of  cotton,  and  the  experiments,  which  thus 
far  have  been  conducted  on  a  small  scale,  have  supported  this  conclu- 
sion. Last  year  a  small  quantity  of  excellent  cotton  was  raised  and 
sent  to  Barcelona,  where  it  was  manufactured  into  table-cloths  and 
napkins  and  returned  to  Manila,  where  they  were  exhibited  in  the  re- 
tail dry  goods  stores  as  evidence  of  the  possibilities  of  cotton  culture 
here,  and  attracted  a  great  deal  of  attention.  This  has  encouraged 
those  who  have  taken  an  active  interest  in  the  subject,  and  it  is  consid- 
ered possible  that  within  a  few  years  cotton  may  have  a  place  among 
the  exports  of  the  Philippines. 

TREE   COTTON. 

The  tree  cotton,  which  is  very  plentiful  in  nearly  all  the  islands,  has 
been  experimented  with  to  some  extent,  but,  I  am  told,  without  satis- 
factory results,  the  fiber  being  too  short  for  spinning.  Again  it  is  as- 
serted that  if  the  proper  machinery  were  used  for  cleaning  it  it  would 
be  found  that  it  .could  be  spun  and  might  take  the  place  of  bush  cotton 
for  many  purposes.  Its  production  would  cost  nothing  except  the  ex- 
pense of  gathering,  as  it  needs  no  cultivation.  Samples  of  it  were  sent 
to  England  a  short  time  ago,  where  it  was  mistaken,  it  is  said,  for  Tahiti 
or  Sea  Island  cotton,  the  fiber  being  found  quite  long  enough  for  spin- 
ning if  properly  cleaned.  Here  it  is  used  for  stuffing  pillows,  cushions, 
mattresses,  etc.,  but  I  believe  that  no  attempt  has  ever  been  made  here 
to  spin  it.  It  is  thought,  however,  that  if  a  proper  machine  for  clean- 
ing and  preparing  it  for  market  could  be  had  it  might  be  made  a 
good  profit-yielding  article  of  export. 

ALEX.  E.  WEBB, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Manila,  August  8,  1889. 


COTTON    TKXTM.F.s    IX    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  153 

TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 

PALESTINE. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  OILLMAN,  OF  JERUSALEM. 

The  director  of  the  custom-house  at  Jaffa  refuses  to  give  to  any 
foreign  consulate  any  such  information  as  that  required  in  this  instance 
unless  he  should  be  authorized  to  do  so  by  special  order  from  head- 
quarters. I  have  therefore  been  obliged  to  direct  my  inquiries  to  such 
private  sources  of  information  as  were  available  to  enable  me  to  give 
the  following  answers  to  your  questions  : 

IMPORTS. 

Cotton  textiles  are  imported  into  this  district  to  the  amount  of  $120,- 
000  per  annum.  They  are  of  the  following-named  kinds :  T-cloth, 
gray ;  long  cloth ;  bleached  shirtings ;  prints. 

WEIGHT. 

The  weight  varies  from  5  to  8  pounds  per  piece  of  from  24  to  30  yards, 
which  would  make  the  weight  per  yard  range  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
seven  hundredths  of  a  pound. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

It  is  invariably  the  case  that  all  such  goods  are  purchased  by  piece 
or  by  yard,  not  by  weight.  The  price  paid  to  the  wholesale  dealers  in 
England  varies  from  3J  to  6J  cents  per  yard,  or  about  from  80  cents  to 
82  per  piece,  a  credit  of  from  two  to  three  months  being  generally  al- 
lowed. 

PLACE  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  place  of  manufacture  and  whence  imported  is  England,  and  no 
other  country,  and  the  importation  is  not  direct,  but  via  Beirut. 

DUTIES. 

The  duties  charged  thereon  are  8  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 
There  are  a  number  of  small  articles  which  would  come  properly  under 
the  head  of  cotton  textiles,  but  which  I  have  omitted  from  this  report 
from  the  impossibility  of  obtaining  statistic^  upon  the  subject.  Also, 
the  business  done  in  them  is  of  so  trifling  an  amount  as  to  render  them 
of  hardly  sufficient  importance  in  this  connection. 

HENRY  GILLMAN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Jerusalem,  July  18, 1889. 


154 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


MERSINE. 
Importations  of  British  cotton  textiles  at  Mersine  fron   1he  year  1878  to  1888. 


Years. 

American  cloths. 

Manchester  goods. 

Madapollams. 

Bales. 

Weight. 

Cost. 

Bales. 

Weight. 

Cost. 

Bales. 

Weight. 

Cost 

1878        

3,850 
3,500 
4,000 
4,200 
3,800 
4,000 
3,400 
4,200 
3,550 
3,000 
4,100 

Tons. 
500 
455 
520 
550 
485 
520 
450 
GOO 
400 
350 
550 

$250,  000 
120,  000 
170,  000 
190,  000 
145,  000 
170,  000 
118,000 
220,  000 
110,  000 
8«,  000 
190,  000 

4,000 
3,800 
4,000 
4,150 
4,500 
4,100 
4,100 
4,500 
3,800 
2,  500 
3,800 

Tons. 
550 
530 
580 
595 
600 
590 
585 
620 
460 
330 
530 

$200,  000 
180,  000 
210,  000 
218,  000 
230,  000 
213,  000 
215,  000 
230,  000 
165,  000 
100,  000 
180,  000 

2,000 
1,500 
2,500 
2,720 
2,200 
2,000 
2,300 
2,600 
1,500 
2,000 
2,000 

Tons. 
260 
200 
320 
350 
310 
260 
300 
330 
210 
260 
260 

$100,  000 
150,  000 
125,  000 
140,  000 
120,  000 
100,  000 
118,  000 
200,  000 
165,  000 
100,  000 
100,  000 

1879  1 

1880 

1881  

1882. 

1883    

1884 

1885           

1886 

1887 

1888    

TOTALS. 

Bales 108,170 

Weight tons..      113,410 

Cost - $5,328,000 


UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Mersine,  September  1,  1889. 


WM.  DAWSON, 
Consular  Agent. 


SYRIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BISSINGER,*  OF  BEIRUT. 

I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  inclosed  answers  to  the  interrogations 
contained  in  cotton  circular.  It  is  proper  to  state,  however,  that  much 
difficulty  was  encountered  in  the  effort  to  collect  approximately  correct 
and  reliable  data  and  material  for  this  report,  owing  to  the  reluctance 
on  the  part  of  merchants,  importers,  and  commission-houses  to  impart 
information  concerning  this  industry,  for  fear  of  prejudicing  their  own 
business  thereby;  and  official  statistics,  as  it  will  be  remembered  are 
not  accessible  in  Syria.  Even  if  they  were  procurable  they  would  be  of 
comparatively  little  value  in  a  report  like  this  on  account  of  the  rather 
confused  and  imperfect  manner  of  keeping  the  records  of  the  custom- 
house. Notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  it  is  confidently  believed  that 

the  inclosed  statements  are  as  correct  and  true  an  exhibit  of  all  the 

. — « , . 

*  Consul  Bissinger,  under  date  of  October  24,  1889,  calls  the  attention  of  the  De- 
partment to  a  paragraph  which  has  just  appeared  in  the  Official  Gazette  of  the  Beirut 
Vilayet  to  the  effect  that  "  Pursuant  to  a  decision  hy  a  special  council  of  ministers,  an 
imperial  irade*  had  been  issued  exempting  all  cotton,  woolen,  and  kindred  textiles 
produced  in  the  imperial  Ottoman  dominions  from  customs  duties  when  transported 
from  one  place  in  the  Turkish  Empire  to  another." 

To  fully  comprehend  this  discrimination  in  favor  of  domestic  tissues  it  is  necessary 
to  state  that  heretofore  all  textiles  shipped  from  one  point  in  the  Empire  to  another, 
including  Egypt,  were  subject  to  4  per  cent,  export  duty,  and  1  per  cent,  when  sent 
to  foreign  countries. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


155 


"cotton  textiles  imported  into  Syria  during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June 
30,  1889,"  as  it  was  possible  under  the  circumstances  to  secure: 

Quantity  and  kind  of  cotton  textiles  imported  per  annum  into  Beirut  from  July  1,  1888,  to 

June  30,  1889. 

Gray  cloth,  800,000  pieces,  length  24  yards  each,  width  20  to  42  inches, 
price  from  14  to  23  cents  per  pound,  or  74  cents  to  $2.22  per  piece  (put 
up  in  bales  from  200  to  300  pieces) $1,184,000 

Gray  shirtings,  200,000  pieces,  length  36  to  38  yards  each,  width  33  to  50 
inches,  price  from  14  to  25  cents  per  pound,  or  $1.36  to  $'2.73  per  piece 
(in  bales  from  200  to  300  pieces) 409,000 

Bleached  shirtings  and  sheetings,  200,000  pieces,  length  39  to  40  yards, 
width  31  to  38  inches — most  desirable  breadth  35  inches— price  from 
$1.42  to  $4  per  piece  (pnt  up  in  bales  of  100  pieces) 542, 000 

Prints  (printed  calico),  400,000  pieces,  length  40  to  50  yards,  width  20  to 
32  inches — most  salable  breadth  27  to  28  inches — price  from  4  to  12 
cents  per  yard — weight  varies  considerably  (in  bales  of  150  pieces) 1, 440. 000 

Muslins  and  tanjibs,  100,000  pieces,  10  to  20  yards  long  (width  of  muslins 
18  to  42  inches,  width  of  taujibs,  30  to  42  inches),  price  from  35  to  89 
cents  per  piece  (weight  varies  considerably) 62,000 

Yarns— bleached,  Turkey-red  and  dyed  (water-twist)— 300,000  bundles, 
from  No.  12  to  24,  reeled  into  skeins,  put  up  in  10-pound  bundles,  price 
from  $1.42  to  $3. 10  per  bundle 678,000 

Sashes,  scarfs,  handkerchiefs,  towels,  napkins,  belts,  stockings,  head- 
coverings  (keffiyehs  mendils),  clothes  of  different  sizes  for  the  peasants, 
and  sundry  other  cotton  fabrics  (of  these  about  500  cases,  at  $160  a 
case,  or  $80,000,  are  cloths  in  various  sizes,  selling  at  from  2.8  cents  to 
8  cents  per  piece) 165,000 

Total 4,480,000 

Amount  of  cotton  textiles  imported  during  the  same  period  into — 

Alexandretta,  including  A-leppo,  An  tioch,  etc 5, 318, 000 

Mersine,  including  Adana,  Tarsus,  etc 900, 000 

Haifa,  including  Nazareth,  Nablus,  etc  . 52,000 

Tripoli,  Latakia,  and  all  other  Syrian  ports,  about 300,000 

Total 6,570,000 

RECAPITULATION : 

Beirut,  including  Damascus,  etc 4,480,000 

Rest  of  Syria 6,570,000 

Total  for  Syria 11,050,000 

For  a  more  comprehensive  and  fuller  understanding  of  this  trade       ' 
with  Beirut,  the  imports  for  the  past  ten  years  are  appended  herewith : 

Imports  of  cotton  textiles  into  Beirut  during  the  years  of  1879-'80  to  1888-'89,  inclusive 

(years  ending  June  30). 


Tears. 


Amount. 


Years. 


Amount. 


1879-'80.. 
1880-'81... 
1881-'82.. 
1882-'?3.. 
1883-;84.. 
1884-'85.. 


$4,  698,  332 
4,  833,  740 
4,  486,  347 
4, 486, 300 
4,  7IC,  000 
4, 950,  000 
5,800,000 


18*6-'87. 
18*7-'88. 
1888-'89. 


Total  for  Beirut. 
Average 


$4.  003,  000 
4, 226,  000 
4, 480,  000 

46,  673,  719 
4,  667,  372 


156       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Yarns. — The  yarns  which  are  imported  into  this  country — almost 
wholly  from  England — are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  materials  for 
shirts,  dresses,  turbans,  scarfs,  belts,  sashes,  handkerchiefs,  towels, 
inendils,  keffiyehs,  and  notably  for  the  manufacture  of  a  kind  of  native 
cloth  called  "dima,"  varying  in  length  per  piece  from  8  to  9  yards,  and 
in  width  from  15  to  19  inches,  price  from  30  to  75  cents  per  piece  ;  also, 
in  various  textile  fabrics  of  native  wool  and  silk,  in  which  the  warp  is 
produced  from  English  yarns. 

WEIGHT. 

Gray  cloth :  Weight  from  4  to  12  pounds  a  piece,  or  four-twenty- 
fourths  to  twelve-twenty-fourths  pounds  per  yard. 

Gray  shirtings  :  Weight  from  7  to  14  pounds  a  piece,  or  one-fifth  to 
one- third  of  a  pound  per  yard. 

Bleached  shirtings :  Weight  varies  considerably — say  from  6  to  16 
pounds  a  piece,  or  one-sixth  to  two-fifths  of  a  pound  per  yard. 

Prints  (printed  calicoes):  Weight  varies  considerably — say  from  4  to  10 
pounds  a  piece,  or  one-tenth  to  five- tenths  of  a  pound  per  yard. 

Muslins  and  tanjibs  :  Weight  varies  considerably,  from  1£  to  4 
pounds  a  piece,  or  two-tenths  to  three-tenths  of  a  pound  a  yard  for  mus- 
lins, and  3  to  4  pounds  a  piece,  or  one-tenth  to  two-tenths  of  a  pound  a 
yard  for  tanjibs.* 

It  will  be  observed  that  weights  vary  considerably ;  the  reason  as- 
signed for  this  discrepancy  is  said  to  be  not  only  due  to  the  different 
qualities  and  weights  of  the  textiles,  but  also  to  the  "  sizing  n  which  nota- 
bly bleached  shirtings,  prints  and  muslin  and  tanjibs  contain.  As  these 
last-mentioned  goods  are  not  sold  by  weight  in  Syria,  the  object  of  de- 
teriorating them  by  such  a  questionable  process  is  not  manifest;  and 
although,  1  am  informed,  this  practice  in  nowise  interferes  with  their 
salability  here,  I  would  not  recommend  its  adoption  by  American  manu- 
facturers. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

All  cotton  goods  imported  from  England  are  purchased  direct  from 
the  English  manufacturers,  either  by  the  agents  or  the  partners  of  the 
Syrian  firms,  most  of  whom  have  branch  houses  in  either  Manchester 
or  Liverpool.  This  trade  is  now  largely  in  the  hands  of  native  mer- 
chants who  have  gradually  replaced  the  foreign  and  English  commis- 
sion merchants  formerly  established  here.  The  English  manufacturers 
have  at  present  no  direct  representatives  in  Syria  for  the  sale  of  their 
cotton  textiles,  and  there  is  now  but  one  English  firm  left  in  Beirut 
which  is  engaged  in  the  sale  of  Manchester  goods.  On  the  other  hand, 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  muslins,  scarfs,  sashes,  clothes  of  various 
kinds  for  the  use  of  the  peasants,  stockings,  and  sundry  other  cotton 

*  The  subdivision  of  the  pound  is  purposely  given  in  these  fractions  to  accord  as 
near  as  possible  with  the  corresponding  lengths  in  yards  of  the  various  pieces. 


COTTON'  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        157 

goods,  which  are  imported  from  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Austria, 
are  purchased  through  foreign  commission  houses  established  in 
Beirut,  who  charge  the  wholesale  dealers  from  2J  to  3  per  cent,  com- 
mission on  their  orders,  or  rather  an  advance  equivalent  to  that  on  the 
foreign  invoices  produced.  The  precise  arrangements  between  the 
commission  houses  here  and  the  European  manufacturers  are,  of  course, 
not  made  known,  and  it  must  be  left  to  conjecture  whether  the  orig- 
inal invoices  are  always  the  ones  produced  by  the  commission  mer- 
chants. 

The  conditions  under  which  cotton  textiles  are  usually  purchased  are 
(1)  either  for  cash,  after  delivery,  and  in  this  case  the  payment  is  gen- 
erally effected  in  from  three  to  fifteen  days;  but  if  settlement  is  pro- 
longed beyond  this  term,  interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  is  charged; 
or  (2)  on  credit,  generally  against  bills  at  three  months'  date,  bearing 
interest  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  per  annum. 

It  is  not  at  all  a  rare  occurrence  that  when  the  native  agents  of  the 
Syrian  houses  in  England  are  short  of  funds,  they  purchase  their  goods 
for  cash  from  the  Manchester  manufacturers,  and  pay  them  with  the 
proceeds  of  an  advance  upon  the  merchandise  shipped  to  Syria  by  pledg- 
ing the  bill  of  lading  with  a  banker  or  with  the  agent  of  the  steam-ship 
company  carrying  the  goods,  as  security  for  the  money  advanced  on  the 
shipment.  Upon  the  arrival  of  the  merchandise  in  Syria,  the  merchant 
can  withdraw  the  same,  by  liquidating  the  amount  advanced,  plus  the 
interest  accrued  thereon. 

All  purchases  are  subject  to  a  discount  of  from  2  to  2£  per  cent. 

The  Syrian  wholesale  dealer  allows  the  retail  dealer  usually  four 
months*  time  on  his  purchases  of  gray  T-cloth,  gray  shirtings,  and 
bleached  cloth,  and  six  months  on  prints;  or  if  the  retailer  buys  for 
cash,  he  is  entitled  to  a  discount  of  4  per  cent,  on  the  first  three  articles 
mentioned,  and  6  per  cent,  on  the  last.  The  other  cotton  goods  are  not 
governed  by  any  special  rule,  except  that  the  prices  quoted  are  always 
understood  to  mean  u  cash,"  and  if  time  is  required,  interest  is  added 
from  date  of  bill. 

PLACE  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  "  place  of  manufacture  and  whence  imported"  can  not  be  better  or 
more  graphically  answered  than  by  presenting  the  annexed  exhibit, 
showing  the  imports  from  England  during  ten  years  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  combined  imports  from  Austria  France,  Germany,  and  Switz- 
erland on  the  other. 


158 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Imports  of  cotton  textiles  Into  Beirut  from  Great  Britain  on  the  one  hand,  and  Austria, 
France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland  on  the  other,  during  a  period  often  years. 


Period. 

England. 

All  other 
countries. 

Total. 

1879  '80    

$3,259,  776 

$1,  438,  556 

$4,  698,  332 

1880-'81         *  

3,  467,  309 

1.  366,  431 

4,  833,  740 

1881  '82     

3,  036,  048 

1,  450,  299 

4,  486,  347 

188->  '83           

3.  729,  408 

756,  892 

4,  486,  300 

1883-'84       

3,  047,  944 

1,  662,  056 

4.  710,  000 

1884-'85            -  -       

4,  435,  200 

514,  800 

4,  950,  000 

1885  '86       

4,  784,  640 

1,  015,  360 

5,  800,  000 

1886  '87                ...          

3,  456,  000 

547,  000 

4,  003,  000 

1887  '88         

3,  686,  400 

539,  600 

4,  226,  000 

1888-'89                           .    

3,  842,  120 

637,  880 

4,  480,  000 

Total                            

36,  744,  845 

9,  928,  874 

46,673  719 

3,  674.  484 

992,  887 

4,  667,  372 

78.7 

21.3 

Comment  upon  the  preceding  table  would  seem  superfluous ;  from  it, 
ifc  is  manifest  that  78.7  per  cent,  of  all  the  cotton  textiles  to  which  this  re- 
port has  reference  are  manufactured  in  Manchester  and  its  district,  and 
are  imported  direct  from  Liverpool.  A  small  quantity  of  prints  and 
miscellaneous  cotton  fabrics  are  manufactured  in  France  and  imported 
via  Marseilles,  while  the  largest  part  of  the  muslins,  sashes,  handker- 
chiefs, and  socks  are  manufactured  in  Saxony,  Germany,  in  Austria, 
and  in  Glaris,  Switzerland ;  this  country  supplies  the  Syrian  market 
principally  with  handkerchiefs,  keffiyehs,  and  mendils,  or  head  cloths 
and  coverings,  worn  mainly  by  the  peasants ;  the  different  sizes  are 
55  by  55  centimeters  (21.658  inches) ;  65  by  65  centimeters  (25.598 
inches) ;  75  by  75  centimeters  (29.528  inches) ;  85  by  85  centimeters 
33.468  inches),  and  95  by  95  centimeters  (37.398  inches),  and  are  sold  at 
a  price  varying  from  14  centimes =2.8  to  8  cents  per  piece.  A  large 
portion  of  the  pocket-handkerchiefs  formerly  manufactured  there  for 
Syrian  consumption  are  now  also  imported  from  England.  All 
goods  imported  from  Austria,  Germany,  and  Switzerland  com  via 
Trieste. 

From  what  has  been  said  in  this  report,  it  will  appear  manifest  that 
the  English  (Manchester)  manufacturers  are  very  firmly  intrenched  in 
this  market ;  but  I  would  here  repeat  what  I  at  great  length  stated  in 
my  annual  report  of  1885-?86,  namely,  that  if  American  manufacturers 
and  merchants  would  not  attempt  the  effort  to  successful!/  compete 
with  markets  now  monopolized  by  Austria,  England,  France,  or  Ger- 
many, they  would  forever  have  to  abandon  every  hope  of  finding  a  for- 
eign outlet  for  their  numerous  surplus  manufactured  products,  for  the 
country  where  these  nations  have  not  established  trade  relations  is  yet 
to  be  discovered. 

Like  those  countries,  our  manufacturers  must  enter  the  Syrian  market 
by  carefully  studying  the  wants  of  the  people,  and,  by  offering  them  a 
superior  article  or  some  novelty  or  specialty,  succeed  in  securing  a  share 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        159 

of  its  trade.    Persistent  and  intelligent  efforts  are  certain  to  be  ulti- 
mately crowned  with  success. 

The  uniform  import  duty  on  all  cotton  goods  is  8  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

ERHARD  BISSINGER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  July  31,  1889. 


AUSTRALASIA. 
FIJI. 

REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  ST.  JOHN. 
QUALITY  AND  KIND. 

The  cotton  goods  that  are  most  imported  and  used  here  are  of  an 
inferior  grade  and  poor  quality,  being  used  principally  by  the  natives 
for  their  scanty  dress  (sulus).  The  kinds  are  mostly  domestic  prints, 
sheeting  and  shirting  (gray  calico),  in  single  and  double  widths. 

WEIGHT. 

The  weight  per  yard  is  variable  according  to  quality,  but  is  purchased 
exclusively  by  the  yard  and  not  by  weight. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Nearly  all  the  merchants,  I  should  say  importers,  purchase  by  sight 
draft.  A  few,  however,  purchase  upon  thirty,  sixty,  and  ninety  days 
sight  draft. 

PLACE  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  cotton  goods  used  here  are,  practically  speaking,  all  manufact- 
ured at  Manchester,  England,  and  imported  from  London.  A  small 
quantity  of  American  sail  cloth  of  the  Mount  Yernon  and  Kaven's  Rock 
brands  is  imported  from  New  York. 

AMERICAN  COTTONS  IN  FIJI. 

I  will  say  that  the  importers  here  object  to  the  package  of  American 
sail  cloth,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  too  loosely  rolled,  while  the  English 
sail-cloth  is  more  closely  rolled  and  then  subjected  to  heavy  pressure, 
making  the  package  occupy  as  little  space  as  possible. 

The  reason  for  the  preference  of  the  English  package  is,  that  as 
freights  are  paid  for  by  the  measured  ton,  the  loosely  rolled  package 
occupying  the  more  space,  pays  the  most  freight  and  consequently  in- 
creases the  cost  to  such  an  extent,  consequent  upon  the  long  distance 


1GO       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

it  is  shipped,  as  almost  to  keep  it  out  of  this  market ;  for  although 
American  cotton  sail-cloth  is  considered  much  superior  to  that  of  Eng- 
lish manufacture,  but  little  is  imported  for  the  reason  above  given. 

As  to  cotton  goods  generally,  the  merchants  here,  almost  to  a  man, 
tell  me  that  American  cotton  goods  are  too  good  for  this  market,  and 
that  they  (the  merchants)  buy  such  goods  as  suit  the  market,  and  that 
they  buy  them  where  they  can  best  obtain  them. 

DUTIES. 

Drapery,  which  includes  all  cotton  goods  of  all  qualities  and  kinds, 
pays  duty  at  the  rate  of  12 £  per  cent,  ad  valorem,  upon  invoice.  There- 
fore it  is  very  difficult  to  get  the  exact  importation  of  cotton  goods 
separate  from  the  general  line  of  drapery.  From  the  best  information 
that  I  can  obtain  I  would  say  that  $250,000  would  be  nearly  a  correct 
estimate  of  the  value  of  cotton  goods  imported  into  this  colony  per 
year. 

POPULATION. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  interested  I  will  state  that  the  population  of 
this  colony  is  in  round  numbers  200,000,  of  which  about  1,850  are  white, 
the  rest  either  native  Fijian  or  Polynesian,  and  would  suggest  that 
manufacturers  and  shippers  produce  an  article  that  suits  the  natives 
if  they  wish  to  trade  in  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

ANDREWS  A.  ST.  JOHN, 

Commercial  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  COMMERCIAL  AGENCY, 

Fiji,  August  22,  1889. 


NEW  ZEALAND. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  CONNOLLY,  OF  AUKLAND. 

It  is  impossible  to  obtain  reliable  information  as  to  the  quantity 
shipped  from  the  following  undermentioned  countries ;  the  value  and 
kind  of  goods  alone  is  obtainable : 

WHENCE  IMPORTED. 

Colored  cotton  shirtings :  I 

American 1 $1,265 

.    United  Kingdom 236,890 

Victoria,  Australia 1,225 

New  South  Wales,  Australia 520 

Belgium 70 


Total 239,970 


Calico,  white  and  gray,  in  the  piece: 

United  Kingdom 521,330 

Victoria,  Australia , 18,150 

New  South  Wales,  Australia 640 


Total ...-.., .»—*--« 540,120 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.  161 

Cotton-dress  prints: 

America 605 

United  Kingdom 27,260 

Victoria,  Australia 110 

New  South  Wales,  Australia 5 

South  Sea  Islands 275 

Total 28,255 

Corduroy : 

United  Kingdom 10,230 

Moleskin  : 

United  Kingdom 78,210 

Victoria,  Australia 970 


Total..  79,180 


Unennmerated  cotton  goods: 

America 3,655 

United  Kingdom 437,000 

Victoria,  Australia 3,100 

New  South  Wales,  Australia 1,295 

France — 150 

Germany 155 


Total 445,355 


Cotton,  raw : 

Victoria,  Australia,  1.145  pounds 200 

South  Sea  Islands,  79,957  pounds 2,310 

Total 2,510 

Cotton  waste: 

United  Kingdom,  2,613  cwt 20,095 


Cotton  wick : 

United  Kingdom,  23,774  pounds 9,230 

Victoria,  Australia,  2,284  pounds 845 

Total 10,075 


Grand  total 1,375,790 

It  may  be  observed  from  the  foregoing  tables  that  the  United  King- 
dom furnished  $1,340,245  worth  of  all  cotton  materials  imported  during 
the  year,  while  the  United  States  furnished  only  $5,485  worth,  leaving 
only  $30,060  to  be  divided  among  all  the  countries  enumerated  above. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Importing  firms  in  New  Zealand  have  branch  houses  in  England,  or 
agents  to  whom  orders  for  goods  are  forwarded  substantially  as  follows : 

WINTER   ORDER. 

Gray  Mexican  (cotton),  100  yards :  Per  yard. 

26-inch  width,  100  pieces  at \\  d. 

29-inch  width,    GO  pieces  at If  d. 

3^-inch  width,    80  pieces  at 2i  d. 

36-inch  width,    50  pieces  at 3    d. 

608A 11 


162  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  above  is  an  exact  copy  of  an  order  sent  by  this  mail  for  goods. 
The  agent,  or  whoever  receives  the  order,  proceeds  at  once  to  the  whole- 
sale houses  and  leaves  copies  of  the  order,  with  a  request  that  samples 
be  sent  to  his  address.  The  agent  upon  receiving  the  samples  selects 
the  best  material  obtainable  from  among  the  samples  furnished  by  the 
various  business  houses,  and  gives  his  order  accordingly.  Payments 
are  invariably  required  to  be  made  for  soft  goods  (in  England)  to  the 
manufacturers  within  six  months  from  the  date  of  purchase.  Much  of 
the  cotton  goods  purchased  in  England  is  paid  for  in  New  Zealand  pro- 
duce and  copra  from  the  South  Sea  Islands ;  the  remainder  is  paid  in 
cash  or  draft. 

DUTIES. 

The  following  articles  pay  duty  or  are  admitted  free  as  more  fully 
appears  by  the  subjoined  list:  Cotton  counterpanes,  20  per  cent. 5 
costumes  as  apparel,  20  per  cent.  ;  cotton  braids  and  bindings,  tailors' 
trimmings, free;  cotton  dimity,  10  per  cent.;  cotton  piece  goods,  not 
otherwise  enumerated,  to  include  cotton  prints,  muslins,  Attalia  and 
Indian  twills,  dungaree,  derries,  denims,  dimity,  lamb  skins,  swan 
skins,  and  all  cotton  goods  unmixed  with  other  material,  and  unenu- 
merated  in  tariff  or  decisions,  when  in  the  piece  as  it  leaves  the  loom, 
10  per  cent.  Cotton,  polished  for  lining  coat  sleeves,  for  fabrication  of 
goods  in  the  colony,  free.  Cotton  rugs,  20  per  cent. ;  cottons,  crochet, 
darning,  knitting,  and  angola  mending,  as  haberdashery,  20  per  cent. ; 
cotton,  sewing,  free ;  cotton  shirtings,  colored,  in  the  piece,  free ;  cot- 
tons, silks,  and  threads,  sewing,  free;  cotton  waste,  free  ;  cotton  yarns, 
free ;  coverings  for  couches  and  chairs,  Chinese,  as  furniture,  25  per 
cent. ;  table  coverings  in  the  piece,  not  embroidered  or  sewed,  as  textile 
piece  goods,  20  per  cent. ;  covers,  rick  and  wagon,  15  per  cent. ;  table 
and  toilet,  20  per  cent.  5  crapes,  as  drapery,  not  otherwise  enumerated, 
20  per  cent. ;  cravats,  as  apparel,  25  per  cent. 

Crimean  shirtings  25  per  cent.;  crinolettes,  as  apparel,  25  per  cent.;  cro- 
chet cottons,  as  haberdashery,  20  percent.;  crochet,  Swiss,  and  embroid- 
ered edgings  of  all  kinds,  as  drapery,  not  otherwise  enumerated,  20  per 
cent.;  crumb-cloths,  as  textiles,  piece  goods,  20  per  cent.;  cuffs,  cotton, 
paper,  or  other  material,  as  apparel,  25  per  cent;  corduroy  (cotton),  in 
piece,  free;  cotton  (stay-maker's  binding)  free;  corsets,  as  appferel,  25 
per  cent. ;  corset  fasteners,  stay- maker's  binding,  free. 

The  above  list  of  articles  subject  to  duty,  or  admitted  free,  is  taken 
from  the  customs  tariff  and  decisions,  submitted  by  the  tariff  commis- 
sioner, and  is  therefore  thoroughly  reliable. 

JOHN  D.  CONNOLLY, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Auckland,  New  Zealand,  September  4, 1889. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


163 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GRIFFIN,  OF  SYDNEY. 
IMPORTS. 

The  customs  authorities  do  not  publish  itemized  returns  of  the  quan- 
tity and  value  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  New  South  Wales.  All 
merchandise  of  this  kind  is  classed  under  the  general  head  of  drapery. 
The  value  of  drapery  imported  into  New  South  Wales  during  the  year 
1888  was  $13,849,562,  against  $10,844,231  for  1887.  Of  the  imports  for 
1888  Great  Britain  sent  goods  to  the  value  of  $10,316,497,  and  the  United 
States  only  $6,603,  the  remainder  coming  from  Belgium,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  other  countries. 

The  subjoined  table,  taken  from  the  annual  statement  of  trade  of  the 
United  Kingdom,  shows  the  quantity  and  value  of  cotton  goods  exported 
from  the  United  Kingdom  to  New  South  Wales  for  each  year  from  1884 
to  1888  inclusive : 


Years. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Entered 
value. 

jg84                                 

Yards. 
29  094  900 

$9  512  870 

$1  576  843 

1885                      

34  441  700 

2  907  217 

1  692  105 

188fi          

25  545  000 

2  126  412 

1  440  069 

1887                      .        "             .             

24  654  100 

1  999  133 

1  171  069 

1888           .                  

36  905  700 

2  894  847 

1  362  71<> 

In  the  Colony  of  Victoria,  the  population  of  which  is  about  the  same 
as  that  of  New  South  Wales,  the  returns  are  made  out  in  a  different 
manner  and  show  the  quantity  and  value  of  cotjon  goods  imported  into 
that  colony  to  be,  for  1888,  $5,495,903,  against  $4,019,159  for  1887,  and 
$4,682,186  for  1886.  Of  these,  the  great  bulk  comes  from  England.  Of 
the  imports  of  cotton  piece-goods,  for  1888,  the  value  from  Great  Britain 
was  $4,965,265,  and  of  articles  of  cotton  manufacture,  $348,708.  The 
United  States  only  supplied  $11,158.  Of  cotton- waste  the  imports  into 
Victoria  in  1888  were  $57,724.  Great  Britain  sent  £9,705  worth  ;  New 
York,  $875.97  worth.  The  imports  of  cotton- wick  likewise  were,  £3,820. 
Great  Britain  furnished,  $17,392,  and  New  York  only  $306.58. 

The  value  of  the  imports  of  all  kinds  of  manufactured  cotton  goods 
into  the  Australasian  colonies  is  about  $14.05  per  head  of  population, 
and  as  the  population  of  the  whole  of  the  group  is  about  4,000,000,  this 
would  make  the  total  value  of  the  imports  $58,398,000.  The  popula- 
tion of  New  South  Wales  at  the  close  of  June,  1889,  was  estimated  at 
little  over  1,000,000,  so  by  the  same  method  of  calculation  the  cotton 
imports  would  amount  to  $14,599,500.  If  the  value  of  the  goods  mixed 
with  cotton  were  added  to  these  figures,  the  value  of  the  imports  of 
cottons  would  be  fully  $4,866,500  more  for  the  colony  of  New  South 
Wales. 


164  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

KINDS,  PRICES,  ETC. 

Bleached  cottons. — On  account  of  the  absence  of  classified  returns  of 
the  cotton  imports  I  have  been  obliged  to  rely  upon  such  information  as 
I  could  obtain  from  the  principal  importers  of  cotton  textiles  in  Sydney 
and  other  places.  The  firm  of  Messrs.  Eiley  Bros,  who  are  among  the 
largest  importers  in  Sydney,  not  only  of  cotton  textiles,  but  of  other 
merchandise,  inform  me  that  bleached  cottons  usually  imported  to  this 
market  vary  in  width  from  20  to  36  inches.  The  prices  in  Manchester 
are  from  2.5  cents,  to  9  cents  per  yard.  The  width  most  desired  here 
is  30  inches.  The  double  bleached  cottons  are  from  50  to  72  inches  in 
width,  and  cost  in  England  from  8  to  20  cents  per  yard.  There  is  a  fair 
demand  here  for  cottons  of  the  widths  of  68  to  72  inches,  and  the  price 
paid  at  the  place  of  purchase  is  from  14  to  16  cents  per  yard.  The  great 
bulk  of  the  trade,  however,  is  in  the  narrow  widths.  There  is  always 
a  heavy  demand  for  soft  white  cottons  made  in  imitation  of  what  are 
known  as  American  sea-side  cottons.  The  Manchester  price  varies 
from  4  to  20  cents  per  yard.  The  most  reliable  widths  are  36'inches. 
Cottons  of  this  width,  when  soft  and  of  good  quality,  cost  7  to  8  cents 
per  yard  in  England.  Horrock's  long  cloths,  42  yards  to  the  piece,  36 
inches  in  width,  are  very  popular  in  this  market. 

Printed  cottons. — The  styles  of  these  goods  are  constantly  changing. 
Sometimes  there  is  a  heavy  demand  for  large-figured  patterns,  and  at 
other  times  the  smaller  are  most  salable.  The  latter  are  at  present 
most  in  fashion,  and  are  made  chiefly  at  Manchester  and  Glasgow.  A 
heavy  trade  is  done  here  in  calicoes  or  prints  for  men's  shirts.  These 
are  also  of  Manchester  and  Glasgow  manufacture.  The  widths  are 
from  27  to  33  inches.  The  cost  in  London,  Manchester,  or  Glasgow  is 
from  5  to  12  cents  per  yard. 

Moleskins  for  men's  trousers:  There  is  only  a  slight  demand,  either 
for  white  or  colored.  The  usual  width  for  these  goods  is  27  inches ; 
price,  16  to  36  cents.  Most  useful,  price  26  cents  per  yard.  They  all 
come  from  Manchester. 

Linings,  silecias.  and  other  cotton  linings  come  from  Manchester. 
Large  quantities  of  these  goods  are  sold  throughout  Australasia.  The 
prices  are  from  3  to  12  cents,  for  32  to  42  inch  widths. 

» Bed-ticking. — In  plain  stripes,  blue,  and  fancy  colors,  widths  36  to  54 
inches,  cost  from  5J  to  14  cents  per  yard  at  Manchester. 

Bed  quilts.— In  heavy  cour.t  patterns  and  imitation  of  Marseilles,  vary- 
ing from  60  by  70  to  90  by  120  inches,  cost  from  48  cents  to  $4.86,  either 
in  white  or  colors.  White,  however,  predominates. 

Towels. — The  bulk  of  these  imports  are  in  honey-comb  and  Turkish. 
The  prices  of  the  former  vary  from  $1.46  to  $2.43  per  dozen.  The  lat- 
ter from  73  cents  to  $4.86, 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  165 

AMERICAN  VS.   ENGLISH  COTTONS. 

The  cost  of  freight,  exchange,  and  commission,  and  in  fact  all  kinds 
of  business  transactions,  are  greater  with  the  United  States  than  with 
England  and  form  obstacles  in  the  way  of  successful  introduction  of 
American  cotton  manufactures  into  this  market.  One  great  obstacle 
is  the  absence  of  a  permanent  and  direct  steam  communication  between 
the  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  and  the  Australian 
ports.  These  difficulties  may  be  overcome  in  time  but  the  fact  never- 
theless remains  that  the  bulk  of  the  trade  has  been  monopolized  by 
Great  Britain. 

I  have  conferred  very  fully  on  the  subject  with  Mr.  E.  G.  Vallack,  of 
the  firm  of  Messrs.  W.  Gardiner  &  Co.,  of  Sydney,  who  has  had  more 
experience  than  any  other  merchant  in  Australia  with  regard  to  Amer- 
ican cotton  goods,  and  he  has  very  kindly  given  me  the  results  of  his  ex- 
perience. In  regard  to  such  articles  as  rubber  duck,  rubber  drill, 
enameled  duck,  tan-back  drill,  tan-back  moleskin,  he  says  that  all 
these  goods  are  suited  to  the  Australian  market,  being  used  for  coach 
building  and  other  purposes.  The  consumption,  however,  is  not  large 
and  he  things  the  total  imports  of  these  goods  into  STew  South  Wales 
would  not  exceed  300  pieces  per  annum. 

There  is  also  a  very  limited  demand  for  ticks  and  denims,  the  ordi- 
nary cotton  tick  having,  in  a  great  measure,  given  place  to  manufactures 
of  more  recent  introduction,  in  which  the  widths  are  either  36  or  72 
inches.  Such  goods  comprise  quite  a  large  variety  of  woven  colored 
stripes  of  different  patterns.  The  consumption  of  the  woven  striped 
ticks  is  large  and  steadily  increasing.  All  such  manufactures  come 
from  England  and  Mr.  Vallack  thinks  that  they  are  not  produced  in 
America.  Blue  denims  were,  until  a  few  years  ago,  comparatively 
unknown  ;  but  they  are  now  an  item  of  almost  daily  demand.  They 
are  used  chiefly  by  sailors,  and  Sydney  seems  to  be  the  depot  for  the 
neighboring  ports.  Mr.  Vallack  states  that  his  firm  uses  about  500 
pieces  of  these  goods  in  the  year. 

Cotton  duck,  cotton  drill,  "  Stark,"  or  other  mill,  7  to  12  ounces  Army 
duck,  "  Druid  "  duck  or  canvas,  and  blue  duck  are  all  in  fair  demand  in 
Sydney.  Of  these  Mr.  Vallack  says  the  American  market  seems  to  sup- 
ply makes  and  weights  which  meet  the  wants  of  the  people  quite  as 
well  as  any  produced  in  England.  The  demand  for  such  is  a  growing 
one.  His  linn  imports  direct  from  New  York  between  400  and  500 
pieces  a  year. 

Several  other  Sydney  firms  have  done  exceedingly  well  with  Ameri- 
can ducks,  such  as  the  Ontario,  60  inches  in  width,  weighing  12  ounces 
to  the  yard.  This  article  can  be  landed  in  Sydney,  freight  and  all 
charges  paid,  at  26  cents  per  yard,  and  I  am  informed  that  there  is  no 
European  article  of  a  similar  make  that  can  at  all  compare  with  it. 


1G6        COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Canton  or  cotton-flannel,  called  swan-skin,  gray  and  bleached,  here 
and  in  England  has  a  limited  sale  on  account  of  the  mild  climate ;  in 
fact  this  material  is  seldom  used  here  for  underclothing,  but  such  as 
finds  its  way  into  the  market,  and  especially  bleached  cotton-flannel,  is 
generally  of  American  manufacture.  A  few  gray  canton-flannels  are 
also  sold,  but  the  demand  is  so  small  as  not  to  be  worth  taking  into 
notice.  Mr.  Vallack  has  very  kindly  furnished  me  with  a  list  of  a  cer- 
tain class  of  American  cottons  sold  here,  which  comprises  gray  calicoes, 
gray  sheetings,  bleached  long-cloths,  and  bleached  sheetings — plain  and 
twilled.  Mr.  Vallack  states  that  the  demand  for  the  goods  mentioned 
is  very  considerable  and  says  : 

I  may  be  permitted  to  remark,  especially  with  regard  to  the  items  enumerated  in 
this  group  and  more  broadly  with  reference  to  American  manufactured  cottons  gen- 
erally, that  they  can  not  hold  their  own  in  this  market,  and  the  consumption  of  the 
items  is  very  large,  running  to  thousands,  perhaps  tens  of  thousands  of  packages  in 
the  course  of  a  year.  I  have  nothing  whatever  to  say  against  the  make  or  finish ;  as  to 
finish  they  are  perhaps  superior  to  the  English,  but  their  cost  is  so  high  as  to  create 
no  demand  for  them.  This  is  the  chief  obstacle.  For  a  period  extending  over  some 
seven  or  eight  years  the  Wamsutta  company  consigned  very  largely  to  this  market, 
and  I  have  from  first  to  last  purchased  many  hundreds  of  packages  both  in  the  open 
market  and  direct  from  the  consignees  ;  of  the  earlier  shipments,  many  were  sold  by 
auction  and  probably  realized  remunerative  rates,  but  I  think  if  reference  be  made  to 
this  company  it  will  be  found  that  their  consignments  resulted  in  a  series  of  losses, 
and  sometimes  very  heavy  losses.  They  would  not,  I  think,  be  inclined  to  repeat 
their  experiment.  In  the  event  of  American  manufacturers  being  desirous  of  com- 
peting with  the  Manchester  Mills,  I  shall  be  most  happy  to  report  upon  any  samples 
that  may  be  submitted  through  you  with  the  view  of  their  being  brought  into  com- 
petition with  the  products  of  Great  Britain. 

With  regard  to  white  long-cloth  I  learn  that  the  demand  is  mostly 
for  36-inch  widths,  while  for  sheetings  it  is  principally  for  from  72  to 
100  inch  widths.  In  grays  the  demand  is  chiefly  for  36  to  72  inch 
widths,  and  very  few  of  other  widths  are  sold  in  this  market. 

.  Ready  made  cotton  goods. — Blue  denim  jumpers,  blue  denim  trowsers, 
blue  duck  trowsers,  and  fancy  cotton-made  trowsers  from  America, 
occasionally  find  their  way  to  this  market.  They  meet  with  fair  sale  in 
the  hands  of  those  dealing  in  clothing  for  sailors. 

Sizing. — The  beauty  and  purity  of  American  cotton  fabrics  and  their 
entire  freedom  from  sizing  or  adulteration  attract  attention  wherever 
they  are  seen ;  but  the  high  cost,  as  I  have  said  previously,  alone  pre- 
vents them  from  being  profitably  and  largely  imported,  the  cheaper 
and  more  or  less  adulterated  article  taking  their  place.  Various  matter 
is  used  for  sizing,  some  of  which  does  little  harm,  while  other  kinds  are 
washed  out  of  the  fabrics  after  the  first  laundrying.  About  50  per 
cent,  of  this  adulteration  is  sometimes  used,  but  it  would  be  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  all  Manchester  goods  are  adulterated.  Many  are  so 
slightly  mixed  with  other  substances,  or  the  weights  added  to,  as  not  to 
affect  the  quality  or  indeed  to  alter  the  appearance  after  washing.  An 
indifferent  article  is  not  desired  here  any  more  than  anywhere  else,  but 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.       167 

a  fair  article  at  a  low  price  is  demanded ;  and  what  I  have  said  of  cot- 
tons is  equally  true  of  woolen  goods.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  in  Aus- 
tralia, that  the  blankets  imported  from  New  Zealand,  as  from  the 
United  States,  are  of  much  better  quality  than  those  placed  on  the 
market  from  England;  but  the  high  cost  of  the  former  kinds  makes 
the  demand  for  them  very  limited.  The  English  blankets  have  neither 
the  weight,  finish,  or  quality  of  the  American  article,  and  while  a  great 
many  very  mean  articles  of  this  class  are  sold  to  those  who  demand  a 
low  priced  blanket,  considerable  quantities,  fairly  good,  are  also  sold 
to  the  working  classes  at  remunerative  prices  and  give  very  general 
satistaction,  especially  when  their  low  price  is  considered. 

BANKING  AND  METHOD  OF  PURCHASE. 

The  banking  system  with  the  United  States  is  an  important  item  to 
be  considered  with  regard  to  the  importation  of  American  cotton  goods 
as  well  as  of  other  merchandise. 

There  is  no  direct  exchange  with  New  York,  the  medium  being  by 
way  of  London.  The  few  banks  here  having  facilities  for  the  sale  of 
drafts  on  New  York  or  San  Francisco,  payable  at  sight,  charge  from  2£ 
to  5  per  cent.,  while  the  exchange  by  way  of  London  is  only  J  per  cent. 
The  direct  transactions  with  New  York  seldom  occur,  and  when  they 
do  they  are  for  very  small  amounts,  the  exchange,  as  I  have  said, 
being  conducted  by  way  of  London. 

The  Australian  merchant  who  has  no  established  credit  in  New  York 
has  either  to  send  a  bank  draft  along  with  his  order  for  the  goods  he 
desires  to  purchase,  and  thus  loses  the  interest  on  his  money,  or  else  he 
is  obliged  to  go  to  his  banker  here  and  arrange  for  a  bank  credit. 
When  this  is  done  the  Australian  importer  orders  his  goods  generally 
from  a  New  York  commission  merchant,  who  purchases  them  and 
charges  2£  per  cent,  for  so  doing.  The  colonial  bank  in  the  mean  time 
authorizes  its  New  York  agent  to  purchase  drafts  from  the  commission 
merchant  on  the  importer  in  these  colonies  for  a  fixed  amount  at  the 
current  rate  of  exchange  on  London.  The  colonial  bank's  agent  is  in- 
structed at  the  same  time  to  see  that  the  drafts  are  accompanied  by 
proper  shipping  documents,  bills  of  lading,  insurance  policy,  etc.  When 
the  bank's  agent  is  in  possession  of  these  documents,  which  virtually 
amounts  to  the  ownership  of  the  goods,  he  purchases  the  American 
merchant's  drafts  and  an  order  is  given  for  the  shipment  of  the  goods, 
which  may  be  done  either  direct  to  Australia  or  by  way  of  London. 
The  agent  of  the  colonial  bank  in  New  York  then  forwards  the  drafts, 
bills  of  lading,  etc.,  to  the  bank  agent  in  London  with  instructions  to 
write  to  the  bank  in  Australia  and  authorize  the  delivery  of  the  goods 
upon  payment  of  the  drafts  and  all  other  necessary  expenses  not  in- 
oliuled  in  the  draft,  such  as  the  current  rate  of  exchange  between  Lon- 
don and  Australia. 


168  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

This  is  the  usual  method  of  purchasing  and  paying  for  the  goods  in 
the  United  States.  If  the  credit  of  the  Australian  merchant  is  estab- 
lished, the  goods  are  ordered  in  the  same  way  through  the  commission 
merchant  and  the  transaction  is  completed  in  the  manner  described,  but 
the  only  saving  to  the  importer  is  the  cost  of  establishing  a  bank  credit, 
namely,  1  per  cent.  Until  some  convenient  method  is  pursued,  the  cost 
of  business  transactions  will  be  much  greater  with  America  than  with 
England,  There  are  very  few  Australian  houses  who  have  agents  in 
New  York  or  other  American  cities  for  the  purchasing  of  goods. 

London  manufacturers  have  their  representatives  on  the  spot  and 
merchandise  is  ordered  regularly  by  post.  The  cable  notifies  the  prices 
of  all  English  merchandise,  whilst  American  prices  are  seldom  men- 
tioned. The  completion  of  the  proposed  ocean  cable  between  San  Fran- 
cisco and  Australia  would  remedy  this  evil. 

PRICES  OF  COTTONS  IN  SYDNEY. 

In  this  report  I  have  not  given  the  Sydney  prices  of  cotton  textiles, 
but  probably  from  10  to  20  per  cent,  above  cost  would  be  considered 
fair  selling  rates. 

Mr.  A.  J.  Riley  estimated  the  cost  of  bringing  cotton  textiles  from 
England  to  Sydney  at  17£  percent,  by  sailing  vessels  and  22J  percent, 
by  steamers  when  freights  are  $7.30  and  $14.GO,  respectively.  The  cost 
of  packing  in  wood  and  zinc  cases  of  3-feet  cube  is  about  2  per  cent,  on 
the  value  of  the  goods.  A  great  many  of  the  lower  priced  cotton  manu- 
factures are  packed  in  bales  covered  with  canvas  and  tar. 

CUSTOMS  DUTIES. 

There  are  no  customs  duties  charged  on  cotton  fabrics  imported  into 
New  South  Wales,  whether  of  English,  American,  or  any  other  manu- 
facture. 

At  one  time  there  was  an  ad  valorem  duty  on  such  goods,  but  it  has 
been  repealed. 

G.  W.  GRIFFIN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Sydney,  September  28,  1889 


CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

TRIESTE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL   GILBERT. 

Agreeable  to  instructions  contained  in  circular  dated  May  27,  1889, 
relating  to  cotton  textiles  imported  into  this  consular  district,  I  have 
the  honor  to  inclose  a  communication  received  from  the  chamber  of 
commerce  of  this  city  in  reply  to  my  letter  requesting  the  statistics 
covering  the  points  stated  in  the  mentioned  circular  of  the  Department, 
and  such  other  statistics  as  are  obtainable  on  the  subject.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  translation  of  the  letter  of  the  chamber  of  commerce  addressed 
to  this  consulate : 

No.  1764. 

To  the  "honorable  consulate  of  the  United  States  in  Trieste: 

We  can  only  respond  to  your  letter  of  the  17th  instant  with  the  following  statis- 
tics, which  we  have  the  honor  to  inclose  herein.  Upon  the  weight  per  yard,  which 
varies  according  to  the  quality  of  the  goods,  we  can  furnish  no  information.  It  is 
the  same  with  regard  to  the  place  of  manufacture  and  the  way  in  which  the  goods 
are  purchased.  At  Trieste  no  import  duty  is  paid. 

For  importation  into  the  monarchy  we  refer  you  to  the  various  customs  tariffs- 
general,  with  the  modifications  according  to  international  treaties. 

Trieste,  24  July,  1889. 

Direction  of  the  Bourse. 

F.  DIMMER, 

Vice-President. 

It  is  to  bo  noted  that  Trieste  being  a  free  port  all  statistics  are  ap- 
proximate only. 

Imports  and  exports,  by  sea  and  land,  into  and  from  the  port  of  Trieste,  for  the  year  1888. 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exporta. 

BAW  COTTON. 

By  sea: 
East  India       

Metric 
quintals. 
437,  153 

Metric 
quintal*. 

RAW  COTTON—  continued. 

By  sea: 
Austro-Hungarian  ports  . 

Metric 
quintals. 
19 

Metric 
quintalr. 
315 

Firvnt 

109  643 

6 

18 

Italy 

30  149 

69  620 

Malta             

13 

16  764 

272 

Russia 

1 

United  States 

5  451 

Montenegro  

25 

3  558 

738 

Tripoli 

4 

*461 

Tunis 

4 

°59 

205 

Belgium 

234 

Total  

603,  723 

71,  189 

1 

69 

170       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Imports  and  exports,  l)y  sea  and  land,  into  and  from  the  port  of  Trieste,  etc. — Continued. 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

EAW  COTTON—  continued. 

By  land  : 
Austria 

Metric 
quintals. 
2  070 

Metric 
quintals. 
346  098 

COTTON  MANUFACTURES—  con- 
tinued. 

By  land  : 

Metric 
quintals. 
35  408 

Metric 
quintals. 
1  116 

Italy                             -     -  . 

245 

2  341 

Switzerland 

8  132 

17 

Hungary  -- 

2 

7,722 

Germany  

4  886 

25 

111  220 

Italy 

65 

145 

Switzerland  

50,  572 

Hungary    

34 

234 

105 

France 

1 

Bosnia  and  Herzegowina 

24 

Bosnia  and  Herzegowina 

614 

Servia 

8 

Servia 

261 

Total 

2  317 

518  090 

Total 

48  526 

2  412 

COTTON  MANUFACTURES. 

By  sea: 
Great  Britain       

92 

4 

COTTON  YARNS. 

By  sea  : 
Italy 

100 

34 

Malta  

88 

75 

Austro-Hungarian  ports 

8 

Italy 

68 

2  037 

(5 

Turkey  

49 

4,904 

Malta 

1 

6 

Austro-Hungarian  ports  . 

23 

2,568 

Turkey    

1 

534 

Greece     .  .7.  

23 

1,441 

Tripoli 

232 

Netherlands 

g 

East  India 

55 

Bulgaria       

5 

144 

Greece 

30 

Egypt 

1 

1  118 

Tunis 

21 

India 

8  151 

n 

United  States  

262 

Ilouiuiiniji 

6 

Zanzibar          ..... 

210 

4 

Rournania  

244 

Great  Britain 

3 

Montenegro 

62 

China         

55 

Total 

116 

1  942 

Tunis 

38 

Mozambique  .  

34 

By  land  • 

Brazil 

29 

6  848 

5  196 

Massana     . 

27 

Germany 

703 

Aden  

7 

itaiy  .  .::  ::  

52 

3 

Russia 

4 

Switzerland 

31 

Australia      

4 

.France 

3 

Spain. 

3 

345 

Tripoli        

3 

Hungary                " 

°42 

Japan 

3 

115 

Koninania 

1 

Total 

357 

21  427 

Total 

7  637 

5  902 

HENRY  W.  GILBERT, 

Consul. 


UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Trieste,  July  25, 1889. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


171 


DENMARK. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  RYDER,  OF  COPEN&AQEN. 

I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  circular  instruction 
dated  May  27  last,  requesting  me  to  report  on  the  cotton  textiles  im- 
ported into  my  consular  district,  namely,  (1)  quantity  and  kind  imported 
per  annum,  (2)  weight  per  yard,  (3)  how  purchased,  (4)  place  of  manu- 
facture and  whence  imported,  (5)  duties  charged  thereon,  and  beg  here- 
with to  transmit  subjoined  a  table  with  explanations  covering  as  near 
as  possible  all  the  points  in  question,  viz: 

Imports  into  the  consular  district  of  Copenhagen,  1887. 
[Quantities  in  half  kilograms.] 


Duty 

per   i 
kilo- 
gram. 

Total, 

1887. 

Nor- 
way. 

Swe- 
den. 

England. 

Ger- 
many. 

Prance 

Bel- 
gium. 

Hol- 
land. 

United 
States. 

Other 

coun- 
tries. 

No.  1. 

3.4 

109,  259 

538 

2,417 

72,  632 

24,088 

7  768 

1  816 

No.  2. 
No.  3 
No.  4. 
No.  5. 
No.  6. 

2.7 
18 
13.5 
11.3 
6.8 

225,  461 
581,526 
243,  953 
789,  367 
2498,748 

120 

170 
1C3 
328 
425 

257 
1,364 
9,744 
19,182 
28,  219 

121,262 
297.  747 
10«,  357 
468,540 
1,  970,  546 

87,  175 
263,  697 
112,  443 
261,  740 
357,  723 

560 
68 
2,823 
291 
141 

144 
2,474 
4,716 
4,  323 
86,591 

43 
889 
8 
177 
1,244 

13 
9 

58 
22,  097 

15,  904 
15,  104 
7,6!M) 
34,728 
31,762 

DESCRIPTION. 

No.  1. — Cotton  canvas  above  16  ounces  the  square  yard  equal  to  7.22 
inches  American  canvas.  Bleached  linen  canvas  of  the  same  weight 
and  color  and  uncolored  carpets  of  hemp,  linen,  and  jute,  or  parts  thereof. 
The  cotton  canvas  is  imported  from  the  United  States  and  the  other 
goods  from  England. 

No.  2. — White  goods,  such  as  bobbinets,  curtains,  mulls,  and  similar 
goods,  are  imported  from  Germany  and  England,  and  weigh  about  4J 
ounces  to  the  square  yard. 

Xo.  3. — Printed  goods,  velvets,  and  hosiery.  The  printed  goods  are 
nearly  all  the  usual  cotton  prints  from  30  to  32  inches  in  width,  weigh- 
ing 2J  ounces  per  yard.  Prints  are  not  manufactured  in  Denmark.  The 
bulk  of  this  import  is  from  England ;  some  of  the  better  class  of  goods 
from  Germany.  Hosiery  is  mostly  imported  from  Germany,  the  import 
of  this  article  has  declined  on  account  of  home  production.  Velvets  are 
nearly  all  imported  from  England. 

No.  4. — Woven  colored  goods  containing  more  than  one  color.  These 
goods  are  nearly  all  imported  from  England  and  Germany,  are  from 
27  to  30  inches  in  width,  and  weigh  from  2  to  2J  ounces  per  yard. 
The  duty  being  comparatively  high  and  manufacturing  easy,  a  large 
home  production  in  fast-colored  goods  has  sprung  up,  preventing  a 
larger  import. 


172  COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

No.  5. — Colored  goods  of  one  color,  either  dyed  or  printed,  white 
goods,  woven  in  a  pattern,  such  as  damasks,  etc.  The  dyed  goods  are 
nearly  all  cotton  twills  for  lining  purposes,  30  to  36  inches  in  width, 
weighing  about  3  ounces  per  yard,  and  are  imported  from  England  and 
Germany. 

No.  0. — Bleached,  unbleached,  and  twilled  cotton  goods.  The  im- 
port of  unbleached  cotton  goods  has  decreased  very  much,  the  home 
production  being  preferred  on  accounf  of  its  good  and  solid  quality 
The  imported  goods  are  partly  unbleached  twills,  38  inches  in  width, 
weighing  3  ounces  per  yard,  and  some  heavier  qualities  for  dying  pur- 
poses, such  as  unbleached  domestics,  twills,  and  drillings  of  narrow 
width,  24  to  30  inches  wide,  weighing  from  2  to  6  ounces  per  yard. 
These  goods  are  imported  from  England.  The  22,097  pounds  imported 
under  this  head  from  the  United  States  of  America  are  probably  un- 
bleached cotton  ducks  and  canvas  of  lighter  make  than  16  ounces  per 
square  yard. 

The  bulk  of  the  white  cotton  goods  is  bleached  domestic,  27  to  32 
inches  wide,  weighing  from  3  to  4  ounces  per  yard ;  bleached  shirtings, 
30  to  36  inches  wide,  weighing  about  2  ounces  per  yard ;  also,  bleached 
cotton  sheetings,  50  to  60  inches  in  width  and  from  6  to  S  ounces  in 
weight  per  yard.  These  goods  are  imported  from  England  and  partly 
from  Germany. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  Copenhagen  custom  house  does  not  make 
any  special  note  in  the  entry  of  cotton  or  linen  goods.  The  duty  on 
both  being  paid  according  to  weight,  it  is  therefore  impossible  to 
arrive  at  a  correct  statement  as  to  how  much  under  Kos.  1  to  5  in  the 
foregoing  statement  is  cotton  or  linen. 

The  purchases  are  made  for  cash — that  is  to  say,  from  three  to  thirty 
days.  Still,  the  usual  terms  are  a  credit  of  ninety  days,  with  or  with- 
out bill  of  acceptance,  and  in  many  instances,  more  especially  amongst 
the  small  retail  dealers  in  the  provincial  towns,  by  an  extension  of 
credit  to  six  months. 

HENRY  B.  RYDER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Copenhagen,  August  11,  1889. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        173 

BELGIUM. 

ANTWERP. 

REPORT  ST  CONSUL  STEWART 

The  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  is  a  very  extensive  and  important 
industry  in  the  Kingdom  of  13elgium,  but  the  province  of  Antwerp  has 
no  direct  part  therein,  this  city  acting  simply  as  the  transit  depot  for 
the  receipt  and  delivery  of  the  raw  material  and  the  product  therefrom. 
A  large  quantity  of  raw  cotton  is  brought  into  this  port,  coming  from 
India,  the  United  States,  and  England,  to  be  forwarded  to  its  destina- 
tion, the  greater  part  going  to  a  market,  such  as  Ghent  (every  Friday 
being  special  cotton  day  there),  to  be  sold  and  distributed  among  the 
factories  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  rest  into  the  neighboring  countries. 
The  quantity  of  the  manufactured  article  passing  through  here  is  also 
very  large,  both  in  transit  from  one  foreign  country  to  another  and 
also  from  home  manufacturers  for  export,  and  for  the  large  home  deal- 
ers established  in  the  interior.  In  this  city  there  are  no  importers  or 
dealers  of  any  consequence  ;  Brussels  being  so  near  and  so  accessible 
interferes  greatly  with  the  retail  trade  of  this  city  ;  most  persons  having 
orders  to  give  or  purchases  to  make  go  to  Brussels,  where  they  claim 
to  find  more  taste  and  skill,  more  extensive  assortments  and  lower 
prices,  hence  the  large  merchants  are  to  be  found  there. 

For  our  products  Antwerp  offers  one  of  the  most  desirable  and  im- 
portant markets  on  the  continent,  but  for  our  industries  there  is  not 
much  scope  or  encouragement. 

The  cotton  factories  are  located  principally  in  Ghent,  and  nearly  all 
are  in  the  Province  of  Flanders;  their  product  is  protected  by  a  high 
tariff  duty,  which  cripples  foreign  competition  and  makes  the  importa- 
tion of  manufactures  of  cotton  very  trifling,  whilst  the  exports  are  very 
large. 

There  is  a  very  extensive  bleaching  and  dyeing  establishment  located 
near  Antwerp.  The  proprietor  informs  me  that  he  receives  a  great  deal 
of  material  from  abroad  to  be  operated  upon,  and  that,  when  finished, 
he  returns  or  forwards  it  to  its  destination  without  any  interference  on 
the  part  of  the  customs  authorities. 

Cotton  fabrics  are  purchased  by  the  merchants  here  from  the  repre- 
sentatives of  the  manufacturers  or  the  large  wholesale  merchants,  from 
samples  exhibited  by  them,  the  usual  credit  being  three  months,  or  cash 
in  fifteen  days,  with  from  2  to  3  per  cent,  discount,  as  already  stated. 

Quantities  and  kinds  imported. — The  official  statistics  not  giving  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  cotton  goods  imported  into  Antwerp,  and  not  being  able 
to  get  them  at  this  custom-house,  I  applied  to  the  bureau  of  finance  in 
Brussels,  and  in  response  have  received  the  statistics  giving  the  de- 
sired information,  as  shown  in  Table  A,  subjoined  to  this  report. 


174 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES, 


Weight. — I  have  no  means  of  ascertaining  the  weight  per  yard  of  the 
many  different  kinds. 

How  purchased. — The  usual  conditions  are  three  months'  credit,  or 
cash  in  fifteen  days  with  2  to  3  per  cent,  discount. 

Place  of  manufacture. — An  answer  to  this  is  found  in  Table  A,  here- 
with. 

Duties. — Table  B,  herewith  inclosed,  gives  a  copy  of  the  Belgian  cus- 
toms tariff  on  cotton  tissues. 


A. — Quantities  of  cotton  tissues  imported  into  Anticerp  during  the  years  1887  and  1888. 
[As  furnished  by  the  Bureau  of  Finance  in  Brussels.] 


Articles  and  whence 
imported. 

1887. 

1888. 

Articles  and  whence 
imported. 

1887. 

1888. 

"Unbleached: 
Brazil        

Kilograms. 

Kilograms. 
31 

Dyed—  Continued. 

Kilograms. 
4  834 

Kilogram.* 
4  524 

138 

55 

Germany  

198 

Gibraltar 

2  496 

Great  Britain  

7  532 

5  820 

Great  Britain 

17  448 

16  313 

34 

5 

'    1ft 

Holland  

169 

401 

Holland 

814 

921 

Spain  

39 

India  (British) 

15 

United  States  

28 

10 

Italy  

20 

1 

00,1 

Total  

7,934 

6,549 

United  States  

39 

Bleached: 

Total  ...    . 

37  683 

38  348 

Australia 

595 

Gibraltar 

122 

Printed  • 

Germany  

3,271 

6,287 

France  

153 

287 

Germany  (Bremen)  . 

36 

Germany 

5  364 

3  094 

Great  Britain  

11,  387 

9,794 

*895 

France  ............... 

7,186 

4  296 

Great  Britain 

6  862 

5  988 

Holland 

1  847 

1  150 

Holland 

248 

377 

India  (British)  

48 

Russia  ....  

502 

Italy 

2 

Turkey 

15 

Switzerland  

101 

93 

United  States  

5 

United  States 

27 

54 

Total 

14  024 

9  766 

Total 

24  025 

22  271 

00     (•,•(• 

Dyed: 
Africa  (Congo) 

26 

countries. 

1  One  kilogram  equals  2.204.621  pounds  avoirdupois. 


COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES.  175 

B. — Amount  of  duties  imposed  upon  cotton  tissues,  plain,  twilled,  and  ticking. 
[Extract  from  the  Belgian  customs  tariff.] 


Kind. 

Thread  per  square  cen- 
timeter. 

Basis. 

Duty. 

Unbleached  : 
First-class,    weighing    11    kilograms   and 
more  per  100  square  meters  

35  threads  and  less  

100  kilograms 

Francs. 
50  00 

Do 

36  threads  and  more 

do 

72  00 

Second-class,  weighing  from  7  to  11  kilo- 
grams exclusive  per  100  square  meters 

35  threads  and  less 

do 

60  00 

Do                     

36  threads  to  43  

do  . 

100  00 

Do 

44  threads  and  more 

do 

180  00 

Third-class,  weighing  from  3    to   7  kilo- 

27  threads  and  less 

do 

80  00 

Do                 '                

28  threads  to  35 

.    do 

120  00 

Do                      

36  threads  to  43  

...do.... 

190  00 

Do 

44  threads  and  more 

.  do 

300  00 

Bleached: 
First-class,  weighing    11    kilograms   and 
more  per  100  square  meters.  .... 

35  threads  and  less 

...do 

57  50 

Do 

do 

82  80 

Second-class,  weighing  from  7  to  11  kilo- 
grams exclusive  per  100  square  meters. 

35  threads  and  less  

...do     . 

69  00 

Do 

36  threads  to  43 

do 

116  00 

Do             .                    

44  threads  and  more   . 

do 

207  00 

Third-class,  weighing  from  3    to  7  kilo- 
grams exclusive  per  100  square  meters 

27  threads  and  less 

do 

g->  oo 

Do                

28  threads  to  35  

...do  . 

138  00 

Do 

36  threads  to  43 

do 

218  50 

Do                           

44  threads  and  more 

.  do   .. 

345  00 

Dyed: 
First-class,   weighing    11   kilograms   and 

35  threads  and  less  

...do... 

75  00 

'     Do 

36  threads  and  more 

do 

97  00 

Second-class,  weighing  from  7  to  11  kilo- 

35  threads  and  less 

do 

85  00 

Do                                            

36  threads  to  43  

do 

125  00 

Do 

do 

205  00 

Third-class,  weighing  from   3  to  7  kilo- 
grams exclusive  per  100  square  meters.. 

27  threads  and  less  

do 

105  00 

Do 

28  threads  to  35 

do 

145  00 

Do                    .             

36  threads  to  43 

do 

215  00 

Do   

44  threads  and  more  

..do   

325  00 

Printed 

Velvets  : 
Imitation  silk  : 

100  kilograms  . 

85  00 

do 

110  00 

All  others  : 
Unbleached    

..do... 

60  00 

do 

85  00 

Twilled,   dimity,   "faconn6s,"   damaskeened, 
and  "  brillantes,  "  weighing  3  kilograms  and 
more  per  100  square  meters 

Ad  valorem 

15  per  ct. 

Lace  hand-made  and  spindle-made     .....  ..... 

Free. 

All  other  cotton  tissues,  not  specially  enum- 
erated, as  also  mixed  tissues  where  cotton 

Ad  valorem 

10  per  ct 

One  square  centimeter  equals  .39  inch  square;  1  square  meter  equals  1:093.621  square  yards,  equal- 
ing  3.280.867  square  feet ;  1  kilogram  equals  2.204.621  pounds  avoirdupois  ;  1  franc  equals  19.3  cents. 


176 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


FRANCE. 
HAVRE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  VUFAIS. 

The  official  figures  of  the  importations  for  the  year  1888  are  not  yet 
published,  but  by  the  courtesy  of  the  collector  of  the  port  I  am  enabled 
to  send  you  herewith  a  full  list*  of  last  year's  importations  of  cotton 
articles,  such  as  cloths,  calicoes,  tickings,  embroidered  goods,  curtains, 
laces,  etc.,  in  kilograms  (of  2.20  pounds),  specifying  the  countries  from 
which  imported,  the  flag  under  which  they  came,  those  in  transit  for  the 
interior  under  the  head  of  general  commerce,  etc.,  those  for  local  con- 
sumption under  that  of  special  commerce,  and  duties  collected  here  on 
the  latter. 

The  total  importations  into  Havre  sum  up  as  follows  for — 


Year. 

Quantities. 

Value. 

1888    

Pounds. 
11  496  000 

Francs. 
(*) 

1887                             -    .... 

9  604,  000 

12  120  000 

1886       

8  696  000 

11  366,000 

1885 

6  640  000 

8  972  000 

1884                

7  328  000 

9  341  000 

1883 

6  942  000 

9  044  000 

1882                  .         

7  105  000 

8  045  000 

1881 

6  050  000 

7  285  000 

1880 

5  016  000 

4  541  000 

*H"ot  yet  made  up. 

The  importations  for  local  consumption  are  so  insignificant,  all  for  re- 
tail stores,  that  I  have  found  it  impossible  to  get  at  the  weight  of  cot- 
ton cloth  per  yard. 

F.  F.  DUFAIS, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Havre,  France,  July  31,  1889. 


MARSEILLES. 

REPORT  BY  OONSUL  MASON. 
IMPORTS. 

The  trade  in  cotton  manufactures  at  Marseilles  is  relatively  unimpor- 
tant, being  principally  confined  to  landing  the  goods  from  vessel  or 
railway  and  re-shipping  them  to  the  remote  countries  which  are  reached 
by  the  extensive  system  of  steam-ship  lines  which  lias  its  focus  at  this 
port.  Taking,  as  an  example,  the  commerce  of  1888,  we  find  that  of 
5,560,289  kilos  of  cotton  textiles  imported  here  by  sea  and  rail,  only 
122,960  kilos,  or  one  forty-fifth  part  of  the  whole  amount,  was  entered 
for  local  consumption,  while  5,437,329  kilos  were  reshipped  abroad. 

The  same  proportion  exists  in  the  imports  of  preceding  years,  as  the 
following  table  will  show : 

*  Table  not  in  shape  for  publication. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


177 


Year. 

General 
commerce. 

Entered  for 
consumption. 

Amount  of 
duty  paid. 

Kilograms. 
4,  347,  424 

Kilograms. 
302,665 

Kilograms. 
100,  074 

4,  717,  647 

214.  882 

171,  636 

5,  438,  804 

117,  '290 

103,  355 

5,  045,  855 

66,991 

58,658 

6,  018,  364 

102,  899 

100,  229 

Southern  France  has  no  cotton  manufactures  of  any  consequence,  and 
receives  its  supplies  of  muslins,  sheetings,  calicoes,  etc.,  from  the  great 
mills  of  Koubaix,  Roueii,  Tourcoing,  and  other  manufacturing  centers  in 
the  North.  The  protection  which  these  industries  enjoy  under  the 
present  tariff  laws,  and  the  rebates  or  discriminations  which  are  secured 
to  cotton  textile  imports  coming  from  certain  nations,  which  have  spe- 
cial treaties  of  commerce  with  France,  viz,  Great  Britain,  Belgium, 
Switzerland,  Spain,  Austria,,  Portugal,  Sweden,  Norway,  Turkey,  and 
finally  Germany,  by  virtue  of  the  treaty  of  Frankfort,  are  indicated  by 
the  following  tables,  per  600  kilograms : 


Description. 


General 
tariff. 


Treaty 
rates. 


Cotton  cloths  not  bleached,  dyed,  or  printed  : 

Weighing  11  kilograms  or  more  per  100  square  meters  (20. 27  per  100 
yards  square : 

Not  exceeding  30  threads  to  5  square  millimeters .. 

Over  30  tlm-ads       .  

Weighing  from  7  to  11  kilograms: 

Xot  exceeding  35  threads 

From  36  threads  to  43 

From  44 threads  upwards 

Weighing  from  5  to  7  kilograms: 

Not  exceeding  27  threads 

From  28  threads  to  35 

From  3(3  threads  to  43 

From  44  threads  up  wards 

Weighing  from  3  to  5  kilograms : 

Not  exceeding  20  threads 

Xot  exceeding  27  threads 

From  28  threads  to  35 

From  36  threads  to  43 

From  44  threads  upwards 

Weighing  less  than  3  kilograms  per  100  square  meters: 

Bleached,  an  additional  duty  of 

Dyed  in  Aradrinople  red,  an  additional  duty  of 

Dyed  in  any  other  color,  an  additional  duty  of 

Printed  (linings),  an  additional  duty  of 

Printed  in  one  or  two  colors,  an  additional  duty  of 

Printed  in  3  to  6  colors,  an  additional  duty  of 

Printed  in  7  or  more  colors,  an  addkional  duty  of 


Francs. 
62 

100 

95 
125 
250 

100 
145 
235 
300 

|  230 

300 
410 
625 

15  percent. 

60 

30 
2.50 
3.75 
6.25 

10 


Francs. 


100 
180 


117 
190 
242 

110 

148 
193 
270 
403 


15  per  cent. 


25 


2 

4 
7.50 


In  the  long  list  of  duties  assessed  upon  other  fabrics,  which  range  from 
8  francs  per  100  kilograms  for  oil-cloth  to  1,000  francs  per  100  kilograms 
for  cotton  gloves,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  mention  only  those  which  are 
imported  to  any  extent: 


Description. 

'General 
tariff 

Treaty 
rates. 

Francs. 
68 

Francs. 
55 

Tulle         

496 

400 

Tulle  when  exceeding  7  meshes  to  the  square  centimeter      .....  ....... 

700 

562 

Muslin          .         .... 

360 

180 

300 

140 

Muslin  curtains  wei<Thin<T  10  kilo<rrams  or  more  per  100  square  meters 

600 

280 

608A- 


-12 


178 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


It  is  seen  that  iii  all  cases  cotton  goods  imported  to  this  country  pay 
a  specific  duty  graded  according  to  certain  limits  of  weight  per  100 
square  meters,  and  all  entries  in  French  ports  being  recorded  in  weights 
withoutregard  to  measurement,  it  has  been  found  impossible  toascertaiu 
the  weight  per  yard  of  any  of  the  textiles  passing  through  this  port  in 
transit.  In  tbe  table  of  quantities  entered  for  consumption  at  this  poet 
during  the  year  1888  the  classification  is  based  upon  the  rates  of  duty 
applied  to  the  imports  from  each  country. 

Imports  during  1888,  including  quantities  shipped  in  transit  to  other  countries. 


Description 
of  goocLs. 

From— 

Total. 

Algeria 

Bel- 
gium. 

Ger- 
many. 

Great 
Britain. 

Italy. 

Switzer- 
land. 

Turkey 

Other 
coun- 
tries. 

Cloth    and   dress 
goods  : 
Bleached    and 

unbleacheu.... 
Dyed 

Kilos. 
6,109 

Kilos. 

25,  862 
£62,  839 
10,  369 
3,350 

Kilos. 
41,  6~>Q 
85,  463 
28,  808 

Kilos. 
94,  092 
25,  835 
2,  185,  713 
59,  382 

2,091 
495 
740 
417 
125 
2,220 

Kilos. 
13,  876 
23,  347 
7,250 

Kilos. 
24,  275 
2,  059,  987 
435,  522 
461 

3,783 
1,701 
54,777 
25,  890 
9,580 
6,201 

Kilos. 
2,729 
218 
19,  156 

Kilos. 
2,  293 
3,  631 
2,  579 
11 

4 
1,  382 
284 
4,987 
38 
40,  078 

Kilos. 
210,  865 
2,  261,  320 
2,721,617 
63,  204 

7,110 
11,  774 
61,  372 
40,  183 
70,  614 
112,  230 

Printed  

32.  220 

Upholstery  goods  .  .  . 
Muslins,    embroid- 
ered, brocaded  .  .  . 

1,136 
6,  272 
712 
5,721 
4.263 
2,  305 

176,  369 

96 
17 
4,649 
125 
23 
56,  285 

Velveteens  

690 
43 
340 
54,  861 
3,719 

162,  073 

1,217 
167 
2,605 
25 
742 

Embroidered  goods.  . 
Knit.  "'Gods 

598 
1,699 
620 

41,246 

Mixed  goods  ........ 

All  other 

Total 

2,  371,  110 

49,  229 

2,  621,  677 

83,298 

55,  287 

5,  560,  289 

Cotton  fabrics  entered  for  consumption  at  Marseilles  during  the.  year  1888. 


Description  of  goods. 

"5 

Belgium. 

o' 

C3 

O 

0 

*sS 
H 

Switzerland. 

a 
H 

Other  coun- 
tries. 

3 

"o 
H 

Cloth  and  dress  goods  weighing 
11  kilograms  or  more  per 
100  square  meters: 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 
203 

Kilos. 
10 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 

7 

Kilos. 
97 

Kilos. 
317 

Bleached          .  

3 

849 

851 

10 

15 

175 

1,903 

Dyed 

2 

15 

7  661 

56 

90 

7  824 

Printed 

1  205 

267 

11 

51 

1,534 

From  7  to  11  kilograms: 

32 



4 

3 

39 

Bleached  

9 

8 

6 

1 

3 

27 

2  534 

214 

3 

6 

2  757 

Printed 

562 

ooo 

28,  925 

7 

2 

29,  879 

Cloth  and  dress  goods  weighing 
per  100  >quare  meters: 
From  5  to  7  kilograms  : 
Bleached 

9°3 

8 

1 

i 

3 

935 

Dyed  

1 

•  544 

36 

5H1 

Printed 

2 

6 

8 

From  3  to  5  kilograms: 
Bleached 

469 

5 

474 

Dyed   

10 

10 

Free  of  duty,  weight  per  yard 
not  recorded  ...... 

4  439 

4,439 

Upholsterv  goods    

2,903 

56,  835 

i 

10 

59,  749 

M  us]  inn  embroidered  or  brocaded 

652 

96 

4 

757 

Velveteens    

23 

5 

i 

1,075 

17 

1 

1,122 

Embroidered  goods 

43 

G 

414 

183 

299 

945 

Gimps. 

7 

23 

2,434 

2,464 

Knit  goods  

598 

527 

2 

18 

244 

4 

1,  393 

Mixed  goods  

1  699 

23 

10 

1,  732 

All  other   

620 

30 

371 

357 

26 

1,083 

94 

1,490 

4,071 

Total  

7  356 

4  itji 

941 

63  052 

1,325 

40,  881 

2,940 

2,284 

122,  960 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  179 

It  follows  from  what  has  been  already  stated,  and  the  very  small 
proportion  of  cotton  textiles  passing  through  Marseilles  which  are  en- 
tered for  consumption,  that  the  importation  of  such  goods  in  the  ordi- 
nary commercial  sense  is  not  of  sufficient  volume  and  importance  to 
form  the  basis  of  any  general  analysis  or  deductions.  No  statistics 
exist  from  which  the  amount  or  value  of  cotton  goods  brought  here  for 
consumption  from  other  parts  of  France  can  be  approximately  derived. 
The  prices  and  methods  of  purchase  which  apply  to  the  trifling  imports 
for  consumption  from  England,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland  are  those 
which  ordinarily  rule  in  the  markets  of  those  countries. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

Purchases  are  either  for  cash  or  thirty  days7  payment,  but  the  Swiss 
and  German  manufacturers  send  some  goods  on  consignment,  paying 
a  commission  on  sales.  There  are  no  brokers  in  this  line  of  trade  at 
Marseilles,  and  all  transactions  are  direct  between  the  purchaser  and 
the  manufacturer  or  his  agent.  Hence  each  transaction  is  made  upon 
special  and  often  varying  terms,  and  there  are  no  general  rules  by  which 
the  trade — relatively  unimportant  in  itself — is  uniformly  governed. 

FRANK  H.  MASON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Marseilles,  July  10, 1889. 


GERMANY. 
HAMBURG. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  LANG. 
COTTON  TEXTILES. 

Kind  imported. — The  statistics  obtainable  by  this  consulate  do  not 
show  the  different  kinds  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  Hamburg,  but 
from  reliable  information,  obtained  from  experts  in  this  line,  it  is  safe 
to  say  that  every  kind  manufactured  iincls  its  way  into  this  port.  The 
quantity  imported  per  annum  for  the  years  1885,  1886,  and  1887  (the 
statistics  for  1888  have  not  yet  been  completed)  was  31,230,815  pounds, 
32,862,000  pounds,  and  36,650,020  pounds,  respectively. 

Weights. — The  weight  per  yard  can  not  be  furnished,  as  the  goods 
are  weighed  in  bulk  and  not  by  measure.  Besides,  no  statistics  exist 
regarding  the  measurement. 

How  purchased. — This  is  a  very  difficult  question  to  answer.  Most  of 
the  cotton  textiles  arriving  in  Hamburg  are  in  transit  and  are  almost 
immediately  shipped  from  here  to  foreign  ports.  The  firms  handling 


180       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

these  wares  are,  with  few  exceptions,  forwarding  agents  who  receive 
the  goods  from  the  interior  and  know  nothing  about  the  mode  of  pur- 
chase. Even  the  small  percentage  of  the  goods  which  actually  remains 
in  this  district  is  purchased  in  a  hundred  different  ways  and  mostly  in 
comparatively  small  lots. 

Place  of  manufacture. — By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  German  cotton 
textiles  are  manufactured  in  Saxony.  The  following  two  tables,  com- 
prising the  years  1885,  1886,  and  1887  will  show  from  where  the  goods 
are  imported,  the  respective  quantities  and  values. 

Duties. — As  the  most  simple  and  at  the  same  time  most  reliable  man- 
ner of  replying  to  this  question,  I  give  below  a  translation  of  a  part  of 
the  JSTew  Imperial  German  Tariff.  (Duties  assessed  per  100  kilograms): 

Cotton  and  cotton  goods  : 

Cotton,  raw,  combed,  dyed free 

Marks. 

Cotton  batting. 1.50 

Cotton  thread,  unmixed,  or  mixed  with  linen,  silk,  wool,  or  other  vegetable 
or  animal  spinning  stuffs  : 
Single  cord,  raw — 

Up  to  No.  17  English 12 

Over  No.  17  to  No.  45  English 18 

Over  No.  45  to  No.  60  English 24 

Over  No.  60  to  No.  79  English 30 

Over  No.  79  English 36 

Double  cord,  raw  : 

Up  to  No.  17  English 15 

Over  No.  17  to  No.  45  English 21 

Over  No.  45  to  No.  60  English, 27 

Over  No.  60  to  No.  79  English 33 

Over  No  79  English 39 

Single  and  double  cord,  bleached  or  dyed  : 

Up  to  No.  17  English 24 

Over  No.  17  to  No.  45  English 30 

Over  No.  45  to  No.  60  English 36 

Over  No.  60  to  No.  79  English 42 

Over  No.  79  English 48 

Triple  cord  or  more,  twisted  once  or  more,  raw,  bleached,  dyed 48 

Double  cord,  repeatedly  twisted,  raw,   bleached,  dyed,  also  cut  cotton 

thread,  manufactured  for  retail  sale  of  every  description 70 

Wicks,  unwoven 24 

Cotton  textiles  without   and  in  connection  with   metal   threads,    without 
admixture  of  silk,  wool  or  other  animal  hair  : 
Raw,  (manufactured  from  raw  yarn)  solid  textiles  with  exception  of  cut 

velvets,  tulle,  ra'-v  without  designs 80 

Bleached  solid  textiles,  also  finished,  with  exception  of  uncut  velvets  ..   100 
All  solid  textiles  not  included  in  Nos.  1,  2  and  6,  raw  (manufactured 
from  raw  yarn),  loose  textiles  with  exception  of  curtainings,  as  far  as 
not  classed  under  No.  1 ;  hosiery,  upholsters' and  button-makers'  wares, 

also  textiles  in  connection  witli  metal  threads 120 

Cuvtainiiigs,  bleached  and  finished 230 

All  loose  textiles,  as  jaconet,  muslin,  tulle,  marly,  gauze,  as  far  as  not 

classed  under  Nos,  1,3,  and  4 200 

Laces  and  all  embroideries  ..  .  350 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


181 


Cotton  and  cotton  goods — Continued. 

Cotton  tishin«r  nets,  new 3 

Packing  and  scrubbing  cloth 10 

Emery  cloth 6 

WM.  W.  LANG, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Hamburg,  July  8,  1889. 


Quantities  and  whence  imported  into  Hamburg  during  1885,  1886,  and  1887. 


* 

1887. 

IK 

J6. 

188 

5. 

Whence  imported. 

Quantities. 

«j 

1 

Average  value 
per  100  kilos, 
or  220  pounds. 

Quantities. 

> 

Quantities. 

<D 

0 

"3 

> 

Pounds. 
998,  460 

$258,  846 

$58 

Pounds. 
872,  140 

$193,  977 

Pounds. 
912,  043 

$204,  209 

Chili 

6  380 

928 

32 

12 

31 

614 

440 

114 

4  409 

1  245 

2,425 

747 

Great  Britain                ....... 

11,  733,  920 

4,  528,  088 

85 

11,  349,  942 

4,  320,  185 

12,  406,  838 

5,  224,  214 

768  680 

113,  281 

32 

714  731 

89,  925 

654,  766 

88,  089 

76,  120 

34,  184 

99 

43,  430 

23,  136 

52  249 

27,  729 

Netherlands    ............... 

27,280 

10,  829 

87 

29,  762 

8,860 

26,014 

9,082 

16  280 

5  907 

80 

663 

219 

5,720 

2,453 

94 

9,480 

4,370 

3,968 

2,033 

Italy 

3  740 

1,552 

91 

6,834 

3  495 

2,646 

1,257 

Bremen  and  Weser 

4,620 

1,468 

70 

441 

248 

5,372 

1,801 

I^orway         ................. 

880 

386 

1,764 

1,097 

2,646 

1,169 

88,184 

28,298 

Via  Altona             

128,  480 

47,  110 

81 

101,  632 

41,  117 

111,  332 

46,  631 

Berlin-Hamburg  railroad  
Venlo-Hamburg  railroad  

12,  283,  480 
8,  213,  920 
1  232  220 

6,  202,  463 
3,  593,  060 
612  060 

93 
96 
109 

9,  949,  800 
7,514,159 
982  380 

4,  680,  944 
3,  213,  226 

484  097 

8,  304,  287 
6,  743,  431 
818,  568 

4,  177,  045 
3,  39(5,  381 
469  215 

By  post 

299,  420 

267,  410 

196 

304,  235 

292,  007 

360,  231 

351,  574 

Altoua-Kiel  railroad        

477,  400 

171,  431 

79 

626,  988 

226,  976 

511,  688 

200,  774 

"Upper  Elbe 

343  200 

117  803 

75 

306  880 

98  076 

178,  352 

40,948 

Liibeck-  Hamburg  railroad  .. 
Various  directions  

38,  060 
1,320 

14,  275 
697 

83 
116 

39,  462 
1,100 

16,  001 
988 

45,  635 
1,704 

22,115 
1,411 

Total            ~. 

36  650  020 

14  984  345 

90 

32  86°  669 

13  702  967 

31,  230,  815 

14,294  589 

STETTIN. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL   FAT. 

In  reply  to  your  circular  dated  May  27,  1889,  I  have  the  honor  to 
offer  the  following  relative  to  the  instructions  therein  named. 

The  imports  of  cotton  textiles  at  Stettin,  during  the  year  1888, 
amounted  to — 

Tons. 

Coarse  cottons  of  thick  textiles 4.0 

Bleached  cottons . 1.1 

Colored  cottons 6.2 

Cotton  yarns 679.0 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  principal  imports  were  cotton  yarns,  and 
for  the  most  part  of  the  cheaper  kinds,  used  by  the  peasants  for  spin 
ning  purposes. 


182  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

WEIGHT   PER  YARD. 

I  find  it  quite  difficult  to  correctly  aud  satisfactorily  answer  this  in- 
terrogatory, for  the  reason  pieces  of  cotton  goods  of  the  same  quality 
but  of  different  factories  seldom  have  the  same  weight. 

I  have  secured  five  samples  of  the  principal  kinds  imported,  which  I 
beg  to  herewith  inclose.  The  weight  of  these  pieces  per  yard  is,  viz  : 

Grams. 

Sample  1 • 99 

Sample  2 64 

Sample  3 104 

Sample  4 - - f 87 

Sample  5 60 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

The  usual  time  given  to  jobbers  is,  30  days  with  a  discount  of  2  per 
cent.,  or  90  days  net. 

PLACE  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

All  cotton  textiles  imported  at  this  port  during  the  year  1888  came 
from  England,  Belgium,  and  Holland,  namely : 

England :  Tons. 

Cotton  goods - - 2.1 

Cotton  yarns 675.7 

Belgium:  Cotton  goods 2.4 

Holland : 

Cotton  goods...... 3.2 

Cotton  yarns 3.3 

(One  ton  =  2,200  pounds.) 

DUTIES  CHARGED. 

The  duties  on  cotton  textiles  per  100  kilograms  are  as  follows : 

Coarse  cottons $19.04 

Bleached  cottons 23.80 

Colored  cottons. 28.56 

Cotton  velvets 28.56 

Coarse  yarns,  single  thread  : 

Nos.lOtol7 2.856 

Nos.  17  to  45 4.284 

Nos.45to60 5.712 

Nos.  60  to  79 7.14 

Nos.  79  and  above 8.568 

Three  marks  additional  duty  is  levied  on  double  thread  yarns. 

Bleached  and  colored  yarns : 

Nos.  10  to  17 $5.712 

Nos.  17  to  45 7.14 

Nos.  45  to  60 8.568 

Nos.  60  to  97 9.996 

Nos.  97  aud  above 11.42 

One  kilogram  =  2.205  pounds. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


183 


PRICES. 

The  present  cost  prices  of  the  inclosed  samples,  that  is,  what  the  job- 
ber pays  the  manufacturer,  are  as  follows : 

Per  meter. 

Sample  1 $0.088 

Sample  2 0785 

Sampled 119 

.0856 


Sample  4 


138 


Samples 

One  meter  =  1.09363  yards. 

The  larger  portion  of  cotton  textiles  used  in  Germany  are  manufact- 
ured in  Alsace  ami  Lorraine. 

ANDREW  F.  FAY, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Stettin,  July  10,  1889. 


HOLLAND. 

REPORT  BY  CONSVL  ECKSTEIN,  OF  AMSTERDAM. 

The  custom -house  records  and  returns  and  the  statistics  published 
by  the  department  of  finance  do  not  state  the  quantity  of  cotton 
textiles  imported,  but  they  do  show  their  value. 

The  reason  for  this,  as  explained  to  me,  is  that  the  duty  upon  manu- 
factures of  cotton  is  payable  and  assessed  upon  their  value. 


VALUE  OF  IMPORTS. 


The  following  statement  shows  the  value  (in  florins)  of  manufact- 
ures of  cotton  into  Holland  during  the  years  1886, 1887,  and  1888,  and 
the  countries  whence  imported,  viz  : 


Articles  and  whence  imported. 

1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

Manufactures  of  cotton,  unbleached  or  bleached  : 
Africa: 
East  coast  

Florins. 
9 

Florins. 

Florins. 

AVest  cooft 

20 

Belgium    

361  797 

410,  485 

446  184 

Denmark 

France 

10 

350 

Great  Britain 

1  782,804 

2  251  995 

2  297  436 

Dutch  Guiana 

Hamburc 

25 

259 

556 

Java  

297 

111 

173 

Prussia  

285,554 

230,  137 

232,  305 

United  States 

70 

Sweden  

4,000 

Total  

2,  434  496 

2  893  057 

2,  977,  024 

Imported  at  Amsterdam  

749,  073 

796,  261 

750,  671 

•   -;•••    -__^.:=j 

184 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Articles  and  whence  imported.                        • 

1886. 

1887. 

1888. 

Manufactures  of  cotton,  colored  or  printed  : 

Florins. 

Florins. 
8 

Florins. 
30 

Belgium    ...        

511  407 

483  616 

r>06  427 

Denmark  .... 

120 

France         - 

964 

Great  Britain  

2  889  GOfc 

2  887  326 

2  775  483 

Dutch  Guiana 

70 

18 

Hnmburg  

445 

60 

45 

Java      ** 

110 

1  015 

579 

2  08G  823 

9  163  173 

2  218  074 

United  States 

r)0 

18 

Sweden  ..  

26 

220 

Total  

5  481  797 

5  535  234 

5  500  978 

Imported  at  Amsterdam  

1  440  088 

1  431  040 

1  331  054 

Manufactures  of  cotton,  laces,  etc.  : 
.Belgium  .. 

119  647 

67  958 

56  201 

Great  Britain  

174  832 

163  296 

151  648 

Hamburg 

666 

Prussia*  

36  907 

38  935 

31  998 

Total  

331  386 

270  189 

940  513 

Imported  at  Amsterdam  

69  147 

71  382 

70  265 

From  the  above  statement  an  inference  may  or  must  be  drawn  as  to 
what  has  been  the  quantity  of  the  imports  during  the  years  which  it 
covers. 

It  appears  as  if  the  local  manufacturers  of  cotton  textiles  were  con- 
stantly making  increased  efforts  to  supply  as  far  as  possible  the  domes- 
tic demand  and  consumption,  and  with  tolerably  fair  success. 

It  would  therefore  be  safe  to  assume  that  the  markets  of  this  country 
are  not  likely  to  require  increased  supplies  of  cotton  goods  from  abroad 
whilst  present  conditions  continue  to  prevail. 

The  sum  total  of  the  imports  for  an  entire  year  as  stated  above  may 
seem  rather  small,  nor  do  I  think  that  it  really  represents  the  full  value 
of  all  cotton  goods  imported. 

WEIGHT  PER  YARD. 

My  efforts  to  obtain  information  upon  this  point  were  entirely  unsuc- 
cessful. 

In  official  quarters  nothing  whatever  is  known  or  on  record  touching 
the  matter,  and  the  principal  dealers  and  importers  of  manufactures  of 
cotton  goods  assure  me  that  they  can  not  and  that  no  one  here  can  give 
an  intelligent  or  reliable  answer  upon  this  point. 

They  say  that  the  sorts  or  classes  of  goods  imported  differ  so  very 
much,  each  from  the  other,  as  to  make  it  impossible  to  indicate  or  de- 
scribe their  correct  weight  per  yard  or  meter. 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

When  not  otherwise  specially  agreed  upon,  cotton  goods  are  gener- 
ally purchased  by  the  importers  for  cash,  which  is  held  to  be  equivalent 
to  one  month's  time,  with  1J  per  cent,  discount.  It  is,  however,  optional 
on  the  part  of  the  buyer  who  is  regarded  to  be  of  good  reputation  mid 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.       18£ 

standing,  to  avail  himself  of  the  privilege  of  the  longer  credit,  which  is 
frequently  extended  and  consists  of  four  months. 

Cotton  textiles  are  generally  bought  of  commission  bouses  or  mer- 
chants who  send  their  travelers  with  sample  collections. 

Large  buyers  often  go  into  the  market  or  send  on  their  orders. 

PLACE   OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  particular  places  where  the  goods  are  manufactured  in  the  dif- 
ferent foreign  countries  and  imported  into  Holland  have  not  been  pointed 
out  to  me,  although  I  endeavored  to  procure  the  information  as  to 
whence  the  same  are  produced.  I  have  been  able  to  ascertain  only  that 
the  bulk  of  the  imports  from  England  are  turned  out  at  Manchester 
and  Glasgow.  Some  of  the  better  qualities  of  printed  goods  imported 
from  Germany  are  made  at  different  places  in  Alsace  and  in  Baden. 

At  certain  places  in  Belgium  and  in  Switzerland  are  manufactured 
some  of  the  articles  which  enter  this  country  for  consumption. 

As  to  whence  cotton  goods  are  imported  into  Holland  I  would  refer 
to  the  previous  tabular  statement  in  answer  to  the  first  point. 

DUTIES    CHARGED. 

All  manufactures  of  cotton  as  well  as  those  of  part  wool  and  cotton 
are  dutiable  at  the  rate  of  5  per  cent,  ad  valorem. 

Exempt  from  duty  are  raw   and  unbleached  cottons  which  are  in- 
tended for  the  domestic  print-works,  and  also  sail-cloth  for  ship's  use. 
Cotton  yarns  are  admitted  free  of  duty;  woolen  yarns  more  than 
double  twisted  (tweedraads)  pay  3  per  cent,  on  their  value. 

D.  ECKSTEIN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Amsterdam,  September  6,  1889. 


ITALY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  BOURN'. 

In  response  to  your  circular  of  May  27*,  1889,  requesting  reports 
upon  cotton  textiles  imported  into  this  district,  I  have  the  honor  to  re- 
port as  follows,  and  to  submit  the  accompanying  tables  taken  from  offi- 
cial and  other  sources.  Statistics  pertaining  to  importations  into  the 
entire  consular  district  are  not  accessible,  as  distinct  from  importations 
into  the  entire  kingdom.  I  have  therefore  collected  the  importations 
into  the  Provinces  of  Rome-Cagliari  and  Sassari,  which  constitute,  how- 
ever, only  a  part  of  this  consular  district,  to  which  I  have  added  the 
statistics  for  the  kingdom. 

Italy  has  no  complete  official  statements  of  cotton  industries,  but  ac- 
cording to  an  unofficial  report  there  are  about  047  cotton  factories  with 


186  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

about  800,000  spindles,  using  about  30,000  tons  of  raw  cotton  per  year. 
In  these  factories  there  are  about  13.517  power  and  14,300  hand  looms, 
besides  about  42,000  hand-looms  in  rural  residences  scattered  through- 
out the  country,  making  a  total  of  about  70,000  looms.  The  cotton  in- 
dustry is  said  to  employ  70,000  persons. 

The  yarn  or  thread  manufactured  in  Italy  is  generally  of  the  highest 
numbers.  About  8,000,000  pounds  were  imported  in  1889,  chiefly 
from  Great  Britain,  Switzerland,  and  Germany.  The  production  of 
woven  goods  is  valued  at  about  $32,800,000  per  year,  being  insufficient 
for  home  consumption.  The  imports  of  the  usual  cotton  tissues  for 
1889  were  about  20,000,000  pounds. 

Linen  goods  are  used  in  Italy  very  much  more  extensively  than  in 
the  United  States,  which  accounts  for  the  comparatively  limited  con- 
sumption of  cotton  textiles. 

Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  cotton  goods  from  the 
United  States  into  Italy  with  greater  or  less  success.  So  far  as  I  have 
been  able  to  learn  our  fabrics  have  given  great  satisfaction.  The  busi- 
ness of  the  last  person  who  undertook  in  this  city  the  importation  from 
the  United  States  was  broken  up  by  his  death,  and  no  one  seems  to 
have  taken  it  up.  Were  serious  attempts  to  be  made  to  introduce  our 
cotton  textiles  into  this  country  no  doubt  larger  sales  could  be  effected. 
But  it  mast  not  be  forgotten  that  the  channels  of  trade  have  been  for  a 
long  time  established,  and  that  it  will  not  be  an  easy  task  to  establish 
new  ones.  The  English,  German,  and  Swiss  manufacturers  would  no 
doubt  be  unwilling  to  surrender  any  portion  of  their  trade  Vithout  an 
effort  to  retain  it.  But  the  present  unsettled  condition  of  trade  would 
seem  to  offer  an  unusually  favorable  opportunity  for  our  manufacturers 
to  make  the  attempt. 

Cotton  goods  are  generally  sold  by  agents  or  travelers  sent  out  by 
the  manufacturers.  For  our  manufacturers  to  successfully  introduce 
their  goods  they  must  employ  the  proper  means,  and  have  trustworthy 
agents  on  the  spot,  or  skillful  travelers  who  understand  the  customs  of  the 
trade  and  the  Italian  language.  They  must  also  ascertain  the  wants  of 
the  people  as  to  styles,  widths,  weights,  and  packages.  Large  quanti- 
ties of  calicoes  are  used  here,  but  the  designs  that  would  suit  the 
American  trade  would  not'be  acceptable  in  every  part  of  Italy. 

I  will  append  to  this  tables  showing : 

(1)  The  imports  of  cotton,  threads,  warps,  and  tissues,   into  the  Province  of 

Rome  for  1886  and  1887. 

(2)  The  same  for  the  Province  of  Cagliari,  Sardinia,  for  1888. 

(3)  The  same  for  the  Province  of  Sassari,  Sardinia,  for  1888. 

(4)  Cotton  tissues  imported  into  Italy  in  1887,  with  duties  and  countries  of  ori- 

gin, in  detail. 

(5)  The  same  for  1888,  with  duties  and  countries  of  origin,  in  detail. 

(6)  Threads  and  warps  imported  in  1887,  with  duties  and  countries  of  origiu, 

in  detail. 

(7)  The  same  for  1888,  with  duties  and  countries  of  origin,  in  detail. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


187 


(8)  The  imports  of  cotton,  cotton-batting,  threads,  yarns,  -warps,  tissues,  etc, 

for  INSS  and  1S89,  in  pounds,  with  a  summary. 
(D)  The  imports  of  cotton,  threads,  yarns,  warps,  and  tissues,  plain,  wrought, 

or  damasked,  brocaded  and  embroidered,  Tulles,  muslins,  and  veilings, 

also  laces,  by  country  of  origin. 
(11)  Imports  and  exports  of  cotton  and  cotton  manufactures,  1880-1888. 

I  also  send  by  another  mail  a  package  of  samples  of  cotton  cloths, 
such  as  I  have  been  able  to  procure.  I  found  the  wholesale  dealers 
very  unwilling  to  give  prices,  samples,  or  any  other  details  of  their  busi- 
ness. I  will  inclose  a  statement  showing  such  details  as  to  cost,  etc., 
of  threads  and  cloths  imported,  as  I  have  been  able  to  procure — state- 
ment No  10. 

AUGUSTUS  O.  BOURN, 
Consul- General. 
U.  S.  CONSULATE  GENERAL, 

Rome,  March  31,  1890. 


(1)  Imports  of  cotton  textiles  into  the  Province  of  Rome  in  1886  and  1887. 
[1  kilogram  =  2. 205  pounds.] 


Description. 

Quantity. 

1886. 

1887. 

Cotton: 

Kilograms. 
52 
3,122 

107 

Kilograms, 

1,105 

Threads,  untwisted  and  unbleached,  measuring  from  10,000  to  20,000  meters 

Threads,  'untwisted"  and  bleached,  measuring  more  than  30,000  and  up  to 

55 

Threads,  untwisted,  dyed  : 
Measuring  more  than  50,000  and  up  to   60,000  meters  for  every  half 

5 
2 

24 
36 

Threads,  twisted,  unbleached: 

Measuring  more  than  20,  000*  and  up  to  30,000  meters  for  every  half  kilo- 

16 
4 
36 

142 
241 

2,171 
1,504 
1,628 

389 
94 

35 
876 
2,837 
1,682 

3,539 

290 
148 

Measuring  more  than  30,000  and  up  to  40,000  meters  for  every  half  kilo- 

Measuring  more  than  40,000  and  up  to  50,000  meters  for  every  half  kilo- 

8 

1,123 
2,247 

2,132 
1,860 
1,989 

239 
117 

Threads  twisted,  bleached: 

Measuring  not  more  than  10  000  meters  for  every  half  kilogram           ..... 

Measuring  from  10  000  to  20  000  meters  for  every  half  kilogram  

Measuring  more  than  20,000  and  up  to  30,000  meters  for  every  half  kilo- 

Measuring  more  than  30.0QO  and  up  to  40,000  meters  for  every  half  kilo- 

Measuring  more  than  40,000  and  up  to  50,000  meters  for  every  half  kilo- 

Measuring  more  than  50,000  and  up  to  60,000  meters  for  every  half  kilo- 

Thread,  twisted,  dyed: 

Measiring  from  10,000  up  to  20,000  metera  for  every  half  kilogram  
Measuring  from  20  000  to  30  000  meters  for  every  half  kilogram  

1,008 
2,950 
2,006 

3,567 

129 
18 

Measuring  from  30  000  to  40  000  meters  for  every  half  kilogram 

Measuring  more  than  40,000  and  up  to  50,000  meters  for  every  half  kilo- 

Measuring  more  than  50,000  and  up  to  60,000  meters  for  every  half  kilo- 

Measuring  more  than  60,000  meters  for  every  half  kilogram  .. 

188  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

(1)  Imports  of  cotton  textiles  into  the  Province  of  Rome,  etc. — Continued. 


Description. 


Quantity. 


1886. 


Tissues,  unbleached:  Kilograms, 

Of  the  weight  of  13  kilograms  or  more  per  100  square  meters  that  contain 
in  warp  and  woof  on  a  square  of  5  millimeters : 

27  elementary  threads  or  less    8, 353 

More  than  27  threads  . 1,341 

Of  the  weight  of  7  or  more  kilograms  but  less  than  13  per  100'  square  me- 
ters that  contain  in  warp  and  woof  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters  : 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 457 

More  than  27  threads 30 

Of  the  weight  of  less  than  7  kilograms  per  100  square  meters  that  contain 
in  warp  and  woof  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters : 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 729 

More  than  27  threads 46 

Tissues,  bleached : 

Of  the  weight  of  13  kilograms  or  more  per  100  square  meters  that  contain 
in  warp  and  woof  on  a  square  of  5  millimeters : 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 2,  535 

More  than  27  threads 95,441 

Of  the  weight  of  7  or  more  kilograms  but  less  than  13  per  100  square 
meters  that  contain  in  warp  and  woof  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters : 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 2, 463 

More  than  27  elementary  threads 12,  977 

Of  the  weight  of  less  than  7  kilograms  per  100  square  meters  that  contain 
in  warp  and  woof  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters: 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 4,  048 

More  than  27  elementary  threads 738 

Tissues,  colored  or  dyed : 

Of  the  weight  of  13  kilograms  or  more  per  100  square  meters  that  contain 

in  warp  and  woop  on  a  square  of  5  millimeters. 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 5,  626 

More  than  27  threads 37,757 

Of  the  weight  of  7  or  more  kilograms  but  less  than  13  per  100  square 
meters  that  contain  in  warp  and  woop  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters: 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 50, 186 

More  than  27  threads 49,339 

Oi  the  weight  of  less  than  7  kilograms  per  100  square  metera  that  contain 
in  warp  and  woop  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters : 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 793 

More  than  27  threads  96 

Tissues,  printed : 

Of  the  weight  of  13  kilograms  or  more  per  100  square  meters  that  contain 
in  warp  and  woof  on  a  square  of  5  millimeters : 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 7, 218 

Morethan27  threads 2,207 

Of  the  weight  of  7  or  more  kilograms  but  less  than  13  per  100  square 
meters  that  contain  in  warp  and  woof  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters : 

27  elementary  threads  or  less  36,668 

More  than  27  threads 67,027 

Of  the  weight  of  less  than  7  kilograms  per  100  square  meters  that  contain 
in  warp  and  woof  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters  : 

27  elementary  threads  or  less 6 

More  than  27  threads 29 

Tissues,  embroidered: 

In  chain  stitch  237 

In  double  stitch 915 

Tulles,  gauze,  and  muslins: 

Bleached  or  dyed 7,388 

Embroidered 294 

Tissues: 

Oil  cloths  for  floors  and  ditto  tarred 125 

All  others 1,325 

Buttons,  hosiery,  guipures,  and  blankets 3,916 

Galloons  and  ribbons 1, 170 

Laces 4,656 

Velvets,  dyed 5, 953 

Sewed  articles  19,753 


Kilograms. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


189 


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COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


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duty  on  plain,  brocaded,  4 
double  stitch,  300  lire  per  q 
2  Buttons.  150.  Hosier 
3  Bags,  bed,  and  table 
All  others,  50  per  cent.,  in 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


193 


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COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


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COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


195 


(6)  Threads  and  warps  imported,  1887. 
[In  quintals  of  220.46  pounds.] 


Description. 

!| 

JT 

Austria-Hun- 
gary. 

I 

i 

>» 

1 

t, 

gil 

5 

1. 

85 

r 

Switzerland. 

Total. 

Threads,  untwisted   and   unbleached 
(for  every  half  kilogram)  : 
Not  more  than  10  000  meters 

$3  47 

308 

278 

379 

10 

63 

1  038 

10  000  to  20  000  meters  

4.25 

9 

49 

45 

1  330 

172 

1  605 

20  000  to  30  000  meters 

5  02 

353 

1  974 

850 

891 

4  068 

30  000  to  40  000  meters  

6.18 

490 

269 

339 

200 

1  298 

40  000  to  50  000  meters 

7  53 

61 

9 

35 

71 

176 

50  000  to  60  000  meters  

9.26 

27 

92 

56 

42 

216 

Over  60  000  meters 

11  58 

31 

14 

13 

58 

Threads,  untwisted  and  bleached  (for 
every  half  kilogram)  : 
Not  more  than  10  000  meters  

4.17 

5 

-   10 

149 

1  049 

1  213 

10  000  to  20  000  meters 

5  10 

3 

26 

36 

350 

55 

475 

20  000  to  30  000  meters  

6.02 

81 

11 

54 

146 

30,000  to  40,000  meters  

7.41 

5 

.    5 

Threads,  untwisted  and  dyed  (for  every 
half  kilogram)  : 
Xot  moie  than  10  000  meters  

8  30 

503 

102 

454 

26 

1  085 

10  000  to  20  000  meters 

9  07 

4  83 

'. 

32 

192 

120 

27 

*854 

20  000  to  30*000  meters  

9  81 

5 

21 

17 

5 

36 

84 

30,00*  to  40,000  meters  

11.00 

11 

13 

24, 

40  000  to  50  000  meters 

12  35 

6 

g 

Over  60,  000  meters  

16.40 

2 

3 

5 

Threads  twisted  and  unbleached  (for 
every  half  kilogram)  : 
Not  more  than  10  000  meters 

4  52 

37 

5 

90 

1 

132 

10  000  to  20  000  meters  

5.52 

42 

47 

31 

4  447 

4  567 

20  000  to  30  000  meters 

6  52 

2  08 

57 

3  460 

3 

3  733 

30  000  to  40,000  meters  

8  03 

33 

396 

33 

5  907 

7 

6  376 

40  000  to  50  000  meters 

9  79 

41 

248 

83 

g 

*381 

50  000  to  60  000  meters  

12  04 

139 

42 

166 

10 

358 

Over  60,000  meters  ... 

15.05 

329 

53 

310 

94 

786 

Threads   twisted    and   bleached  (for 
t-vrry  half  kilogram)  : 
Not  more  than  10  000  meters  .  

5.42 

5 

18 

69 

660 

752 

10  000  to  20  000  meters 

6  62 

50 

55 

96 

163 

4  843 

9 

5  216 

20  000  to  30  000  meters     

7  83 

1  89 

53 

78 

292 

1  576 

23 

2  211 

30  000  to  40  000  meters 

9  63 

69 

25 

27 

136 

1  778 

.... 

26 

2  054 

40*000  to  50*000  meters     

11  74 

21 

21 

24 

113 

170 

23 

372 

50  000  to  60  000  meters 

14  46 

5 

§ 

49 

54 

21 

135 

Over  60  000  meters             ... 

18  06 

7 

...... 

51 

32 

75 

5 

170 

Threads  twisted  and  dyed  (for  every 
half  kilogram): 
Xot  more  than  10,000  meters  

10  79 

5 

;; 

47 

28 

16 

99 

10  000  to  20  000  meters 

11  79 

199 

43 

53 

351 

6°9 

23 

1  998 

'20  000  to  30  000  meters     

12.80 

302 

79 

232 

688 

633 

2 

1  977 

30,000  to  40,000  motors  

14  30 

57 

13 

87 

130 

247 

18 

552 

40  000  to  50  000  meters          

16  06 

34 

9 

32 

72 

107 

28 

282 

."<)  000  to  60  000  meters 

18  32 

3 

24 

25 

31 

2 

85 

Over  60  000  meters 

21  33 

3 

49 

34 

95 

...... 

7 

193 

Warps  untwisted  and  unbleached  (for 
every  half  kilogram): 
Not  more  than  10,000  meters  

4.00 

714 

714 

10,000  to  20,000  meters  

4.88 

287 

287 

'JO  000  to  30,000  meters  

5  77 

436 

5 

441 

Warps  untwisted  and  bleached,  10,000 
to  20,000  meters  (for  every  half  kilo- 
gram)    .'  

5.86 

21 

21 

Warps  untwisted  and  dyed,  20,000  to 
30,000  meters  (for  every  half  kilo- 
gram)    

11  32 

4 

4 

Warps  twisted  and  unbleached  (for 
every  half  kilogram)  : 
10  000  to  20  000  meters 

6  :$5 

850 

g--,0 

20,000  to  30,000  meters  
30,000  to  40,000  meter*  

7.90 
9.24 



103 
10 



938 
59 

... 



1,041 
69 

60,000  meters  

17  31 

32 

32 

' 

Total  

47  543 

196 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES, 


(7)  Imports  of  threads  and  warps  for  the  year  1888. 
[In  quintals  of  220.46  pounds.] 


Description. 

Austria- 
Hungary. 

Belgium. 

France. 

Germany. 

Great  Brit- 
ain. 

Malta  and 
Holland. 

Switzer- 
land. 

_; 

c3 
| 

Threads: 
Untwisted: 
Unbleached  .  -  -  

27 

60 

89 

1,274 

2,461 

17 

5  884 

9  812 

Bleached 

5 

14 

82 

730 

41 

902 

Dved  

50 

15 

23 

1,081 

167 

133 

1  469 

Twisted: 
Unbleached  

23 

7 

55 

243 

10  798 

16 

290 

11  432 

Bleached 

40 

g 

61 

214 

5  193 

162 

5  679 

Dved 

51 

73 

501 

465 

123 

1  213 

Warps  : 
Untwisted                    

13 

750 

763 

Twisted 

4 

314 

96 

414 

Sewing  tread  on  spools  and  bobbins 

49 

9 

35 

905 

1  327 

7 

2  332 

Llama  thread: 
Untwisted,  dyed  : 
.       Not  over  10,000  meters  for 
every  half  kilogram 

159 

162 

321 

10,000  to  20,000  meters  for 
every  half  kilogram 

5 

178 

3 

186 

Twisted,  dyed  : 
Not  over  10,000  meters  for 
every  half  kilogram  ...... 

' 

3 

3 

3 

g 

g 

a 

2 

4 

Total                   

34  439 

(8)  Cotton  threads,  warps,  and  tissues  imported  into  Italy  in  the  years  1888  and  1889. 


Description. 

1889. 

1888. 

Cotton  : 
Haw                  

89,843 

74  978 

Batting                                    •          .....  .......  ... 

do 

591 

57 

Thread: 
Untwisted— 

2,  478,  631 

2  163  154 

Bleached 

do 

252  426 

198  885 

Dye(l                             

do... 

600,  092 

323  856 

Twisted— 

do... 

2  442  917 

2  520  299 

Bleached 

do 

1  089  072 

1  251  99? 

J)yed                                                                .                 .  .                  

do 

147  267 

267  418 

Warps: 
Untwisted 

.     do 

132  496 

168  211 

Twisted                          

do.... 

12,  346 

91  270 

..    do 

840  834 

514  113 

Llama  thread: 

do 

96  782 

111  773 

Twisted                                         

do  

6,393 

661 

Cord                              

...do... 

1  984 

Fishing-twine                                               -  ••   .....  

do.... 

2  205 

i         882 

Tissues: 

.    do... 

5,  155  898 

3  621  717 

Bleached                                 

...do... 

4,  365,  549 

3,757  299 

do     . 

3  138  910 

3  348  l'J6 

Printed                                         -• 

do.... 

5,  474,  021 

3,846  365 

Wrought  or  damasked  — 
Unbleached                          

...do... 

70,  327 

68  343 

do   ... 

263  008 

161  377 

Colored  or  dyed                .          

...do... 

358,  027 

283  953 

.do.... 

40  344 

46  517 

Brocaded- 
Smooth                                                                 • 

.    do  . 

12  566 

14  772 

Wrought  or  damasked                         .......... 

do.... 

6,173 

3  969 

Embroidered  — 
Chain  stitch                                         ........... 

...do... 

1,323 

6  173 

do 

64  595 

55  776 

Tulles: 

do 

13  228 

7  936 

Bleached  or  dyed  .. 

...do.... 

72.  752 

69,446 

COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        197 

(8)  Cotton  threads,  warps,  and  tissues  imported  into  Italy,  etc. — Continued. 


Description. 

1889. 

1888. 

Muslins  and  veilings: 
Unbleached 

1  984 

3  968 

Bleached                            

do 

13  007 

8  598 

.....do... 

13,  007 

12,566 

Printed                                                       ... 

do 

441 

442 

Worked 

do 

23  369 

83  775 

Brocaded                              ..                 .........            .... 

do. 

4  850 

12  566 

Embroidered  — 
Chain  stitch        ...               

.    do 

882 

2  866 

Double  stitch 

do 

1  984 

11  'M3 

TNsm-s: 

Tarred  oiled  etc 

do 

12  787 

17  857 

Oil  cloths 

do     .. 

291  889 

•jrtf  74!) 

Polished  with  emery   

do... 

84,436 

54,  454 

Buttons 

do 

1  102 

ELoeiery: 
Plate 

.  -do 

3  257 

16  314 

Wrought                   .     . 

do.... 

3  307 

10,  975 

do 

133  598 

147  488 

Galloons  and  ribbons                                      .         .  .            .  .  .  . 

..do.... 

72,  090 

73,  413 

do 

58  992 

96  083 

Velvets  : 

.  do 

185  848 

191  359 

Fine  dyed 

..  .     do  .... 

277,  118 

262,750 

Tissues,  mixed  : 
With  silk 

io 

72,090 

41  887 

Withwool  

do  .... 

1,  769,  632 

618,  170 

With  silk  and  wool 

do 

20,  503 

20  723 

With  gold  and  silver  or  gilt  and  silvered  threads 

do  .... 

3,346 

4,304 

With  other  metallic  threads 

do 

3  805 

3  413 

Sewed  articles  : 
Bags  bed  and  table  linen  etc 

do 

111  194 

65  477 

Collars  wristbands  and  mens'  shirts 

.  ...do 

47,399 

53,  792 

All  other  

do  .... 

386,  461 

415,788 

SUMMARY. 


Cotton  raw  and  batting 

89  903 

75  035 

8  101,461 

7  614  498 

Buttons 

do 

1  102 

1  39't 

Hosiery       ....            .. 

do 

6  764 

.'{.'{  •'*«) 

Trimmings 

do 

133  598 

147  488 

Tissues 

do 

19  096  245 

15  4°7  7*};$ 

Tisnes,  tarred,  oiled,  polished,  etc  

do 

389,  112 

:>2(J  050 

Galloons  and  ribbons 

do 

72  090 

73  413 

Luces    

do 

58,092 

100  492 

Velvets 

do 

462  966 

291  809 

Tissues  mi  xfd  with  other  materials  .............. 

do 

1  869  376 

688  497 

Sewed  articles 

do 

545  054 

535  057 

198 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


(9;  Cotton,  threads,  warps,  and  tissues  imported  into  Italy  in  1888  and   1889   by  Coun- 
tries of  origin. 


Countries,  etc. 

-  1889. 

1888. 

Cotton: 
Great  Britain  ..            

Tons. 
4,  874.  2 

Tons. 
3,  015.  1 

English  Possessions  in  Asia 

44,  352.  8 

35,  875.  6 

Eoypt                .... 

10,  368.  0 

8,  066.  4 

South  America 

19  455.0 

22,  845.  8 

Central  and  North  America..  ....       

4,  964.  6 

2,  201.  2 

Other  countries 

5  828.3 

2,  974.  3 

Total 

89  842.9 

74  978.4 

Th  reads  and  warps,  excluding  llama  thread,  cord,  and  fishing  twine  : 
Germany      

Pounds. 
1,  009,  265 

Pounds. 
951,  726 

Great  Britain 

4  890  244 

4  895  314 

Switzerland  

1,962,976 

1,485,018 

133,  599 

167,  108 

Total 

7  996  084 

7  499  166 

Tissues,  plain,  wrought,  or  damasked,  brocaded,  and  embroidered,  tulles, 
muslins,  and  veilings  : 

2  420  871 

2  941  416 

Great  Britain 

12  767,500 

9  299  888 

Switzerland  .... 

2,  966,  730 

2,  362,  449 

Other  countries 

941  144 

1,524  040 

Total 

19  096  245 

15  427,793 

Laces  : 
Austria-Hungary  .  .  ...... 

919 

5,538 

France.  ..          .                    ...... 

3,710 

11,  089 

Great  Britain 

42  273 

44  996 

9,824 

17,  220 

Switzerland                .  . 

1  136 

16  089 

Other  countries.  .......  .. 

229 

1,151 

Total               

58  091 

96,  083 

(10)  Note  on  Tnreads. 

The  thread  imported  is  largely  that  made  by  J.  &  P.  Coats,  England,  and  by 
Zwirmerei  in  Goggingen,  Germany.  The  spools  contain  80,  200,  and  500  yards,  and 
cost  for  80-yard  spools  94£  cents  per  gross ;  200-yard  spools,  $1.97  per  gross;  500- 
yard  spools,  $5.50  per  gross  for  the  German  manufacture' 

The  English  threads  are  in  500-yard  spools,  and  cost  33  shillings,  about  $8.01  per 
gross.  The  five  samples  of  bleached  cloth  cost  as  follows : 


Mark. 

Length  of 
piece. 

Price  per 
meter. 

LLL 

Yards. 
45 

d. 

7g 

M.M.M  

42* 

M2 

44 

gf 

H,  

442 

4? 

M7  ^  

|          GJ 

Pieces  average  about  42£  yards. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
Prints. 


199 


Sample. 

Where  manufactured. 

Length. 

Width. 

Cost. 

"Vo    1 

Vienna 

Ifton, 

Centimeter*. 

u 

6; 

I 

» 

3 

B 
14 

K 
1( 

B 
s 
•S 
H 

!>. 

1, 

$  cents  per  meter, 
cents  per  meter. 
'0  cents  per  meter, 
pence  per  yard, 
pence  per  yard, 
pence  per  yard, 
pence  per  yard, 
pence  per  yard. 
[>ence  per  yard, 
pence  per  yard. 
i  cents  per  meter. 
&  CP  nts  per  meter. 
>T6a  cents  per  meter. 
!%  cents  per  meter, 
cents  per  meter, 
cents  per  meter, 
cents  per  meter, 
cents  per  meter, 
cents  per  meter. 
4  cents  per  meter. 
;  cents  per  meter, 
cents  per  meter. 
\  cents  per  meter. 

No    2             ... 

Germany         .....  ..  

do 

No    4 

Manchester  England  

55 
55 
55 
55 
55 
55 
55 
25-30 
45-50 
40-50 
40-50 
44-46 
60 

No     5 

do 

No    G 

do 

No    7 

do 

* 

So     8 

do    . 

No      4 

do 

No  10 

do 

No.ll  

No  I'' 

Italy 

1.30 
.70 
.70 
.70 
.60 
.65-.  70 
.55 
.70 
.70 
1.10 
.78-.  80 
.70 

do 

\o  i:<       

do  

No  14 

do 

No  !"• 

do 

No  16 

do 

No  17 

do 

No  18 

do 

45-50 
45-50 
40-45 
40-45 
50-55 
35 

No  19 

do 

Xo.'JU       

....do  

do 

. 
No.  22     

....do  

No  23 

do 

*  This  varies  in  width  from  77  to  79  centimeters  and  in  price  from  7.7  to  8.7  cents  per  meter. 
(11)  Italian  imports  and  exports  of  cotton  and  cotton  manufactures  from  1880  to  1888. 


Tears. 

Cotton,  in  bales  or  in  mass, 
and  wadding. 

Cotton  yarn  and  thread." 

Cotton  tissues.! 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Excess  of 
imports 
over 
exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Excess  of 
imports 
over 
exports. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Excess  of 
imports 
over 
exports. 

1880.. 
1881..  .. 
1882..  . 
1883..   . 
1884..  . 
1885..   . 
1886..   . 
18H7..   . 
1888..   . 

Ton*. 
47,265 
48,494 
62,888 
67,  318 
66,138 
78,573 
68,  Oil 
76,226 
75,035 

Tons. 
18,086 
16,696 
14,620 
22,264 
20,323 
19,161 
17,386 
13,  135 
13,292 

Tons. 
29,179 
31,  798 
48,268 
45,054 
45.  815 
59,  412 
50,625 
63,091 
61,743 

Tons. 
5,774 
11,  923 
9,072 
9,046 
8,994 
7,682 
6,259 
4,754 
3,454 

Tons. 
152 
67 
57 
103 
174 
99 
171 
340 
402 

Tons. 
5,622 
11,856 
9,015 
8,943 
8,820 
7,583 
6,088 
4,414 
3.052 

Tons. 
9,747 
14,090 
12,  761 
14,265 
14,276 
14,  157 
13,  698 
16,  989 
8,078 

Tons. 
632 
611 
599 
609 
670 
584 
683 
936 
980 

Tons. 
9,115 
13,  479 
12.  162 
13,656 
13,  606 
13,  573 
13,  015 
16,053 
7,098 

*  Cotton  yarn  and  thread  also  includes  warps,  both  plain  and  twisted. 

t  Cotton  tissues,  also  includes  buttons,  galloons,  laces,  velvets,  and  made-up  articles. 


CATANIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  LAMANT1A. 

In  compliance  with  Department  circular  of  May  27,  referring  to  cotton 
textile  imports  in  this  consular  district,  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the 
following  report,  the  data  of  which  were  obtained  from  this  chamber  of 
commerce,  the  proper  source  wherefrom  accurate  information  could  be 
got. 

IMPORTS. 

The  total  quantity  of  raw,  dyed,  whitened,  and  stamped  cotton  textile 
imports  of  last  year  amounted  to  479^  tons,  of  a  value  of  $249,112,  an 
average  annual  import  of  1,111  tons  for  the  last  five  years,  as  will 
be  shown  in  the  annexed  table. 


200  COTTON   TEXTILES    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

WEIGHT. 

The  weight  per  yard  of  said  articles  is  as  follows : 

Textiles  presenting  5  millimeters  square,  with  27  threads  between  chain  and  woof: 

Ounces. 

Raw 5 

Whitened Si- 
Dyed 3 

Stamped 2£ 

HOW  PURCHASED. 

The  same  are  purchased  in  Italy  at  four  and  six  months  from  date  of 
invoice,  or  for  cash  on  arrival  of  goods,  less  4  per  cent,  discount ;  Eng- 
land at  three  and  four  months,  and  cash  less  2J  per  cent. ;  France  at  four 
months,  and  cash  less  3  and  5  per  cent.  ;  Germany  at  four  months,  and 
cash  less  3  and  5  per  cent. ;  Austria  at  six  months,  and  cash  less  5  per 
cent. ;  and  so  on  according  to  agreement. 

PLACE  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

Those  imported  from  Italy  are  manufactured  at  Turin,  Milan,  Genoa, 
Leghorn,  and  Naples ;  those  from  England,  at  Manchester ;  from 
France,  at  Lyons  5  from  Austria,  at  Vienna  ;  from  Germany,  at  Stutt- 
gart and  Chemnitz. 


Duties  on  textiles  (raw). 

Kilo- 
grams. 

Rates  of 
duties. 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more,  for  100  square  meters,  presenting  5  millimeters 
square  : 
With  27  threads,  or  less  

100 

Lire. 
62 

With  more  than  27  threads 

100 

74 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  for  100  square  meters,  presenting  5  millimeters 
square  : 
With  27  threads  or  less                       

100 

84 

With  more  than  27  threads     :.....  

100 

100 

Weighing  less  than  7  kilograms  per  100  square  meters,  presenting  5  millimeters 
square  : 
With  27  threads  or  less                                                              

100 

110 

With  more  than  27  threads             

100 

130 

*  Whitened,  20  per  cent,  augumentation  on  the  raw  textiles. 
Stamped,  80  lire  augumentation  for  100  kilograms  on  the  whitened. 
Dyed,  35  lire  augumentation  for  100  kilograms  on  the  raw  textiles. 

According  tfo  the  statistical  data  during  the  last  five  years  it  |eems 
that  Italian  textile  imports  had  increased  from  551  tons  in  1884  to  1,340 
tons  in  1886,  but  since  then  commenced  to  decline  up  to  last  year  con- 
siderably. The  same  was  the  case  with  all  the  other  importing  countries 
and  especially  with  France,  on  account  of  the  war- tariff  with  Italy. 

The  general  decline  has  been  caused  by  the  crisis  which  has  for  the 
last  three  years  greatly  affected  the  trade  of  this  whole  island,  and 
especially  this  consular  district,  where  several  heavy  and  important  fail- 
ures have  occurred,  causing  demoralization  in  commerce,  loss  of  confi- 
dence, trust,  and  credit,  and  a  general  discouragement. 

*  Raw  textiles  mixed,  with  white  cotton  are  considered  as  whitened. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


201 


Common  whitened,  ntamped,  colored,  and  mixed  textiles  imported  into  Catania  during  thz 

year  1888. 

[In  kilograms  and  United  States  currency]. 


Cotton  textiles. 

Italy. 

England. 

France. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

Value. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

Value. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

Value. 

Common  : 
No  specification  given  

87.  451 

$34,229 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more,  present! 
millimeters  square,  with  27  threads  or  lee 
More  than  27  threads  

ng5 

ts  ... 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  bi 
13  kilograms,  with  27  threads  or  1< 
White: 
Xo  specification  given  

it  less  than 

)38  

174,  181 

14,  030 

Weighing  13  kilograms,  etc  

9,343 

$5,606 
42,  107 

2,000 
11,  430 

79 
324 

$47 
230 

More  thau  27  threads  

59,306 

2,612 
15,  159 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  but 
kilograms,  with  27  threads  or  less 
More  than  27  threads 

less  than  13 

49 

37 

Colored: 
No  specification  given*  

15,431 

11,437 

Weighing  13  kilograms,  etc  

34 
182 

18,  459 
»,702 

22 
160 

13.873 
7,665 

2,382 

1,686 

More  than  27  threads  -  —  

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  but 
kilograms,  with  27  threads  orlesn 
More  than  27  threads 

less  thau  13 

25 

20 

Stamped: 
No  specification  given  

7,431 

28,950 

Weighing  13  kilograms,  etc  .  ... 

25 

56 

More  than  27  threads  

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  but  less  than  13 
kilograms,  with  27  threads  

6,759 
28,690 

7,300 
36,  150 

382 
785 

412 
989 

More  than  27  threads 

Total  

284,494 

88,646 

| 

0,271 

126,  368 

4,426 

3,421 

Cotton  textiles. 

Austria. 

Germany. 

Other  coun- 
tries. 

Total. 

Kilo- 
grains. 

Value. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

Value. 

Kilo- 
grams 

Value. 

Kilo- 
grams. 

Value. 

Common  : 
No  specification  given  

87,451 

168 
4,216 

$34,229 

102 
6,460 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more, 
presenting  5  millimeters  square, 
with  27  threads  or  less  

103 
438 

|62 
231 

65 
3,778 

$40 

2,682 

More  than  27  threads 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  but 
less  than  13  kilograms,  with  27 
threads  or  less  

White: 
Xo  specification  given  

174,  181 
9,426 
60,313 

4,067 
15,  518 

15,  431 
2,568 
1,319 

19,  495 
11,611 

7,431 
4,301 
8,949 

8,264 
43,  331 

14,030 
5,656 
42,  832 

3,  249 
11,  707 

11,437 
1,808 
1,007 

14,676 
78,  274 

28,950 
4,  6.% 
9,495 

8,925 
44,166 

Weighing  13  kilograms,  etc  

4 
283 

3 
213 

"406 

143 
59 

"$282' 

98 
51 

More  than  27  threads 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  but 
less  than  13  kUograms,  with  27 
threads  or  less  

1,314 

1,151 

More  than  27  threads 

251 

189 

Colored  : 
Xo  specification  given  

Weighing  13  kilograms,  etc  
More  than  27  threads  

21 
50 

14 
37 

131 
1,087 

287 
711 

86 
810 

212 
562 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  but 
1  than  13  kilograms,  with  27 
threads  or  less 

724 
583 

572 
461 

More  than  27  threads 

615 

586 

Stamped: 
>»o  specification  given 

Weighing  13  kilograms,  etc 

179 
7,270 

175 
7,850 

4,097 
1,679 

4,425 
1,645 

More  than  -J7  threads 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  but 
IBM  than  13  kilograms,  with  27 
threads  

1,123 
1,023 

1,213 
1,289 

More  than  27  threads 

12,833 

5,738 

Total  

4,918 

4,772 

26,629 

18,  371 

7,634 

7,534 

479,267 

249,  112 

202  COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Total  imports  during  years  1884,  1885,  1886,  1887,  and  1888. 


Years. 

Italy. 

England. 

Franee. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

1888 

284J 
867 
1,340 
587 
551 

$88,646 
541,  322 
973,  058 
518,060 
473,  013 

150£ 
232 
263 
351 
316 

$126,  368 
136,078 
198,  687 
295,  134 
226,  279 

£ 

45 
39 
31 

$3,  421 
27,  057 
36,  749 
37,  642 
51,304 

1887     

1880 

1885  

1884 

Total  

3,629| 

2,  584,  099 

1,  312i 

982,  546 

148J 

156,  173 

Years. 

Austria. 

Germany. 

Other  countries. 

Total. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

Tons. 

Value. 

$7,  334 
6,634 
46,  287 
32,  764 
12,  122 

Tons. 

Value. 

1888  

5 
27 
59 
60 
59 

$4,772 
24,642 
52,  799 
69,  196 
67,  849 

26J 
30 
21 
40 
26 

$18,  371 
25,  711 
26,914 
39,  044 
26,313 

? 

51 
35 
12 

478$ 

1,  193 
1,779 
1,110 
995 

$249,112 
761,  444 
1,3:!4,494 
991,  840 
856,  880 

1887 

1886  

1885 

1884 

Total. 

210 

219,  258 

143£ 

136,  353 

113£ 

105,  341 

5,  55fli 

4,  193,  770 

Average  annual  imports  1,111  tons;  value  of,  $838,754. 


UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Catania  July  14,  1889. 


VINCENT  LAMANTIA, 

Consul. 


FLORENCE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  D1LLER. 

In  pursuance  of  directions  contained  in  cotton  textile  circular,  I 
herewith  append  a  table  which  contains  full  information  on  the  above 
points,  so  far  as  the  immediate  district  of  the  province  of  Florence  is 
concerned. 

I  have  found  it  impossible  to  procure  reliable  information  from  the 
seven  remaining  provinces  connected  with  this  consular  district  in  time 
for  this  report,  and  as  this  is  the  great  center  for  the  importation  of 
goods  embraced  in  the  inquiry,  the  table  I  inclose  will,  I  think,  cover 
the,  objects  mentioned  in  your  circular.  I 

I  again  repeat  what  I  have  heretofore  reported  that,  in  my  opinion, 
Florence  presents,  from  its  geographical  position,  many  advantages  for 
the  establishment  of  a  grand  entrepot  for  the  sale  and  exhibition  of 
American  products,  chief  among  them  being  our  cotton  textiles,  agri- 
cultural machinery  and  implements,  mechanics7  tools,  and  wooden  ware. 
This  entrepot  should  be  in  charge  of  persons  fully  acquainted  with  all 
the  details  of  the  business  of  each  department  and  familiar  with  the 
language  of  the  country. 

I  also  inclose  several  samples  of  cotton  textiles  in  general  use  in  this 
city,  with  the  retail  price  in  pencil,  marked  No.  2. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


203 


I  have  great  pleasure  in  acknowledging  the  valuable  services  of 
Spirito  Bernardi,  esq.,  the  vice-consul  here,  for  his  assistance  in  prepar- 
ing this  report  and  collecting  the  accompanying  samples. 

ISAAC  K.  DILLER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Florence,  Italy,  July  6,  1889. 

Statement  showing  the  imports  of  cotton  textiles  into  Florence,  1888. 


» 

Cotton  textiles  and 
whence  imported. 

Weighing  13  kilo- 
grams    (28.652 
pounds)  or  more 
to    every    100 
square  meters 
(119.59  square 
yards)  and  hav- 
ing in  &  square 
of  5  millimeters 
of  warp    and 
woof  — 

Weighing  7  kilo- 
grams    (15.428 
pounds)  or  more 
and  less  than  13 
kilograms  (28.652 
pounds)  to  every 
100    square   me- 
ters(119.59  square 
yards)  and  hav- 
ing in  a  square  of 
5  millimeters  of 
warp  and  woof— 

Weighing    less 
Than  7  kilograms 
(15.428    pounds) 
to    every   100 
square  meters 
(119.59  square 
yards)  and  hav- 
ing in  a  square 
of  5  millimeters 
of    warp  and 
woof  — 

Total. 

Duties 
charged 
thereon. 

27orle88 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

More 
than  27 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

27  or  less 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

More 
than  27 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

27  or  less 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

More 
than  27 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

Unbleached  : 
France  
Germany 

Pound*. 

112 
448 
2,086 

Pound* 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

-Pounds. 
6,942 

117r  738 
184,  117 

75.  746 
6.632 

$463.47 
9,  594.  22 
19,266.40 

11,  688.  56 
617.  66 

:it  Britain... 
Swit/erland 

787 

2,059 
976 

461 

Turkey 

13 

Bleached  : 
Austria   

2,659 

787 

3,035 

461 

428 

53 

Belgium  

190 
1,843 
3,959 
54,537 
2,846 

Franc*1 

1,  955 
3,084 
16,  870 
33 

42 
209 
5,531 
212 

1,036 
580 
17,765 
465 

26 
430 
858 
1,283 

205 
265 
1,845 
1,188 

(jtTiuanv    

(Jr.  -at  Britain   .. 
Switzerland  

Colored  or  dyed  : 
Austria  

22,370 

63,375 

5,994 

19,899 

2,597 

3,503 

161 
2,132 
7,167 
6,832 
26 

123 
2,348 
3,  726 
32,386 
511 

France 

893 
1.177 
57,348 
5,459 
7 

2,238 
4,288 
53,  376 
1,779 

187 

Germany  

470 

Great  Britain... 
Switzerland  
Turkey 

108 

875 

Printed  : 
Austria  

16,  318 

39,094 

64,884 

62,  181 

1,345 

295 

• 

France  

684 
1,501 
1,045 
842 

238 
1,995 
4,976 

119 
12,  877 
9,198 
8,382 

7 

1,091 
11,021 
20,104 
1,457 

Germany  

Great  Britain... 
Switzerland  

31 

143 

K"vi.t' 

35 

Sized,  imitation 
damask,  bleached: 
Be  lei  urn  

4,072 

7,209 

30,583 

33,  708 

31 

143 

154 
73 
474 
3,750 

France     .   

9 

71 
4 
64 

Germany  

Great  Britain  ... 

1,561 

430 

42 

1,570 

4,451 

430 

139 

42    

204 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


Cotton  textiles  and 
whence  imported. 

Weighing  13  kilo- 
grams   (28.652 
pounds)  or  more 
to    every    100 
square  meters 
(119.59  square 
yards)  and  hav- 
ing in  a  square 
of  5  millimeters 
of  warp  and 
woof— 

Weighing  7  kilo- 
grams    (15.428 
pounds)  or  more 
and  less  than  13 
kilograms  (28.652 
pounds   to  every 
100    square    me- 
ters(119.59  square 
yards)  and  hav- 
ing in  a  square 
of  5  millimeters 
of  warp    and 
woof- 

Weigh  ing   less 
than  7  kilograms 
(15.428    pounds) 
to    every    100 
square  meters 
(119.59  square 
yards)  and  hav- 
ing in  a  square 
of  5  millimeters 
of  warp    and 
woof— 

Total. 

Duties 
charged 
thereon. 

27  or  less 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

More 
than  27 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

27  or  less 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

More 
than  27 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

27  or  less 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

More 
than  27 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

Sized,   imitation 
damask,     colored 
or  dyed  : 
Belgium  . 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 
1  482 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

11 

159 
582 
1,208 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 
15^196 

4,477 
192 

33 
22 

1,063 

1,020 

37 
1 

$1,860.41 

740.  17 
29.18 

8.93 
7.41 

I 

409.  20 

466.  12 
18.72 

France 

35 
258 
941 

2,176 
1,742 
481 

117 

Germany  
Great  Britain... 

Sized,    imitation 
damask,  printed: 
France  



4 

1,234 

11,881 

117 

1,960 

4 

44 
465 
42 

Germany  

317 

1,488 
2,121 

Great  Britain... 

Brocaded,  colored  or 
dyed: 
Germany  

551 

317 

3,609 

9 
174 

Great  Britain 

9 

Embroidered  in 
chain  stitch,  col- 
ored or  dyed  : 
France  





9 

183 

31 
2 

Germany  

Embroidered  in 
double  stitch,  un- 
bleached: 
Switzerland  

33 

Embroidered  in 
double     stitch, 
bleached  : 
Austria  

16 
152 
443 
62 
390 

France  

Germany  

Great  Britain... 
Switzerland  

Embroidered  in 
double  stitch,  col- 
ored or  dyed  : 
France  

1,063 

168 

388 
58 
404 
2 

Germany  .  

Great  Britain.. 

Switzerland  .. 

Egypt  

Embroidered  in 
double     stitch, 
printed  : 
France  

1,020 

24 
0 

4 

•    Germany  .  . 

Great  Britain... 

37    

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


205 


Cotton  textiles  and 
whence  imported. 

"Weighing  13  kilo- 
grams    (28.652 
pounds)  or  more 
to   every   100 
square  meters 
(119.59  square 
yards)  and  hav- 
ing in  a  square 
or  5  millimeters 
of   warp  and 
woof— 

Weighing    7    kilo- 
gram s     (15.428 
pounds)  or  more 
and  less  than  13 
kilograms  (28.652 
pounds)  to  every 
100    square    me- 
ters (  119.59  square 
yards)  and  hav- 
ing in  a  square 
of  5  millimeters 
of   warp    and 
wool  — 

Weighing  less 
than  7  kilograms 
(15.428    pounds) 
to  every  100 
square  meters 
(119.69  square 
yards)  and  hav- 
ing in  a  square 
pf  5  millimeters 
of  warp  and 
woof— 

Total. 

Duties 
charged 
thereon. 

27  or  less 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

More 
than  27 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

27  or  less 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

More 
than  27 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

27  or  less 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

More 
than  27 
element- 
ary 
threads. 

Mixed     with    silk, 
bleached: 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

55 

18 
11 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 

Pounds. 
84 

29 
1,019 

2,595 
15,915 

7,083 

137 
440,  077 

$15.  59 
6.02 

162.98 

422.  49 
1,  995.  72 

911.  14 

22,62 
48,  Tflf.Ol 

Switzerland 

Mixed   with  silk, 
printed: 
Germany         ... 

84 

= 

18 
11 

29 

Mixed  with  silk,  col- 
ored or  dyed  : 
Austria 

===== 

15 
84 
653 
216 
31 

20 

Great  Britain 

Mixed  with    silk, 
sized   and   bro- 
caded, colored  or 
dyed  : 

999 

20 

2,205 
146 
143 
68 

IT  ranee 

Great  Britain 

33 

Mixed    with    wool, 
smooth,  colored  or 
dyed: 

2,562 

33 

7,249 

« 

Great  Britain... 
Switzerland  

Mixed    with  wool, 
sized,   colored    or 
dyed: 

Belgium 

8,657 
9 

15,  915 

681 
35 

77 
6,290 

<;i.;it  Britain... 

Mi\i'«|    with     wool 
andwilk,  niz.cd.  im- 
itation damask, 
colored  or  dyed  : 
Belgium 



7,083 

31 
106 

Germany 

A  "gregate 

137 

- 

Terms.— Payments  are  usually  made  either  three  or  six  months  after  production  of  bill  of  lading. 


206 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


GENOA.  • 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FLETCHER. 

On  account  of  the  peculiar  manner  in  which  statistics  are  recorded  by 
officials  of  the  Italian  Government  in  this  consular  district,  and  the 
different  mode  of  levying  duties  on  imported  merchandise,  as  compared 
with  United  States  laws  on  such  subjects  and  in  such  cases,  questions 
Nos.  1  and  4,  of  Department  circular,  relating  to  cotton  textiles,  must 
be  answered  as  one  interrogatory.  The  same  with  interrogatories  Nos. 
2  and  5. 

Imports  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  Genoa  during  year  1888. 


Description. 

% 

Aus- 
tria. 

Bel- 
gium. 

France. 

Ger- 
many. 

Great 
Britain. 

Spain. 

Switz- 
erland. 

Total. 

Plain  textiles  of  cotton: 
Unbleached 

Kilos. 
2 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 
57 

Kilos. 
631 

Kilos. 
125  994 

Kilox. 

Kilos. 

Kilos. 
126  684 

Bleached 

"06 

685 

5,617 

104,  615 

2,721 

113  844 

Colored  

1  951 

2,218 

3,389 

7,342 

97,  436 

5,977 

118,313 

Printed 

3  109 

2,469 

22,  693 

205  246 

34  489 

268  006 

Total  

626,  847 

Damask  cotton  textiles  : 
Unbleached  

40 

1,691 

38 

1,  769 

Bleached  .... 

754 

5,  637 

6,391 

Colored 

76 

336 

1,729 

6  384 

480 

432 

9  437 

Printed 

12 

344 

2,  399 

4  081 

6  836 

Total 

24  433 

Cotton  brocades  : 
Colored 

26 

177 

203 

Embroidered  cotton  textiles: 
Chain  stitch  

15 

29 

371 

235 

650 

Long  stitch 

2 

17 

180 

33 

541 

773 

Tulle  

21 

673 

1,929 

146 

2,769 

Muslin 

414 

494 

685 

31 

1,624 

Oil-cloth  

448 

1,275 

17 

1,740 

Waxed  cloth 

89 

30,754 

729 

31,  572 

Emery-cloth  ......  ...... 

4,  279 

1,141 

5,420 

Aggregate  .     .  . 

696,  031 

• 

All  cloth  from  Great  Britain,  Spain,  and  Belgium  is  imported  by  sea, 
whereas  the  same  class  of  merchandise  from  Austria,  France,  Germany, 
and  Switzerland  comes  by  rail. 

I 

HOW  PURCHASED1? 

Three  months,  credit  is  usually  given  buyers  of  cotton  textiles. 

DUTIES. 

On  unbleached  textiles  weighing  13  kilograms  or  more  per  100 
square  meters,  and  which  present  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters  each  side, 
adding  the  number  of  threads  of  the  warp  to  those  of  the  weft,  27  threads 
or  less,  62  lire  per  100  kilograms  j  if  more  than  27  threads  74  lires  per 
100  kilograms. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  207 

On  unbleached  cotton  textiles  weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  but  less 
than  13  kilograms  per  100  square  meters,  which  present  in  a  square  of 
5  millimeters  each  side,  adding  the  number  of  threads  of  the  warp  to 
those  of  the  weft,  27  threads  or  less,  84  lire  per  100  kilograms  ;  more 
Uian27  threads  100  lire  per  100  kilograms. 

Unbleached  cotton  textiles  weighing  less,  than  7  kilograms  per  100 
square  meters,  and  which  present  in  a  square  of  5  millimeters  each 
side,  adding  the  number  of  threads  of  the  warp  to  those  of  the  weft, 
L>7  threads  or  less,  110  lire  per  100  kilograms ;  more  than  27  threads  130 
lire  per  100  kilograms. 

Bleached  cotton  textiles  pay  20  per  cent,  more  duties  than  the  un- 
bleached above  mentioned. 

Unbleached  cotton  textiles  mixed  with  white  threads  pay  as  much  as 
bleached  cotton.  » 

Colored  cotton  textiles  pay  35  lire  per  100  kilograms  more  than  un- 
bleached, varying  according  to  the  qualities  above  named. 

Printed  cottons  pay  80  lire  per  100  kilograms  more  than  bleached 
textiles,  as  above  noted. 

Damask  cotton  textiles  pay  20  lire  per  100  kilograms  in  addition  to 

the  tissue  as  above. 

Cotton  brocades  pay  40  lire  per  100  kilograms  besides  the  duty  on 
the  cloth. 

Bleached  and  unbleached  cloth  with  few  and  narrow  colored  stripes, 
indicating  the  use  thereof  for  hospitals  or  similar  institutions,  or  for  the 
army,  or  for  making  bags,  pays  the  same  duty  as  for  bleached  or  un- 
bleached cloth. 

Oil  or  tarred  cloth,  also,  if  covered  with  paper,  pays  30  lire  per  100 
kilograms,  besides  the  duty  on  the  cloth  as  above  stated. 

Waxed  cloth  pays  60  lire  per  100  kilograms  in  addition  to  the  regular 
duty  on  the  cloth. 

Emery  cloth  pays  half  the  duty  the  cloth  itself  would  pay  if  without 
emery. 

Tulle,  unbleached, pays  400  lire  per  100 kilograms;  bleached  or  colored 
pays  ir>n  lire  per  100  kilograms. 

Muslins,  unbleached,  at  the  rate  of  200  lire  per  100  grams  ;  bleached, 
20  per  cent,  more  than  unbleached  ;  colored,  235  lire  per  100  kilograms; 
printed,  320  lire  per  100  kilograms  ;  brocades,  40  lire  besides  the  duty 
on  the  cloth ;  embroidered,  chain  stitch,  200  lire,  as  well  as  the  duty 
collected  on  the  cloth ;  embroidered,  long  stitch,  300  lire,  in  addition  to 
the  amount  levied  on  the  cloth. 

Any  cotton  textiles  weighing  less  than  3  kilograms  per  100  square 
meters,  pay  the  same  duties  as  muslins ;  likewise  those  cotton  goods  of 
any  weight  which  are  only  in  part  muslins  or  veils. 

Any  kind  of  cotton  textiles,  embroidered,  in  which  less  than  12  per 
cent,  of  silk  is  used,  if  chain  stitch,  200  lire,  if  long  stitch,  300  lire, 
besides  the  duty  on  the  cloth. 


208  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Any  kind  of  cotton  textile,  embroidered,  in  which  not  less  than  12 
per  cent,  and  not  more  than  50  per  cent,  of  silk  is  employed,  the  rates 
per  100  kilograms  are  as  follows  : 


Embroidered. 

Chain 
stitch. 

Long 
stitch. 

Black  and  plain  cloth  -....  

Lire. 
600 
900 
700 
1,000 

Lire. 
700 
1,000 
800 
1,100 

Colored  and  plain  cloth  . 

Any  kind  of  cotton  cloth  embroidered  with  gold  or  silver  threads,  or 
gilt  or  silvered  threads,  500  lire  per  100  kilograms,  besides  the  duty  on 
the  cloth.  Any  kind  of  cloth  embroidered  with  ordinary  metal  threads, 
200  lire  per  100  kilograms,  in  addition  to  the  regular  duty  ou  the  cloth. 
I  beg  to  give  Mr.  Willy  Hasenbalg,  a  young  German  cotton  merchant, 
at  present  residing  in  G^noa,  my  sincere  thanks  for  valuable  assistance 
in  the  compilation  of  the  statistics  above  submitted. 

JAMES  FLETCHER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Genoa,  July  17,  1889. 


MESSINA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JONES. 

ITALIAN  versus  FOREIGN  COTTONS. 

Messina  was  deprived  January  1,  1880,  by  act  of  Parliament,  of  its 
ancient  privileges,  and  ceased  to  be  a  free  port.  Under  the  old  regime 
Messina  was  the  distributing  point  for  Sicily  and  Calabria,  and  through 
this  artificially  stimulated  trade  large  fortunes  were  made  by  importers. 
Since  1880,  all  merchandise  entered  at  this  port  has  been  subject  to  the 
tariff  existing  for  the  whole  kingdom,  and  the  imports  from  abroad  of 
cotton  textiles,  as  well  as  of  many  other  articles,  have  greatly  de- 
creased, their  place  being  taken  by  national  industrial  products.  ^  The 
latter,  first,  from  being  protected  for  a  number  of  years  by  the  premium 
on  gold  during  the  legal  tender  period  (1874-'83),  and,  secondly,  by 
the  increase  in  import  duties,  have  developed  rapidly  and  have  reached 
such  a  point  as  to  successfully  meet  foreign  competition,  especially  as 
concerns  shirtings,  gray  long  cloth,  ect.,  that  constitute  the  principal 
articles  of  consumption  in  Sicily.  Foreign  fancy  articles  still  retain 
their  supremacy,  but  their  sale  is  not  very  large. 

Formerly  England  and  Switzerland  supplied  this  market  almost  en- 
tirely ;  they  have  gradually  lost  ground,  and  the  imports  from  these 
countries  have  fallen  off  at  least  75  per  cent,  since  1880, 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        209 

The  imports  from  France  and  Germany,  consisting  more  especially 
in  silks,  woolen  goods,  etc..  rather  than  in  cotton  goods,  have  also  fallen 
off  very  materially  since  Italian  manufacturers  have  begun  to  produce 
the  same  articles  with  increased  success.  Recourse  must  still  be  had 
to  foreign  countries  for  articles  of  "  haute  uouveaute","  and  for  textiles 
of  superior  quality. 

Tuscany  produces  principally  light  cotton  goods;  Piedmont  and 
Liguria  manufacture  heavier  articles;  Lombardy  excels  in  the  produc- 
tion of  shirtings.  Of  late  years  the  manufacturers  have  not  only  im- 
proved the  quality  of  their  goods,  but  have  also  improved  in  the  dressing 
and  bleaching.  Shirtings,  gray  cloths,  etc.,  are  salable  in  southern 
Italy,  provided  they  contain  more  or  less  starch,  hence  they  are  not 
sold  by  weight  but  by  measure. 

There  is  an  establishment  at  Messina  that  produces  cotton  shirting 
and  prints.  The  shirting  is  woven  by  hand.  The  calicoes  (used  for 
prints)  are  imported  from  England  (the  duty  on  the  same  being  com- 
paratively light)  and  the  printing  is  done  at  a  very  handsome  profit. 
They  have  still  much  to  learn  in  this  art,  but  as  the  great  majority  of 
the  population  seeks  cheapness  rather  than  quality,  this  establishment 
finds  ready  sale  for  its  goods,  both  in  Sicily  and  on  the  continent. 

KINDS  IMPORTED. 

As  to  the  quantity  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  Messina  during 
the  year  1888,  the  figures  furnished  by  the  director  of  the  Messina  cus- 
tom-house are  as  below : 

Plain  woven  cotton  goods,  weighing,  per  100  square  meters : 

Kilograms. 

13  kilograms  and  upwards 96,796 

7to  13  kilograms ". 170,830 

Less  than  7  kilograms 1,656 

Cotton  goods  not  specified 20, 024 


WHENCE  IMPORTED. 

)  Kilograms. 

England 259,566 

Austria 3,691 

France 16,094 

Germany 3,149 

Switzerland 4,994 

Belgium 353 

United  States 1,459 


Total 289,306 

DUTIES. 

Total  duties  collected  on  above,  $60,418.  Goods  are  usually  bought 
at  thirty  days,  with  2  per  cent,  discount,  or  at  three  months  without 
discount. 

608A 14 


210  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Goods  from  all  countries  pay  the  same  duties,  except  those  coining 
from  France,  which  latter,  since  the  abrogation  of  the  treaty  of  com- 
merce between  France  and  Italy,  pay  a  duty  50  per  cent,  higher.  Goods 
entering  Italy  must  be  accompanied  by  a  certificate  showing  their  place 
of  manufacture,  otherwise  duties  are  exacted  as  though  the  merchandise 
were  of  French  origiu. 

A  schedule  of  import  duties  (per  100  kilograms)  on  cotton  textiles  is 
subjoined. 

Schedule  of  import  duties  on  cotton  textiles  per  100  kilograms. 
[1  kilogram  =  2.20  pounds;  1  meter=39.37  inches.] 

Cottons,  unbleached : 

Not  exceeding  27  threads  to  a  square  of  5  millimeters  counting  the  warp 
and  filling,  and  weighing  13  kilograms    or  upwards  the  100  square 

meters $12.00 

Exceeding  27  threads,  etc : 14.  00 

Not  exceeding  27  threads,  etc.,  weighing  7  kilograms  or  upwards,  but 

less  than  13  kilograms,  the  100  square  meters 16.  20 

Exceeding  27  threads,  etc 19. 30 

Weighing  less  than  7  kilograms : 

Not  exceeding  27  threads 21.23 

Exceeding  27  threads 25.00 

Bleached,  duty  as  on  unbleached  with  20  per  cent,  additional. 

Colored,  stained,  or  printed,  duty  as  on  unbleached  with  35  per  cent,  additional. 

Printed,  duty  as  on  unbleached  with  80  per  cent,  additional. 

Damasks,  duty  as  on  unbleached  with  20  per  cent,  added. 

Brocades,  $8  per  hundred  weight  and  the  duty  on  material  added. 

Embroideries,  $38. 60  per  hundred  weight  and  duty  on  material  added. 

Tulles: 

Unbleached .- $77.20 

Bleached  ....' 86.80 

Muslins,  unbleached,  $38.60 ;  bleached,  20  per  cent. ;  colored,  35  per  cent. ;  printed, 
80  per  cent,  j  embroidered,  $38.60  added  to  duty  on  unbleached. 

Oil-cloth $5.80 

Buttons 29.00 

Stockinet 29.00 

Trimmings 29,00 

Galloons  and  gimps 23.20 

Laces  and  lace-curtains,  per  kilogram. ^  1. 35 

Velveteens : 

Common,  per  hundred  weight 23.20 

Bleached 27.00 

Colored,  stained 31.90 

Printed 42.50 

Velvets : 

Common 27.00 

Bleached ...  32.90 

Colored,  stained 38.60 

Printed..  48.40 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.       211 

\ 

Textiles,  mixed:  With  loss  than  1'J  ]>er  cent,  silk,  duty  aeeordiiin  to  material,  with 
$7. 84  per  hundred  weight  added  ;  with  less  than  50  per  cent,  wool,  duty  as  above, 
with  ijvJ.'.Ki  per  hundred  weight  added  ;  with  metallic  threads,  98  cents  per  kilogram, 
with  duty  on  material  added. 

sh«.-ts,  table-cloths,  towels,  etc.,  duty  according  to  material,  with  10  per  cent, 
added. 

Collars,  c ufls,  and  men's  shirts,  double  the  duty  on  material. 

Wbenever  a  manufactured  article  can  not  be  classified  by  its  weight  and  measure 
and  the  number  of  threads  in  a  square  ot'5  millimeters,  the  highest  duty  of  the  class 
to  which  it  belongs  is  charged. 

WALLACE  S.  JONES, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Messina,  July  8,  1889. 


NAPLES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  CAMPHAVSEN. 
ITALIAN  VS.  FOREIGN  COTTONS. 

In  obedience  to  the  instructions  of  your  circular  of  May  27,  1889,  I 
have  the  honor  to  present  the  following  report  upon  the  cotton  textiles 
imported  into  this  consular  district : 

From  persons  for  many  years  engaged  in  manufacturing  and  import- 
ing this  article,  I  have  reliable  information,  that  twenty  years  ago 
nearly  all  cotton  textiles  used  in  Italy  were  imported,  but  the  high  duty 
on  imports,  which  has  steadily  increased  year  after  year,  has  given  im- 
petus to  Italian  industries,  and  to-day  75  percent,  of  all  articles  of  this 
description  are  produced  in  this  country. 

National  spinning  and  weaving  is  progressing  continually  and  rap- 
idly. 

The  present  almost  prohibitory  tariff  on  French  goods  gave  additional 
advantages  to  German  competitors,  who  inundate  the  markets  with 
dress  goods,  both  sightly  and  cheap,  gradually  cutting  out  English 
products.  Alsatian  prints  are  being  preferred  to  those  of  Manchester 
on  account  of  superior  finish  and  better  color,  notwithstanding  that 
great  progress  has  been  made  in  English  productions. 

Furniture  prints,  once  important  articles,  are  now  to  a  large  extent 
superseded  by  jute  fabrics,  which  are  cheap  and  more  durable,  and  are 
largely  manufactured  in  this  country.  Gray  madapollams  to  be  used 
for  linings  are  imported  from  Manchester,  England,  and  from  Switzer- 
land ;  bleached  shirtings  and  long-cloths  from  Manchester ;  piques  and 
white  fancy  cotton  materials  suitable  for  dress  and  other  purposes  mainly 
from  Manchester  and  to  some  extent  from  Switzerland  and  Austria; 


212       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

printed  cottons  for  furnishing  purposes,  curtains,  etc.,  from  Manches- 
ter, better  qualities  from  Miilhause,  in  Alsace;  also  small  quantities  of 
low  priced  goods  from  other  parts  of  Germany  ;  Turkey  red  twills  from 
Switzerland  and  England ;  Victoria  lawns  from  Manchester,  England. 

The  weight  of  madapollams  is  less  than  15  pounds  per  100  square 
yards.  Bleached  shirtings  and  long  cloths  from  15  to  27  pounds  per 
100  square  yards;  also  in  smaller  quantities  weighing  more  than  27 
pounds  per  100  square  yards. 

Furniture  cretonnes  more  than  27  pounds  per  100  square  yards, 
dress  prints  and  Turkey  red  twills  from  15  to  27  pounds  per  100  square 
yards,  and  Victoria  lawns  less  than  15  pounds  per  100  square  yards. 
These  goods  are  purchased  principally  through  agents  residing  in  Na- 
ples or  some  other  city  in  Italy,  and  who  travel  to  the  different  import- 
ant commercial  centers.  These  agents  represent  commission  houses 
and  manufacturers.  The  usual  terms  are  three  mouths  from  date  of 
invoice,  and  frequently  longer  time  is  given.  As  a  general  rule,  I  think 
Neapolitan  merchants  are  very  slow  payers,  and  usually  take  their  own 
time  to  pay  their  bills. 

The  statement  of  cotton  textiles  imported  at  Naples  during  the  year 
1888,  herewith  presented,  is  a  correct  copy  from  the  records  of  the  cus- 
tom-house here,  and  in  every  respect  authentic  and  reliable,  showing 
the  multiplicity  of  cotton  goods  imported  and  the  respective  duty  im- 
posed. From  the  recapitulation  it  appears  that  the  total  quantity  of 
cotton  textiles  imported  in  Italy  during  the  year  1888  is  2,917,514.845 
pounds  avoirdupois.  The  present  indications  are  that  the  importations 
this  year,  judging  from  those  of  the  first  six  months  of  1889  will  slightly 
exceed  those  of  1888.  Attached  to  the  statement  is  an  instrument  used 
to  ascertain  how  many  threads  are  contained  in  5  millimeters  square, 
counting  both  warp  and  weft. 

I  also  present  a  description  of  the  principal  imports  of  cotton  goods 
into  Naples,  with  the  duties  in  Italian  lire  per  kilogram,  or  2.20485 
pounds  avoirdupois. 

EDWARD  CAMPHAUSEN, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Naples,  August  5,  1889,  i 


COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
Cotton  textiles  imported  at  Naples,  Italy,  during  the  year  1888. 


213 


Description  and  whence  imported. 


Weight. 


Rate  of 

duty  per 

lOO'kilo- 

grams. 


UXBLEACHED  TEXTILES. 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more,  for  every  100  meters,  and  counting  in  5  milli- 
meters square  27  threads  or  less,  including  warp  and  welt  (used  for  bag- 
ging) :  Kilograms.  Lire. 

Germany 70 

GreatBritain 482 

Of  more  than  27  threads  (used  for  sheeting  and  shirting) : 

Austria 136 

France , 106 

Germany - 226 

Great  Britain 5,036 

United  States 63 

Smooth,  weight  7  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less  (used  for  sheeting  and 
shirting) : 

Austria 8,411 

France 6,  627 

Germany 11,786 

Great  Britain 16.139 

Switzerland 13,361 

West  Indies 7 

Of  more  than  27  threads  (used  for  same  purpose) : 

Austria 136    ) 

France 18    I 

Germany 1,809    ( 

GreatBritain « 1,573    ) 

Weighing  less  than  7  kilograms,  27  threads  or  less  (used  for  linings) : 

Austria 2,433 

France 1,459     | 

Germany 7,132    S 

GreatBritain 806 

Switzerland „  5,397 

BLEACHED  TEXTILES. 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less : 

Austria 1, 167 

France 1,109 

Germany 6,536 

Creat  Britain 202,485 

Switzerland 50     . 

United  States 12 

Holland 5    ! 

Malta...  .  41    J 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more  for  every  100  meters,  and  counting  in  5  milli- 
meters square  more  than  'J7  threads  (calicoes): 

Austria...' 4,262 

France 5,272 

Germany 7, 189 

GreatBritain 213,021 

Switzerland 305 

Belgium '251 

Holland 447 

United  States  18 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  etc.,  27  threads  or  less  (calicoes) : 

France 13 

Germany 208 

Great  Britain 57,515 

Turkey 5 

United  States 14 

Same,  more  than  27  threads  (calicoes) : 

Austria 1,137 

Franc*? 949 

Germany 8,942 

Gri>at  Britain  40,724 

Holland 39 

Tunis 59 

-.ma 172 

Sam.-,  less  than  27  threads  (calicoes): 

Austria 57     I 

France 36     I 

<r»-rmany    188     > 

Great  Britain 3,819 

Switzerland 155 

Weighing  less  than  7  kilograms,  more  than  27  threads  (colored  calicoes) : 

Austria • 1 

France 13 

Germany 263 

Great  Britain 5,036 


214  COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Cotton  textiles  imported  at  Naples,  Italy,  etc. — Continued. 


Description  and  whence  imported. 


Weight. 


BLEACHED  TEXTILES— Continued. 

Colored,  weighing  13  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less  (lawns) :  Kilograms. 

Austria 1,863 

Franco 2,317 

Germany / 2,684 

Great  Britain , 7,907 

Holland 2,473 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more  for  every  100  meters  and  counting  in  5  millime- 
ters square  more  than  27  threads  (calicoes  and  lawns) : 

Austria 2,071 

France 4,432 

Germany 10,343 

Great  Britain .• 107,814 

Switzerland : 847 

Holland 131 

Belgium 441 

Massana  39 

United  States 48 

7  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less  (calicoes) : 

Austria 1,338 

France 416 

Germany *. 6,036 

Great  Britain 48, 166 

Switzerland 4,630 

Belgium '. 1,026 

Holland 477 

Turkey '. 22 

United  States 571 

Same,  more  than  27  threads  (calicoes; . 

Austria 6,946 

France ! 7,699 

Germany 15,261 

Great  Britain 61,703 

Switzerland 7,044 

Holland 3,067 

Belgium 

TINTED  TEXTILES. 

Weighing  less  than  7  kilograms,  27  threads  or  less  (Turkey-red,  plain  prints, 
one  color) :       c 

France 634 

Germany 986 

Great  Britain 3,462 

Switzerland 52 

STAMPED  TEXTILES. 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less  (furniture  cretonnes) : 

Austria 759 

France 593 

Germany 2,156 

Great  Britain 9,036 

Switzerland 1,565 

Holland 947 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more  for  every  100  meters,  and  counting  in  5  milli- 
meters square  27  threads  or  less  (furniture  cretons) : 

Austria 17,688 

France 2,725 

Germany 12,932 

Great  Britain 71,284 

Switzerland 29,511 

Holland 1,540 

Belgium 2,829 

United  States 356 

Seven  kilograms  or  more,  more  than  27  threads  (dress  prints) : 

Austria 5,552 

France 16,865 

Germany 19,368 

Great  Britain 62,891 

Switzerland 2,201 

Belgium 427 

Holland , 338 

United  States 229 

Less  than  7  kilograms,  27  threads  or  less  (hatistes) : 

France 

Germany 62 

Great  Britain 1,957 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
Cotton  textiles  imported  at  Naples,  Italy,  etc. — Continued. 


215 


Description  and  whence  imported. 


Weight. 


Rate  of 
duty  per 
100'kilo- 
grams. 


COLOKKD  TEXTILES. 

Less  than  7  kilograms,  more  than  27  threads  (batistes) :  Kilograms.      Lire. 

Fi-am-6 925 

Germany 338 

GreatBritain 1,046    >     1G5.00 

Switzerland 313 

Massana 15    J 

STAMPED  TEXTILES. 

Thirteen  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less  (batistes) : 

Austria 12    1 

Franc.- 1,437 

Germany.... 626     j 

Gr.-at  Britain 18,851    J 

S;ime,  more  than  27  threads  (batistes) : 

Germany 31     ,     „„. 

G.eat  Britain 1,368    ' 

Same,  operati,  damasked,  13  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less  (batistes) : 

German  j' 443     ? 

GreatBritain 615    *      82-°° 

UNBLEACHED  TEXTILES. 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more  for  every  100  meters,  and  counting  in  5  milli- 
meters square  27  threads  or  less  : 

France 46 

German  v 749 

GreatBritain 6,720     J.      94.00 

Switzerland 487 

Belgium 651 

Seven  kilograms  or  more,  more  than  27  threads  (batistes) : 

Austria 145    ) 

Germany 1,206    >     120.00 

GreatBritain 582    > 

BLEACHED  TEXTILES. 

Thirteen  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less  (batistes) :  Germany 3           94. 40 

Same,  and  more  than  27  threads  (batistes) : 

Austria 380 

France    2 

Germany 83     >     108.80 

t  Britain 9,652 

Belgium 196 

Seven  kf ilojrrama  or  more,  27  threads  or  less  (batistes) :  Great  Britain 97          120.  80 

Same,  and  more  than  27  threads  (batistes) : 

France 9     r 

GreatBritain 317    J     140-°° 

Same,  and  27  threads  or  less  (batistes) :  Great  Britain 506          117. 00 

Tinted,  13  kilograms  or  more,  more  than  27  threads  (batistes) : 

Austria 1,272 

France 654 

Germany 902 

GreatBritain 1,913     >     129.00 

Turkey 11 

Belgium 95 

Holland 799    ) 

Same,  7  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less  (batistes) : 

Great  Britain 2,884     c     100  — 

Switzerland 44     * 

TINTED  TEXTILES. 

W.-i-hinir  7  kilosrams  or  more  for  every  100  meters,  and  counting  in  5  milli- 
meters square  _'7  threads  or  less,  including  warp  and  weft  (batistes)  :  Aus- 
tria and  Great  Britain 430  165.00 

Same,  more  than  27  threads  (batistes): 

Austria 151 

France 93 

Germany 765 

GreatBritaiu 3,470     j-     155.00 

Swit/erl.ind     166 

Holland 485 

Tunis 2    J 

Same. more  than  27  threads :  Switzerland 98          185.00 

Same,  stamped,  more  than  27  tlin-a.l*: 

Germany 215     ?      ,fi,  ^ 

Gr.at  Britain 622     i       '     _ 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  more  than.  27  threads  (batistes):  France 10 


21b*  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Cotton  textiles  imported  at  Naples,  Italy,  etc. — Continued. 


Description  and  whence  imported. 


Weight. 


BROCADED  TEXTILES. 

Unbleached,  weighing  less  than  7  kilograms,  27  threads  or;less :  Kilograms. 

Germany 158 

Switzerland 324 

Bleached,  weighing  13  kilograms  or  more,  more  than  27  threads:  France 

Same,  weighing  less  than  7  kilograms,  more  than  27  threads :  Germany 21 

Tinted,  weighing  13  kilograms  or  more,  more  than  27  threads : 

France 56 

Germany 71 

Great  Britain 219 

Greece 2 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more  for  every  100  meters  and  counting  in  5  milli- 
meters square  27  threads  or  more :  Great  Britain 

Stamped,  weighing  less  than  7  kilograms,  27  threads  or  Jess  :  West  Indies 5 

BROCADED  AND  FIGURED  OR  DAMASKED. 

Less  than  7  kilograms,  27  threads  or  less :  West  Indies 

Thirteen  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less :  Germany 

More  than  27  threads  :  France 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  more  than  27  threads  :  Germany 

Same,  stamped,  weighing  7 kilograms  or  more,  more  than  27  threads:  Austria. . 

EMBROIDERED  TEXTILES. 

Smooth  tinted,  weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  more  than  27  threads :  France  . .  66 

Thirteen  kilograms  or  more,  more  than  27  threads :  France 

Less  than  7  kilograms,  more  than  27  threads :  Switzerland 

Figured  and  damasked,  unbleached,  weighing  7  kilograms  or  more  for  every  100 

meters,  and  counting  in  5  millimeters  square  more  than  27  threads  :  France. .  38 

Tinted,  13  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less: 

Austria 4    1     317  00 

France 47  |  5 

Plain,  bleached,  7  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or  less :  Germany 38  j        400. 80 

Same,  more  than  27  threads : 

Germany 686    1 

Austria 93     ' 

France 229 

Great  Britain 48 

Switzerland , 1,123 

Less  than  7  kilograms,  more  than  27  threads : 

Austria 189 

France 5 

Tinted,  7  kilograms  or  more,  more  than 27  threads: 

Austria 

France , 261 

Germany 338 

Great  Britain 89 

Switzerland 97 

Massana , 17 

Figured  and  damasked  and  bleached,  7  kilogramsor  more,  more  than  27  threads: 

France 50 

Germany 6 

Switzerland 193 

Tinted,  same,  more  than  27  threads:  Switzerland 19 

Brocaded  and  bleached,  weighing?  kilograms  or  more  for  every  100  meters  and 
counting  in  5  millimeters  square  more  than  27  threads  :  France 

Veils,  bleached  and  colored: 

Austria .            103 

France 500 

Germany 331 

Great  Britain 987 

Switzerland 20 

Belgium 25 

Bleached  and  tinted  veils,  unembroidered: 

Austria 

France 135 

Germany 810 

Switzerland 5 

Muslins  and  thin  textiles,  bleached,  plain : 

Austria 3 

France "...'. 302 

Germany 38 

Great  Britain : .".."..." 181 

Massana , 1 

Same,  colored: 

France 392 

Great  Britain .".." 96 

Massana. . .  7 


COTTON   TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
Cotton  textiles  imported  at  Naples,  Italy,  etc. — Continued. 


217 


Description  and  whence  imported. 


Weight. 


Rate  of 

te£ 

grams. 


EMBROIDERED  TEXTILES — Continued. 

Same,  figured  and  bleached :  Kilograms.      Lire. 

Austria 4 

France 2    I 

GreatBritain 708     \ 

Switzerland 49 

Turkey.. 2    j 

Muslins  and  thin  textiles,  figured  in  tinted  colors: 

France 146 

Austria 15 

Germany 255    >     255.00 

Great  Britain 1,118 

Switzerland 89    J 

Same,   stamped:  Germany 19          340.00 

Same,  brocaded  and  bleached :  France 13          280.00 

Muslins  tinted  in  colors : 

France 7     ,     ™_  M 

GreatBritain 13    >     **^~ 

Samestamped:  France 7          360.00 

Muslins  and  thin  textiles,  figured  and  brocaded,  tinted  in  colors: 

France » 21     *     on_  „, 

GreatBritain 34    $     295-°° 

Same  plain,  bleached:.  Switzerland 137          440.00 

Same  figured,  tinted  in  colors :  France 4          455.00 

Same  embroidered,  plain  tinted  in  colors : 

France 4    \ 

Germany 40    >     535.00 

Massana 2    > 

Same  embroidered,  tinted: 

Austria - 14 

France 56    ,      ,,_  n, 

Germany 187    '     555' °° 

GreatBritain 19 

Gummed  and  oiled  textiles  and  others  of  the  same  kind  : 

Austria 6 

France 19 

Germany 20    ,       „_  _, 

GreatBritain 1,286    > 

Switzerland 17 

Belgium 9 

"WaxedtextQes: 

Austria 48 

France 162 

Germany 318 

GreatBritain 11,631     >      60.00 

•       Holland 14 

Massana 4 

United  States 186    J 

Emery  textiles  made  from  unbleached  textiles  weighing  13  kilograms  or  more 
tor  every  100  meters  and  counting  in  5  millimeters  square  more  than  27  threads : 

France 106 

Germany 83 

Same  made  from  bleached  textiles  weighing  13  kilograms  or  more,  27  threads  or 

less:  Germany 93            37.20 


RECAPITULATION. 


Kilograms. 

Austria 59,093 

Belgium 5,565 

France 68,842 

Germany 121,433 

Great,  Britain 986,462 

Holland 

Massana 

Switzerland 

Tunis... 


Turke 


11,413 
439 
68,377 
59 
40 


Turkey 40 

United  States 1,484 


West  Indies 


19 


Total ". 1,323,226 

Total  pounds 2,917,515 


218       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Weight  and  cost  of  the  principal  imports  of  cotton  goods  into  Naples,  Italy. 
[The  duties  are  quoted  per  kilogram,  or  2.205  pounds  avoirdupois.] 


Description. 

Weight:  13  kilograms 
or    more     per     100 
square  meters    and 
counting  in  5  milli- 
meters   square    in- 
cluding   warp    and 
weft: 

Weight:   7  kilograms 
or   more   but  less 
than    13    kilograms 
per  lOOsquare  meters 
and  haviug  in  5  mil- 
limeters square  in- 
cluding   warp    and 
weft: 

Weight:    less  than    7 
kilograms    j)er     100 
square  meters  having 
in  5    millimeters 
square     including 
warp  and  weft  : 

27  threads 
or  less. 

More  than 
27  threads. 

27  threads 
or  less. 

More  than 
27  threads. 

27  threads 
or  less. 

More  than 
27  threads. 

Lire. 
1.24 

1.48 

1.76 
1.59 
1.85 
2.188 

Gray  calicoes           .          

Lire. 
.62 

.744 

.944 
.97 
1.17 

1.444 
1.444 

Lire. 

.12 

.864 

1.088 
1.07 
1.29 
1.564 
1.564 

Lire. 

.75 

.90 

1.208 
1.10 
1.39 
1.60 

Lire. 
.86 

1.032 

1.40 
1.21 
1.55 
1.732 

Lire. 

l.'OO 

1.20 

1.52 
1.35 
1.65 
1.90 

Bleached  shirting  and  long 

Piqued  etc         

Dyed  cottons: 
Plain,  Turkey  twills  .... 

Printed  calicoes    

Furniture  cretonnes  
Victoria  lawns 

1.20 
1.52 

1.72 
1.92 

1.48 
1.76 

1.96 
2.16 

White  cotton  lace  damask  .  . 
Goods  for  dresses  : 
Brocade  .  .  

.944 

1.144 
1.344 

1.088 

1.288 
1,488 

1.208 

1.408 
1.608 

1.40 

1.60 
1.80 

Brocaded  damask  

PALERMO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  CARROLL. 

I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  circular  of  the  De- 
partment, dated  May  27  last,  and  to  inclose  herein,  in  accordance  there- 
with, a  statement  of  the  cotton  textiles  imported  into  or  entering  this 
port  during  the  year  ended  December  31,  1888. 

The  total  cotton  goods  imported  into  Palermo  during  the  period  re- 
ferred to  appears  from  the  statement  in  question  to  have  been  316,652 
kilograms.  Besides  this  quantity  2,068,807  kilograms  came  from 
Messina  and  various  places  in  continental  Italy,  viz :  Genoa,  Leghorn, 
and  Naples.  Purchases  of  cotton  textiles  are  made  with  the  under- 
standing that  payment  shall  be  made  in  thirty,  sixty,  or  ninety  days 
from  date  of  invoice,  with  the  exception  of  purchases  made  in  England, 
upon  which  5  per  centum  is  charged  from  date  of  sale  or  invoice  until 
paid. 

Importation  of  cotton  textiles,  etc.,  were  made  from  Austria,  England 
and  Germany  during  the  period  under  consideration. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  219 

Quantity,  etc.,  of  the  cotton  textiles  imported  into  Palermo  during  the  year  1888. 


Description. 

Quantity. 

Duty  per 
100 
kilograms. 

SMOOTH,  BLEACHED  COTTON  TISSUE. 

Weigh't,  13  kilograms  or  more  for  every  100  square  meters,  having  a  side  of 
fj  millimeters  containing  27  elementary  threads  or  less  

Kilograms. 
8  375 

$14.  88 

135  8^6 

17  28 

NVeijjliiujT?  kilograms  or  more,  but  less  than  13,  for  every  100  square  meters, 

4  605 

18  00 

Contaiuing'iiiore  than  27  threads            

8  294 

20  64 

Weighing  less  than  7  kilograms  for  every  100  square  meters,  containing  27 
elementary  threads  or  less      ..        ... 

89 

24  00 

640 

99  76 

COTTON,  DYED  TISSUE. 

Weighing  13  kilograms  or  more  for  every  100  square  meters,  having  a  side  of 
5  millimeters  and  containing  27  elementary  threads  or  less 

2  919 

19  40 

12  891 

21  40 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  bnt  less  than  13,  for  every  100  square  meters, 

6  881 

2°  00 

Containing  more  than  27  threads 

27  371 

24  20 

Weighing  less  than  7  kilograms  and  containing  27  elementary  threads  or  less.  . 
Containing  more  than  27  threads  . 

47 
1  318 

27.00 
31  80 

COTTON  FEINTED  TISSUE. 

Weighing  more  than  13  kilograms  for  every  100  square  meters,  having  a  side 
of  5  millimeters  and  containing  27  elementary  threads  or  less 

11  298 

28  88 

9  441 

31  28 

Weighing  7  kilograms  or  more,  hut  less  than  13,  for  every  100  square  meters, 
and  containing  27  elementary  threads  or  less    ........  ....  .... 

21,  741 

32  00 

Containing  more  than  27  threads 

63  979 

34  64 

Weighing  7  kilograms  for  every  100  square  meters  and  containing  27  elemen- 
tary threads  or  less 

365 

38  00 

Containing  more  than  27  threads.  ... 

572 

43  76 

Total  

316  652 

Besides  the  above,  which  was  imported  from  Austria,  England,  and 
Germany,  the  following  quantities  of  cotton  goods  of  Italian  manufact- 
ure entered  this  port  during  the  year  1888,  from — 

Kilograms. 

Genoa 1,312,370 

Leghorn 18t*,'<J05 

Messina 29,922 

Naples 538,310 


Total, 


UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Palermo,  July  24,  1889. 


2,068,807 

PHILIP  CARROLL, 

Consul. 


220 


COTTON    TEXTILES   IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


VENICE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JOHNSON. 

The  answers  to  the  questions  contained  in  the  circular  in  regard  to 
cotton  textiles  have  been  arranged  in  the  accompanying  tabulated  form, 
with  the  exception  of  that  part  of  question  No.  1  as  king  for  the  quantity 
imported  per  annum,  which  for  the  year  1887  was  1,409.57  tons  and  for 
the  year  1888  1,233.66  tons,  showing  a  diminution  of  175.91  tons. 

The  first  column  of  table  gives  the  various  kinds  of  textile  fabrics  of 
cotton  imported  into  this  district. 

Importation  of  cotton  textiles  into  Venice. 


Description. 

Place  of  manufacture 
and  whence  imported. 

Weight 
per  yard. 

Duty  per 
yard. 

Size  of  piece. 

White  cotton  cloth,  27.3  to  29.25) 
inches  wide   (purchased   by  the> 
meter,  yard,  or  piece).                   ) 

Cotton  stamped  in  colors,  26.52  to) 
28.08  inches  wide  (purchased  by> 
the  meter  or  yard).                        ) 
Colored  handke'rchiefs,  30  by  42  to) 
31  by  20  inches  (purchased  by> 
the  dozen).                                    ) 
Damask,  27.3  to  29.25  inches  wide 
(purchased     by     the     yard    or 
meter)  : 
White  

England 

Ounces. 
24 
27 
30 
35 
22 
24 
(            27 

*18 

*24 

22 
24 

(           24 

£ 

33 

27 
I           27 
(            30 

Cents. 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
2 
3 

*18 
*25 

•  2 
2 

2 
2 
2 

2 

38.5  to  39.6  yards. 
S30.8  to  33  yards. 

^26.4  to  33  yards. 

26.40  yards. 
33  yards. 
55  yards. 

19.8  yards. 
21  yards. 

England,  Prussia,  and 
Switzerland. 

do     

England  and  Switzer- 
land 

Tinted 

....do  . 

Plain  tinted  cotton  cloth,  23.35  to) 
31.20  inches  wide  (purchased  by> 
the  meter  or  yard).                         ) 

Velvet  tinted  damask,  18.72  to  19.5) 
inches  wide  (purchased  by  the> 
yard  or  meter).                               ) 

England 

do 

3.2 

4 

*  Per  dozen. 

The  duties  are  those  given  in  the  latest  tariff  revision,  that  of  April  15,  1889. 

Tulles,  muslins,  and  cotton  embroideries  are  imported  from  England  and  Switzerland,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  give  accurate  statistics  in  regard  to  those  articles,  their  values,  and  hence  the  duties  paid, 
beiug  so  variable. 

H.  ABERT  JOHNSON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Venice,  August  7,  1889.  i 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


221 


PORTUGAL. 
THE  AZORES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DABNET,  OF  FATAL. 

v  f 

In  answer  to  the  principal  points  contained  in  the  circular  of  the  27th 
of  May,  issued  by  the  Department  of  State,  I  subjoin  the  following  statis- 
tics of  the  importation  of  cotton  goods  at  this  place  for  the  fiscal  year 
ended  June  30, 1889: 


Kinds. 

Weight. 

Duty. 

From  Great  Britain  : 

Kilograms. 
3,967 

$551.  93 

Bleached                                              

9  586  4 

1,542  16 

Twilled                                 -  

440.8 

126.  49 

DyP(J                                                                                                                                        ••               •            •                      

3  489 

1  622.21 

Tulle                              

69 

70.90 

649 

50.79 

Flannfl                                      

21 

10  95 

250.8 

130.  5D 

Shawls                                                     -       .........         . 

559.6 

315.  82 

70.692 

46.72 

Total  -  

4,  468.  56 

From  the  United  States: 
Unbleached 

37  575 

$5  227  95 

1022 

164.41 

1174 

71.46 

Twilled 

316.3 

33.  37 

1868.6 

869.30 

13.8 

6  84 

Total           

$6,  373.  33 

From  Germany: 
Bleached                                                     -          "... 

12 

1.90 

Velvet                              -  -  

38 

19.83 

Shawls 

143 

8.07 

9.200 

8.68 

Total                                                                                  .-                           ...  . 

$38.48 

Weight  of  goods  per  yard. 


Width. 

Weight. 

English: 
Bleached  regress                              .  -  

Inches. 
27 

Pounds. 
.060 

Unbleached  £    •  

28 

.059 

27 

147 

American  : 

ecu               

36 

.148 

Wachusett  B 

30 

137 

.Androscoggin  L                                                                     .... 

36 

108 

Cabot  >.  

36 

.103 

Langdon  76 

36 

121 

A  comparison  of  these  importations  shows  that  nearly  all  the  un- 
bleached is  of  American  manufacture,  while  of  the  bleached  Great  Brit- 
ain furnishes  the  greater  part. 


222        COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

It  is  acknowledged  here  that  the  unbleached  American  cotton  is  su 
perior  to  the  English,  and  in  vain  have  the  shop-keepers  who  trade 
mostly  with  England  endeavored  to  have  the  American  successfully 
imitated. 

Per  contra,  the  English  bleached  cottons  are  more  in  favor,  which  I 
am  informed  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that  they  contain  more  sizing, 
deluding  the  buyers  into  the  belief  in  their  superiority. 

The  purchases  in  England  are  made  generally  through  agents,  but 
some  of  the  more  enterprising  shop-keepers  go  and  select  the  goods 
themselves. 

In  the  United  States  purchases  are  made  through  agents  residing 
there,  and  also  by  the  masters  of  the  sailing  packets,  who  take  many  or- 
ders, receiving  payment  after  delivery  of  the  merchandise. 

The  trade  between  the  Azores  and  the  United  States  is  limited,  of 
course,  owing  to  the  small  population  of  the  former,  but  it  is  carefully 
cultivated  by  those  engaged  in  it. 

Calicoes  that  formerly  were  almost  entirely  imported  from  England 
are  now  furnished  by  Portugal,  the  fabrics  being  taken  from  England 
principally  to  be  dyed  in  the  Portuguese  factories  that  are  protected  by 
high  duties. 

I  have  limited  this  report  to  the  island  of  Fayal,  for  it  is  difficult  to 
get  statistics  at  some  of  the  other  islands,  and  if  it  went  beyond  it 
should  properly  extend  over  the  consular  district  which  embraces  the 
nine  islands,  the  population  of  which  is  only  about  250,000. 

S.  W.  DABNEY, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Fayal  October  22,  1889 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


223 


LISBON. 

REPORT  BY  VIOE-CONSUL-QENERAL  WILBOR. 

I  have  to  report  that  no  custom-house  returns  of  cotton  textiles  im- 
ported into  this  Kingdom  are  procurable  of  a  later  date  than  1887. 
These  returns  give  no  details  of  length  or  weight  per  yard  nor  of  place 
ot  manufacture.  They  treat  only  of  weight,  gross  amount  of  duty  col- 
lected thereon,  and  country  from  whence  imported. 

IMPORTS. 

Declared  value  and  duty  collected  on  imports. 


Description. 

Value. 

Duty  col- 
lected. 

Millreig* 
39  484 

Millreis. 
17  174 

Unbleached  cotton  textures              

976  000 

422  867 

lilpached  cotton 

953  604 

320  465 

Cotton  dyfd    printed  or  stamped  twill        ,          -            ... 

410  358 

236  972 

Cotton  velvets  and  similar  textiles....  

73  363 

21  716 

22  804 

11  838 

Cotton  shawls  and  handkerchiefs  ...           ..     .........  .  . 

157*  383 

77  264 

78  457 

31  189 

Cotton  other  woven  ^oods  not  specified    ... 

gq  635 

20  749 

27*760 

14  000 

Cotton  heavy  coarse  textures 

19  500 

5  100 

Cotton  transparent  cambric  ........ 

48  400 

12  000 

10  5-)0 

1  364 

Cotton  loose  woven        ....        .        .. 

65  572 

28  581 

16  000 

4  634 

Cotton  Balloons 

22  047 

8  004 

25  520 

14  293 

*  Millreis,  equal  $1.08. 

Weight. — No  returns  per  yard  exist.    Gross  weight  only  given. 

How  purchased. — Mainly  on  orders  given  to  commercial  travelers ;  no 
goods  sent  on  consignment. 

Place  of  manufacture. — No  "  place  of  manufacture  "  given.  Countries 
from  which  the  largest  importation  is  made  are : 

Millreia. 

Great  Britain , .. 2,056,074 

Germany  279,050 

France 193,651 

Belgium 26,896 

United  States 49,582 

Duties  charged : 
Open  textures,  laces,  and  insertings,  duty  per  kilogram  in  United  States  money  f  1. 62 

Op«>n  textures,  barege,  duty  per  kilogram  in  United  States  money 64 

Open  textures,  tarlatan  webbing,  common  tulle,  crinoline,  and  similar  text- 
ures   16 

Fine  veiling,  bobinet,  tulle,  and  similar  goods 1. 18 

Open  textures  not  specified  plain 1. 18 

Open  textures  not  specified  worked 1. 62 

Transparent  textures,  muslins,  and  cambric,  unbleached 21 

Transparent  textures,  muslins,  and  cambric,  white 25£ 

Transparent  textures  not  specified T , , 75 


224       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Close  textures,  plain,  heavy  canvas,  not  proper  for  sails,  bleached  or  un- 
bleached   $Q.10i 

Rough  and  coarse,  unbleached  or  whitened 07£ 

Glazed,  brown,  or  whitened 16 

Cambric,  muslin,  white 29 

Textures  not  specified,  unbleached 13£ 

Textures  not  specified,  white 16 

Textures  napped  in  one  color .  59£ 

Textures  napped  in  more  than  one  color 81 

Counterpanes  and  blankets 59£ 

Mole  skins,  dyed 24 

Mole  skins,  white  or  stamped 45 

Close  textures 59| 

Close  textures,  velveteens 24 

Close  textures,  imitation  velvets 48 

Braids,  twills,  damasked  or  dazed,  transparent  or  close,  brown  or  white 32 

Textures,  twilled,  dyed,  or  stamped - 54 

Twills  for  stamping 21 

Counterpanes •.       .59$ 

Tape 48 

Handkerchiefs  and  shawls  of  whatever  description 64 

Carpets 21 

Wicks 54 

Cravats  and  neckties  in  any  shape,  finished  or  not,  10  per  cent,  to  be  added  to  re- 
spective diities. 

Ribbed  textures - 1.  08 

Binding,  bobbin-work,  and  galloon,  including  tares,  excepting  cartons,  paper, 
or  wood w 75 

The  total  declared  value  of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  Portugal 
during  1887   amounted  to  33335,590  millreis,  upon  which  a  duty  of 

1,362,644  millreis  was  collected. 

J.  B.  WILBOR, 

Vice  and  Deputy  Consul-  General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

,  July  28,  1889. 


SPAIN. 
BARCELONA.  I 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SOHEVOH. 

1  have  the  honor  to  forward  a  detailed  list  of  the  importations  of 
cotton  tissues  received  into  this  port  during  the  year  1888,  as  follows : 

The  class  and  lot  corresponding  to  the  present  tariff. 

The  amount,  in  pesetas,  of  the  duties  imposed  on  each  kilogram  net 
proceeding  from  favored  and  unfavored  nations. 

The  most  current  goods  of  importation. 

Their  origin  and  manufacture. 

The  total  amount  received  from  each  nation  during  the  year  1888, 
according  to  the  official  report  of  this  custom-house. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        225 

v  The  total  amount  for  1888  by  lots  or  class  of  goods  according  to  the 
general  tariff. 

The  comparative  total  of  1887, 1886,  and  of  1889  up  to  September  30 
ultimo. 

The  length  and  width  of  the  pieces  of  goods  which  we  took  as  samples 
(in  meters  and  yards). 

The  weight,  per  meter  or  yard,  of  the  same. 

The  corresponding  price  per  yard  or  meter. 

These  last  notes  I  extracted  from  the  original  invoices  allowed  me  by 
the  merchants,  besides  weighing  and  measuring  the  pieces  with  the 
greatest  exactness. 

Fixing  our  attention  somewhat  to  the  details  of  the  annexed  list  we 
observe : 

(1)  That  the  importation  of  1888  exceeded  that  of  1887  by  34  per 
cent.,  due,  without  doubt,  to  the  greater  consumption  caused  by  the  trav- 
elers attracted  to  the  late  Universal  Exposition  of  Barcelona. 

(2)  That  England  alone  contributed  about  70  per  cent,  of  the  supply 
of  cotton  goods  in  this  capital,  France  about  20  per  cent.,  Germany 
about  6  per  cent.,  and  Switzerland  3  per  cent. 

Here  it  will  be  proper  to  observe  that  this  subdivision,  as  regards 
France,  Germany,  and  Switzerland,  requires  more  exactness  because  the 
goods  from  these  three  countries,  which  are  embarked  at  the  French 
ports  of  Cette  and  Marseilles,  are  very  often  noted  down  at  this  custom- 
house as  of  French  origin,  though  not  being  in  reality,  and  thus  consti- 
tuting by  these  declarations  an  erroneous  base  for  the  official  report. 

(3)  That  the  stamped,  checkered,  and  ornamented  goods  proceed  pref- 
erably from  England,  the  novelties  from  France  and  Switzerland,  and 
knit- work  and  lace  from  Germany. 

(4)  As  to  prices,  taking  a  certain  kind  of  goods  which  comes  from  dif- 
ferent countries,  the  German  goods  turn  out  the  cheapest  and  most  in- 
ferior. 

Eespecting  considerations  of  sale  and  delivery,  I  observe  that  the  Eng- 
lish sell  free  on  board  at  the  port  of  embarking,  taking  upon  themselves 
the  packing,  transport,  embarking,  and  insurance,  the  freight  remain- 
ing on  account  and  risk  of  the  owner,  paid  at  thirty,  sixty,  and  ninety 
days  in  pounds  sterling  at  the  exchange  of  that  date. 

That  the  French  and  Swiss  sometimes  impose  the  same  conditions, 
and  others  deliver  the  merchandise  free  on  board  at  Marseilles  or  Cette, 
giving  the  franc  for  a  peseta,  that  is  to  say,  without  difference  for  ex- 
change. 

That  the  Germans  now  almost  always  make  it  a  rule  to  deliver  free 
on  board  at  Barcelona  without  difference  of  exchange,  this  custom  of 
theirs  being  one  of  the  reasons  which  explain  the  marked  preference 
towards  the  business  with  German  houses,  whenever  it  is  a  question  of 
articles  of  the  same  quality  as  those  of  any  other  origin.  In  fact  to 
give  the  most  approximate  appreciation  possible  of  the  importation  of 
608A 15 


226  COTTON    TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

cotton  goods  in  this  capital,  I  would  state  that  during  the  year  1888 
there  passed  from  France  to  Spain  by  the  land  route  of  Cerbere — Port 
Bon— the  amount  of  1,110,434  kilograms  of  goods  of  all  classes,  that  is 
to  say  of  silk,  cotton,  wool,  linen,  and  other  fabrics  the  relative  propor- 
tion of  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  determine,  because  the  railroad 
statistics  do  not  classify  them,  mentioning  only  in  a  nominal  way  some 
62,000  kilograms  of  cottonades,  which  remain  included  in  the  above 
specified  quantity.  Moreover  all  these  goods  do  not  come  to  Barcelona, 
because  they  are  divided  amongst  the  different  towns  on  the  road  from 
the  frontier  to  Barcelona  and  still  beyond. 

Notwithstanding,  it  must  be  admitted  that  cotton  goods  are  those 
that  are  introduced  in  much  less  quantity,  when  it  is  considered  that  the 
region  of  Catalonia  is  a  cotton  manufacturing  region,  as  it  works  up 
annually  from  35,000,000  to  40,000,000  kilograms  of  raw  cotton. 

Barcelona  exports  annually  to  Cuba,  Manila,  Porto  Rico,  Guada- 
loupe,  Trinidad,  and  the  South  American  republics,  about  1,300,000 
to  1,500,000  kilograms  of  cotton  goods,  and  supplies  all  the  principal 
central  deposits  throughout  Spain,  where  there  are  numerous  ware- 
houses and  deposits.  What  with  thread,  cotton  twist,  and  cotton  goods 
of  all  kinds,  there  are  in  all  the  manufacturing  region  about  400  factories, 
amongst  which  there  are  about  70  of  the  finest  that  employ  from  200  to 
800  men  each,  and  a  few  from  1,000  to  2,000  men  each.  Including  the 
auxiliary  branches,  that  is,  bleaching,  dyeing,  printing,  and  the  minor 
industries,  such  as  stockings,  galloons,  fringes,  bands,  ribbons,  cords, 
and  many  other  articles  in  the  manufacture  of  which  cotton  is  em- 
ployed, there  existed  in  1885  about  3,000  establishments  with  about 
160,000  workmen  (men,  women,  and  children),  who  all  lived  by  this  in- 
dustry. 

FREDERICK  H.  SCHEUCH, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Barcelona,  November  1, 1889. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


227 


Importations  of  cotton  textiles  at  Barcelona  during  the  years  1886, 1887, 18<S8,  and  the  firtt 
nine  months  of  1889,  their  weight  per  yardj  $c. 


Para- 

oT& 

iff. 

Duties  paid  by 
nations. 

Class  of  goods. 

Principal  manufacturers  and  origin. 

With- 
out 
treaty. 

"With 
treaty. 

104. 

105. 
106. 

107. 
108. 

109. 

Peseta* 
3.00 

2.70 
4.00 

3.70 
3.00 

4.60 

Peseta* 
1.54 

1.74 
2.40 

2.49 
2.24 

2.10 

Cotton  flannels,  white  or  col- 
ored, up  to  25  threads: 
White  

Emile  Colnmbier,  St.  Quentin,  France. 
Kronig  &  Ziegler,  Manchester,  England. 
Do. 
Do. 
McCall  &  Co.,  Belfast,  England. 
G.  Hoffman,  TJznach,  Switzerland. 
Scheurer  <fe  Rott,  Thann,  Alsatia. 
T.  M.  Veil  &  Co.,  St.  Galle,  Switzerland. 
Kronig  &  Ziegler,  Manchester,  England. 
Flersheim  &  Co.,  Nottingham,  England. 

Roame  («fe  Hance),  Agiro. 
Simon  May  <fe  Co.,  Nottingham,  England. 
T.  M.  Veil  <fe  Co.,  St.  Galle,  Switzerland. 
Taffe  Bros.,  Belfast,  England. 
Kronig  &  Ziegler,  Manchester,  England. 

Koechlin,  B.  &  Co.,  Loerrach,  Alemania. 
Kronig  &  Ziegler,  Manchester,  England. 

Do'. 
Moore  Winberg,  Belfast,  England. 
Scheurer  <fe  Rott,  Thann,  Alsace. 
Koechlin  Fr6res,  Miilhouse,  Alsace. 
Koechlin  Fr6res,  Miilhouse  and  Thann,  Al- 
sace. 
Do. 
Weiss  Fr6res,  Kingersheim,  Germany. 
Ed.  Vaucher  &  Co.,  Miilhouse,  Alsace. 
Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
T.  Anhart  Solivo,  Dietikon,  Switzerland. 
Kronig  &  Ziegler,  Manchester,  England. 

Do!' 
Do. 

Do. 
Do. 
Do. 
Henri  Fiery,  Mulhouse,  Alsace. 
Alf.  Meyer  &  Co.,  Paris,  France. 
Do. 

Wilh.  Braddenghouse,  Elberfeld,  Germany. 
Singapoore  &  Co.,  China. 

Kronig  &  Ziegler.  Manchester,  England. 

Cbatelard  Pere  &  Fils,  Tarare,  France. 
Do. 
Stegelin  Bros.,  St.  Galle,  Switzerland. 
Do. 
Chatelard  P6re  &  Fils,  Tarrare,  France. 
Do. 
Beddin  &  Gode,  Tarrare,  France. 

Truffaud  &  Co..  Roubaix,  France. 
Weiss  Freres,  Kingersheim,  Germany. 
Kell  &  Co.,  Bradford. 
Aug.  de  Taeger,  Courtrai,  Belgium. 
Ed.  Vaucher  &  Co.,  Miilhonae,  Germany. 
Em.  Colombier.  St  Quentin.  France. 

White  percalin         .... 

Blue  and  yellow  

Rose  green  red 

Spotted    

For  book-  binding        . 

White     

Colored  handkerchiefs.  ..j 

Cotton  flannel,  26  threads  and 
above  : 
Calico                 ... 

Cretonne  

Madapollams 

White,    for     ladies     and 
children. 
Printed  textiles,  striped  and 
figured,  up  to  25  threads  : 
Percale 

VThite  damask 

Fancy  damask 

do  

White,  worked  both  sides. 
Satin     

do 

Satin  colored  

Novelties  ... 

Brilliants            ... 

Satin 

Cr6pe  

Lefir 

Satin  white  brocade 

Brilliants,  white  

Brilliants  creme 

Fancy  white  .......... 

Fancy  creme 

Colored  brilliants 

Percale,  for  shirts  

Black  damask  satin 

Goods  for  trunk  linings.  .  . 
Goods  for   trunk  lining, 
colored. 
Printed  textiles,  striped  and 
figured,  from  26  threads  and 
upwards: 
Worked  brilliants  

Diaphanous  textiles: 
Batistes,  diaphanous  
Victorias     

Linons      .............. 

Batiatea 

Nainsooks   .  .  . 

White  tarlatanes  

Colored  tarlatans 

Muslins  

Ticka,  piques,  and  the  like  : 
Tick,  muleton  •.  

.  .  .do 

Piqu6 

Tick  piqu6 

Plush   piqu6 

228  COTTON    TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Importations  of  cotton  textiles  at  Barcelona  during  the  years  1886, 1887, 1888,  etc. — Cont'd. 


Par* 

Duties 
nati 

paid  by 
ons. 

graph 
of  tar- 
iff. 

With- 
out 
treaty. 

With 
treaty. 

Class  of  goods. 

Principal  manufacturers  and  origin. 

110 

Pesetas. 
3.50 

Pesetas. 
2.49 

Manchester  and  finer  velvets  : 
Cotton  velvets,  colored  
do  

Stiebel  Kaufman  &  Co.,  Manchester. 
Kolp  &  Lehmann,  Lyon. 

do 

Mech  Weberei  Linden  Hanover 

111 

5.00 

4.18 

Tulles  : 
Ordinarv 

T  C  Van  Ackere  Courtrai 

Brown  cotton  net  .......... 

Simon  May  &  Co.  Nottingham. 

Fine 

Wllh  Benger  Soehne  Stuttgart. 

do 

Simon  May  &  Co.,  Nottingham. 

do 

T  C  Van  Ack6re  Courtrai 

do           

Lille 

Jacobi  &  Co  Nottingham 

do 

Stiebel  Kaufmann  &  Co.  Nottingham. 

112 

6.25 

5.40 

Curtains,     pair,   2J   to  3£ 
yards. 
Laces  : 
Colored  laces 

Do. 

Thomas  Adams  &  Co    Nottingham. 

do   

Jacobi  &  Co.,  Nottingham. 

do 

Stiebel  Kaufman  Nottingham. 

113 
114 

3.00 
2.62 

2.35 
LOT 

Lace  curtains  : 
Curtains,  machine  crochet  . 
Curtains,  festooned  crochet 
Underwear  : 
Drawers,  English,  fancy  .  .  . 
Undershirts,  English,  fancy 
Undershirts  plain 

Thomas  Adams  &  Co.,  Nottingham. 
Vizille,  France. 

Manchester. 
Do. 
Josef  Marx  Chemnitz. 

Desgrez  <fc  Knotte,  Troyes. 

115 

5.25 

2.54 

Gloves  and  hosiery  : 
Socks,  of  Ternsel  cotton... 
Socks,  of  Persian  thread... 
Socks  plain  white  

Joseph  Marx,  Chemnitz. 
William  Benger  Soehne,  Stnttgard, 
De8°Tez  &  Knotte,  Troves,  Franco. 

do 

Joseph  Marx  Chemnitz 

Hose  colored  cotton  .  ..... 

Do. 

do 

Hirsh  Reyley  &•  Co   Paris 

Hose  Scotch  (lisle) 

Manchester. 

do    

Do. 

Gloves 

Dounez  &  Lamotte,  Troyes. 

Mittens  

Do. 

Handkerchiefs 

Hans  &  Ulrich  Chemnitz. 

do  . 

Bazin  &  Co.,  Troyes. 

do  

Josef  Marx,  Chemnitz. 

Hose,  colored 

Hans  &  Ulrich,  Chemnitz. 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES, 
Imports  of  cotton  textiles  at  Barcelona — Continued. 


229 


Description  of  goods. 

Length 
of  piece, 
meter  or 
yard. 

Width.. 

Weight 
of,  meter 
or  yard. 

Price  in 
factory. 

Cotton  flannels,  white  and  colored  np  to  25  threads: 
White                                                                                     

Meters. 
40 

Meters. 
80 

Kilo*. 
J0.085> 

Francs. 
0  625 

W^hite  percales                                .        ............. 

58 

80 

JO.  135? 
070 

25 

58 

.80 

056 

285 

Rose  green  and  red 

58 

80 

064 

315 

55 

.80 

060 

26 

30 

80 

166 

86 

White                 

5° 

.80 

077 

62 

fj 

M 

101 

38 

Inches. 
14  by  14 

80 

167 

*'>  06 

Cotton  flannels,  25  threads  and  upwards  : 
Calico          

Meters. 
40 

80 

090 

1  40 

40 

8n 

100 

90 

Madapollams                                 .  .                                   . 

40 

M 

100 

1  00 

White  for  ladies  and  children 

Yards. 

20 

Inches. 
3°  33 

118 

33 

Printed  textiles,  striped  and  figured,  up  to  25  threads: 
Percales  

Meters. 
60 

Meters. 
80 

0803 

75 

White  damask 

56 

80 

092 

40 

39 

80 

115 

60 

"Do 

39 

80 

064 

40 

CO 

80 

1°9 

505 

Satins 

40 

80 

081 

85 

Do     ....           .                    .  .             ... 

42 

80 

090 

90 

Satins,  colored  

40 

80 

081 

85 

Novelties       .... 

25 

80 

1°6 

1  40 

Satin  chine  

43 

80 

093 

1  40 

Brilliants 

40 

80 

125 

1  44 

Percales  .......   ..       

46 

80 

097 

65 

Satines 

50 

80 

080 

1  05 

Crepe  ........ 

90 

80 

200 

1 

Zephyr 

64 

80 

093 

4° 

Yards. 
21 

Inches. 
27-8 

083 

d. 
0} 

Brilliants  white  

25 

26-7 

070 

2^1 

Brilliants  creme 

26 

26-7 

068 

3A 

Fancy  white             .  .. 

21 

26 

815 

4? 

Fancy  creme  

26 

26-7 

059 

all 

Colored  handkerchiefs 

20 

27 

080 

30 

31  2 

095 

4i 

Black  damask  satins  ...........  ...........  ... 

Meters. 
25 

Meters. 
80 

096 

Francs, 
95 

Trunk-linings  

40 

80 

281 

1  20 

Trunk-linings,  colored 

40 

80 

481 

1.75 

Printed  textiles,  25  threads  and  upwards: 
Worked  brilliants 

38 

145 

70 

33 

237 

1  15 

Diaphanous  textiles: 
Batistes  

11 

064 

4° 

Victorias  

H 

065 

36 

Organdies  ... 

27 

041 

34 

Lumns  .... 

26 

038 

58 

Batistes  

26 

.044 

.80 

White  tarlatans  

26 
15 

.058 
090 

.80 
29 

020 

185 

Muslins  

26 

040 

1  10 

Ticks,  piques,  etc.  : 
Tick  muleton  .  . 

20 

80 

950 

1  53 

Do  

30 

.80 

240 

1  05 

Pique  

30 

80 

150 

1  40 

Plush  pique.  

21 

SO 

060 

60 

Tick  pique  

24 

80 

035 

1  30 

Colored  reps  

21 

80 

1°2 

80 

Manchester  and  fancy  velvets  : 
Cotton  velvets,  colored  .  .  . 

32-35 

.50 

095 

77 

Do... 

25 

50 

100 

i   IR 

Do  

25 

.50 

.094 

o  an 

'Dozen. 


230  COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Imports  of  cotton  textiles  at  Barcelona — Continued. 


Description  of  goods. 

Length 
of  piece, 
meter  or 
yard. 

Width. 

Weight 
of  meter 
or  yard. 

Price  in 
factory. 

Tulles: 
Ordinary  tulles                    ..     ..      ...     .  ...~..  .......  

Meters. 
25 

Meters. 
.50 

Kilos. 
.070 

Francs. 
1.60 

24 

60 

083 

1  05 

Pine                                                             .    -  

25 

.50 

.018 

0.50 

Do  

25 

.50 

.017 

0.90 

Do                               ,                                          

25 

.50 

.040 

1.50 

Do        .  .                  

25 

.50 

.055 

2.50 

Curtains  in  pieces        ..               ...       ..       ............. 

Yards. 
50 

Inches. 
38 

Yards. 
.080 

d. 

4. 

Do                                .                    

Meters. 
25 

20-26 

.050 

Francs. 
0.39 

Do                                   .—  

Yards. 
65 

51 

.112 

d. 
0.5i 

Curtains  2J  to  3J  yards                                      .  .......... 

6J 

.600 

s.d. 
2  6 

Laces  : 

Meters. 
11 

.009 

1.15 

Do 

11 

.011 

4  65 

Do                                                  

11 

.008 

.58 

Do 

30 

.010 

20 

Do                                                         

30 

.007 

.09 

Do        

30 

.015 

.35 

Lace  curtains  : 

Pair. 
6.40 

1.482 

12  48 

Do                               .                                       

6.40 

1.200 

10.88 

Do 

6  40 

0.868 

5  12 

6.40 

0.892 

7.04 

Machine  croched  ..........................  ............. 

6.40 

1.020 

9.60 

Meters. 
30 

.140 

0.44 

Underwear: 
Drawers  fancy                      -                 ••    -•        ........ 

1 

.300 

4.50 

Undershirts  fancy  ....     

1 

.300 

4.25 

Undershirts  plain 

1 

.430 

3.00 

Do      

1 

.280 

2.50 

Gloves  and  hosiery  : 
Socks 

Pair. 
12 

.400 

9  50 

Socks  Persian  thread 

12 

.350 

16.  00 

12 

1.000 

8  00 

'DO 

12 

.600 

11.50 

Hose  colored  ............ 

12 

.600 

12.00 

Do 

12 

.500 

8.50 

Hose,  Scotch  (lisle)  

12 

.800 

1P°00 

Do 

12 

.700 

14  50 

Gloves  

12 

.150 

6.00 

12 

.150 

6  00 

Handerchiefs        .           ..    ...      ... 

Dozen. 

1.200 

12.00 

Do 

1.600 

13  50 

Do 

Dozen. 

2.200 

15.50 

Dozen 

.807 

7  45 

Do 

.500 

5.85 

Do  

.410 

7.55 

Do  .     .                                            

.160 

7.55 

|. 

COTTON   TEXTILES   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
Imports  of  cotton  textiles  at  Barcelona. 


231 


.     Classification,  etc. 

Quantity  imported  in  1888. 

England. 

France. 

Helvetia. 

Ger- 
many. 

Bel- 

giuui- 

Italy. 

Various. 

Cotton  flannels,  white  and  colored, 
up  to  25  threads  

Kvlot. 
88,245 
350 
157,  687 

Kiloi. 
51,056 
231 
11,993 

Kilo*. 
10,154 
96 
3,316 

Kilos. 
4,900 

Kilos. 
488 

KUot. 
522 

KUoi. 
47 

Cotton  flannels   26  threads  and  up- 
wards                 

Prints,  striped  and  figured,  up  to  25 
threads                

5,028 
25 
396 
987 
658 
12 
3 
306 
441 
7  917 

34 

447 

132 
9 

Prints  26  threads  and  upwards 

Diaphanous  textiles    ..     

2,296 
1,138 
2,913 
360 
367 
14,018 
1,685 
191 

2,891 
1,695 

*-•& 

1 

434 
1,359 

628 

1,048 

Ticks  piques  etc 

202 

Manchester  and  finer  velvets  .   .. 

1 

Tulles 

28 

Laces  .                

Lace  curtains 

Underwear      .....  ... 

4 

Total  . 

269,  150 

71,462 

'     14,642 

20,  673 

728 

970 

188 

Classification,  etc. 

Total 

Jan.  1  to 
Sept  30, 
1889. 

1888. 

1887. 

1886. 

Cotton  flannels,  white  and  colored,  up 
Cotton  flannels,  26  threads  and  upwan 
Prints,  striped  and  figured,  up  to  25  t! 
Prints  ^6  threads  and  upwards 

to  25  threj 
Is 

ids  

Kilos. 
155,  412 
677 
178,  537 
34 
6,631 
4,022 
4,660 
486 
371 
14,758 
3,489 
8,736 

Kilos. 
185,310 
709 
32,  583 
60 
6,897 
5,173 
7,183 
1,111 
1,244 
21,  472 
2,658 
2,826 

Kilos. 
179,  731 
3,033 
24,254 
2,  164 
9,897 
5,140 
8,602 
629 
848 
16,  350 
2,575 
815 

Kilos. 
1G7,  132 
821 
51,060 
25 
8,908 
3,036 
4,468 
2,580 
781 
7,595 
3,845 
12,  314 

i  reads  ................ 

Diaphanous  textiles  .. 

Ticks  piques  etc 

Manchester  and  finer  velvets  

Tulles         ..     . 

Laces  .  ... 

Lace  curtains 

Underwear  ..  . 

Gloves  and  hosiery 

Total  

377,  813 

267,226 

253,  998 

362,565 

232 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


SWITZERLAND. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  WASHBURN,  OF  BERNE. 

Cotton  and  cotton  goods  thereof  imported  into  Switzerland  during  the  calendar  year  1888. 
[Duty  and  value  per  quintal  of  220  pounds.] 


Whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Cotton,  raw  (average  value,  145  franca  ; 
duty,  general  tariff,  .30  francs)  : 

Quintals. 

8  068 

Yarn,  single,  bleached  (average  value, 
315   francs;    duty,   general    tariff,  8 
francs)  • 

3,627 

Germany  ......            ... 

81 

6  164 

I 

Italy                               ....      ...  . 

1,323 

Italy         ..        .  . 

4 

3,067 

"Rftlgiuin  ......................    . 

5 

Holland                                           . 

1,842 

England.      ..          . 

12 

England 

4,110 

Total  1888 

103 

200 

Total  1887  

235 

Egypt 

86  024 

British  Indian                    .     ........ 

11,154 

East  Asia 

110 

Yarn,  twisted,  gauzed  or   not,  raw, 

United  States                            .     . 

99,  028 

bleached  (average  value,  400  francs; 

Central  America  

98 

duty,  general  tariff,  8  francs)  : 

466 

Total,  1888  

224,  817 

Austria  

15 
5 

Total,  1887  

276,  420 

Italy  

15 
507 

Cotton  waste  (average  value,  90  francs  ; 

Holland  

231 

duty  .30  francs,  general  tariff): 
Germany  

10,  595 

England  

TTnTtftrl  m-nt«a 

6,317 

Austria  
France  
Italy            

816 
1,593 
69 

Total  1888  

7,586 

Belgium  
England         ..      

434 
4,208 

7,418 

Total  1888              

17,  715 

315.  16  francs  ;  d'uty,  general  tariff  11 

Total  1887 

18  141 

francs)  • 

2  725 

France 

19 

Italy  

3 

77 

England 

19 

62 

Italy                         . 

7 

Total  1888  

2,766 

England  

2 

Total  1867  

3,404 

Totall888   

148 

Total  1887 

122 

Yarn,  single,  dyed  (average  value,  335 

francs  ;  duty,  general  tariff,  11  francs): 
Germany  .  .  . 

419 

Cotton  yarn,  single,  raw,  until  "No.  40 

1 

English  (average   value,  180  francs  ; 

France......     ....  .  ...      ..  ...... 

20 

duty,  general  tariff,  6  francs): 

58 

Italy  
Belgium  

2 
5 

Italy  

1 
2 

344 

Total  1888  .,.  

17 
464 

25 

Totall887  

392 

Total  1888 

431 

Yarn,  on  spools,  balls,  skeins,  for  retail 

Totall887  

768 

(average  value,  760  francs;  duty,  gen- 

eral tariff  35  francs)  • 

Gemany            .          ............ 

973 

1 

tariff  6  francs)  • 

France     ........................... 

85 

Germany  ....... 

29 

65 

France  

2 

62 

'RftlcrinTn 

45 

Holland 

74 

England 

140 

England  .................. 

1,386 

Total  1888 

216 

Total  1888       

2,646 

Total  1887  

363 

Total  1887  

2,520 

COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES.  233 

Cotton  and  cotton  goods  thereof  imported  into  Switzerland,  etc.— Continued. 


"Whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Tissues,  plain,  twilled,  ecru  ;  plain  tulle 
(average  value,  1,000  francs;   duty, 
general  tariff,  4  francs)  : 

Quintals. 
11 
3 
1 

1 
4 
1,186 

Tissues,  plain,  twilled,  dyed  (average 
value,  6tfb  francs  ;  duty,  general  tariff, 
35  francs)  : 
Germanv  ...... 

Quintals. 
2>2S 

OO 

1,248 
277 
115 
11 
1,231 

5,227 
5,762 

2,256 
9 
656 
45 
98 
6 
944 

Austria                   

Austria"' 

France  

Belgium                         ...           .  .. 

Italy 

Holland 

Belgium 

England 

Holland 

Total  1888 

1,206 
1,538 

Total,  1888 

Total,  1887  

Tissues  of  38  threads  or  less  to  5  milli- 
meters square,  except  tissues  of  yarn, 
averaging   No.  70   English  or    finer 
number  (average  A  alue,  335  francs  ; 
duty,  general  tariff,  8  francs)  : 

Total  1887 

436 
| 

191 
9 
547 
101 
5,993 

Tissues,  plain,  twilled,  printed  (average 
value,  740  francs;  duty,  general  tariff, 
35  francs)  : 
Germany          .                    . 

Austria  

Italy  

Italy 

Holland  

Belgium 

England  

Holland 

Total,  1888  

England 

4,014 
4,068 

223 
5 
118 
2 
13 
695 
1 

967 
1,096 

613 
5 

120 

112 

1 
488 

1,346 
1,231 

160 
3 
80 

Total,  1888    

Total  1887 

7,280 
9,897 

128 
16 
40 
3 
12,  015 

12,  202 
11,  187 

1,  811 
13 
308 
69 
63 

338 
1 

Cotton    velvet    (average   value,  1,600 
francs;  duty,  general  tariff,  50  francs): 
Germany  

Total,  1887  

Tissues  of  over  38  threads  to  5  millime- 
ters square,  and  tissues  of  38  threads 
and  less,  from  yarn  averaging  No.  70 
English  or  liner  (average  value,  625 
francs;      duty,     general     tariff,     14 
francs)  : 
Germany  
France     

Austria  

France  

Italy 

Belgium  

England 

TJnited  States    

Total,  1888  

Belgium  
Holland  

Total,  1887  -  

Tissues,  figured,   piqu6,  dimity,  dam- 
ask (average  value,  700  francs;  duty, 
general  tariff,  16  francs): 
Germany  

England 

Total,  1888  

TotAl  1K87 

Tissues,  plain,  twilled,  bleached  (aver- 
age value,  630  francs;  duty,  general 
tariff,  35  francs)  : 
Germany 

Austria  

Italy 

Belgium  

Holland  

England   . 

Tntal  1  R8fi 

Austria  

France  

Total,  1887 

Italy  

Tissues,    croch6,   tulle,  gauze,  muslin 
broch6  (average  value,  1,500  francs; 
duty,  general  tariff,  50  francs)  : 

Belgium  

Holland  

England 

British  India  

Total,  1888  

Total  1887 

2,604 

9    Qfl-i 

Austria  

Tissues,  plain,  twilled,  of  dyed  yarns 
(average  value,  760  francs  ;  duty,  gen- 
eral tariff,  35  francs)  : 
Germanv  

72 
88 
64 
23 
68 
8 
32 

England  

Total,  1888 

109 

352 
371 

1 
5 
15 
3 

~~24 
19 

Total,  1887  

Blankets,  common,  without  needle-  work 
or  trimming  (average  value,  500  francs; 
duty,  general  tariff  12  francs  ;  conven- 
tional tariff  4  francs)  : 

Austria  ............  ... 

Italy  

Belgium  

France  "      .      ... 

Holland  

Italy 

England  

Belgium 

Total,  1888    . 

Total  1888.... 

355 
217 

Total,  1887  

Total.  1887... 

234       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Cotton  and  cotton  goods  thereof  imported  into  Sivitzerland,  etc. — Continued. 


Whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Blankets,  bleached,  dyed,  printed,  with 
needle-work   or   trimming    (average 
value  821.72  francs;  duty,  general 
tariff,  50  francs)  : 

Quintals. 

196 
6 
76 
10 
6 
45 

339 

England 

Quintals. 
8 
2 

987 
943 

356 
2 
54 
8 
10 

430 
396 

156 
10 
41 
8 
6 
63 

Total  1888 

Total  1887                                  .     .  . 

Hosiery,  without  needle-  work  (average 
value,   1,350   francs;    duty,    general 
tariff,  50  francs)  : 

Francs 

Italy  

England  

Total,  1888  

Austria  
France  

Total,  1887  

Felt  tissues    for  the  manufacture  of 
paper    (average   value,    675   francs; 
duty,  general  tariff,  40  francs)  : 

213 

2 
1 

Italy  

England 

Total  1888 

Total,  1887  

England  

Embroidery  and  lace  (average  value  from 
1,475  to  6,000  francs;    duty,  general 
tariff,  100  francs)  : 
Germany 

Total   1888           

3 

664 
5 
245 
53 

8 
2 

Ribbons  and  trimmings  (average  value, 
1,200  francs;  duty,  general  tariff,  50 
francs  ;  conventional  tariff,  16  francs): 
Germany  •••••-  ......  ........ 

Austria  

France 

Italy     .... 

Austria' 

Belgium 

France  

England 

Italy 

Total  1888 

Belgium  .  . 

284 
296 

Holland 

Total  1887 

JOHN  D.  WASHBURN, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Berne,  August  27,  1889. 


TURKEY. 
CONSTANTINOPLE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  PRINGLE. 

I  have  the  honor  to  inclose  a  report  upon  the  cotton  textiles  imported 
into  my  consular  district.  I  do  not,  however,  consider  the  statictics 
sufficiently  trustworthy  for  publication,  although  they  are  the  only  ones 
to  be  obtained.  t 

Quantity  and  kind  imported  per  annum:  6,016J£  tons;  5,534,338 
pieces ;  and  9,062,700  meters  of  all  qualities. 

Weight  per  yard,  varies  between  4  to  6  ounces,  according  to  quality. 

Purchased  by  commission. 

Place  of  manufacture  and  whence  imported :  All  European  countries, 
and  imported  from  same. 

Duties  charged  thereon :  8  per  cent. 

D.  LYNCH  PRINGLE, 

Consul-  General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Constantinople,  Turkey,  August  6,  1889. 


COTTON    TEXTILES    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.  235 

UNITED  KINGDOM. 
LONDON. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  NEW. 

Referring  to  Department  of  State  circular  of  May  27,  1889,  directing 
a  report  to  be  made  on  the  importation  of  cotton  textiles  into  this  dis- 
trict, I  regret  to  have  to  report  that  I  find  it  is  impossible  to  obtain  the 
particulars  required.  The  value  of  cotton  manufactures  imported  into 
London  in  1888  was  $2,850,790,  but  no  further  details  can  be  ascer- 
tained. 

I  transmit  copy  of  letter  received  from  Mr.  R.  Griffin,  of  the  board  of 

trade,  on  this  subject. 

JOHN  C.  NEW, 

Consul-  General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSUL  ATE -GENERAL, 

London,  August  16,  1889. 


Mr.  Ctiffin  to  Consul- General  New. 
[Inclosnre  in  Conaul-General  New's  report.] 

BOARD  OP  TRADE,  COMMERCIAL  DEPARTMENT, 

London,  S.  W.,  July  6,  1889. 

SIR  :  With  reference  to  your  letter  of  the  1st  instant,  asking  for  certain  information 
respecting  the  imports  of  cotton  textiles  to  London,  I  am  directed  by  the  board  of 
trade  to  state  that  they  regret  that  they  are  not  in  a  position  to  be  of  much  assistance 
to  you  in  the  matter.  The  detailed  particulars  you  require  are  not  available  from  the 
official  returns,  and  the  board  can  only  refer  you  for  information,  to  the  gross  value  of 
the  imports  of  cotton  manufactures  into  the  port  of  London,  to  the  figures  contained 
in  the  volumes  of  the  Annual  Statement  of  the  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Accord- 
ing to  the  last  issue  of  this  statement,  the  value  of  cotton  manufactures  imported  into 
London  from  abroad  in  1888  was  572,158  pounds. 

R.    GlFFIN. 


LIVERPOOL. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SHERMAN. 

I  have  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  circular  of  instructions,  dated 
May  27, 1889,  directing  consular  officers  to  report  upon  the  cotton  tex- 
tiles imported  into  their  districts,  covering  points  specified. 

The  receipts  of  cotton  goods  in  this  district  are  so  very  small,  com- 
paratively, as  to  make  a  detailed  reply  by  me  to  the  circular  almost,  if 
not  quite,  unnecessary,  and  only  one  of  the  questions  can  be  directly 
answered  without  considerable  expense. 

THOMAS  H.  SHERMAN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Liverpool,  August  27,  1889. 


236       COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

LEITH. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WALLING,  OF  EDINBURGH. 
QUANTITY  AND  KINDS  IMPORTED. 

The  customs  authorities  at  Leith,  in  answer  to  my  inquiries  on  this 
subject,  inform  me  that  no  record  is  kept  of  either  the  quantity  or  kind 
of  cotton  textiles  imported  into  Leith.  The  value  only  is  recorded.  In 
the  "  bill  of  entry  "  supplied  to  the  custom -house  from  each  vessel  arriv- 
ing the  item  frequently  occurs  expressed  thus :  u  Cotton  manufactures, 
unenumerated,"  and  only  the  number  of  " cases"  or  "packages "of 
these  and  their  total  value  are  given."  Such  imports  are  almost  always 
consigned  "  to  order,"  and  the  consignee  in  the  course  of  his  sales  may 
distribute  the  consignment  to  many  merchants  or  dealers. 

From  the  "  annual  statement  of  the  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  for 
the  year  1888,  compiled  in  the  custom-house  at  London  from  documents 
collected  by  that  department,"  I  learn  that  the  total  value  of  cotton 
manufactures  imported  to  Leith  in  1888  was  £26,137.  Neither  the  quan- 
tity nor  kind  of  such  manufactures  is  stated.  From  the  same  source  I 
find  that  the  total  value  of  cotton  manufactures  imported  in  same  year 
to  Graugemouth,  a  port  in  this  district  on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  a  few  miles 
west  from  Leith,  was  £8,565. 

The  questions  of  the  weight  per  yard,  how  purchased,  the  place  of 
manufacture,  and  whence  imported  can  not  be  ascertained. 

There  are  no  customs  duties  charged  at  Leith  on  imports  of  cotton 
textiles. 

WlLLOUGHBY  WALLING, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Edinburgh,  August  9, 1889. 


GIBRALTAR.  i 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  SPJtAGUE. 

I  have  the  honor  of  acknowledging  the  receipt  of  your  circular,  under 
date  of  the  27th  ultimo,  on  the  subject  of  the  importation  of  cotton 
textiles  in  this  district,  and  beg  to  state  in  reply  that  it  is  quite  impos- 
sible to  obtain  here  any  reliable  information  as  to  the  quantity  and  de- 
scription of  the  cotton  textiles  imported  yearly  in  this  market,  there 
being  no  custom-house  or  any  other  Government  department  established 
in  Gibraltar,  where  any  statistics  are  kept  on  the  subject  for  affording 
the  required  information. 


COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.        237 

Gibraltar  being  a  free  port,  no  duties  are  levied  upon  any  description 
of  cotton  goods  arriving  here. 

I  may  add,  however,  that  the  whole  or  the  greater  portion  of  the  im- 
portations of  cotton  goods  to  this  market  proceed  from  Manchester  and 
other  leading  manufacturing  centers  in  Great  Britain,  which  are  gen- 
erally disposed  of  by  two  or  three  merchants  and  several  shop-keepers 
established  here. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  cotton  goods  also  arrives  at  this  port  from 
the  same  quarters  in  transit  for  the  Morocco  markets,  for  account  and 
risk  of  the  consignees  residing  in  the  towns  and  sea-ports  of  that  king- 
dom, who  have  an  understanding  direct  with  parties  in  England,  for  the 
cost  of  their  orders  and  purchases. 

HOEATIO  J.  SPRAG-UE, 

Consul 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Gibraltar,  June  29, 1889. 


SPECIAL    CONSULAR    REPORTS. 


FILES  IN  SPANISH  AMERICA 


REPORTS  FROM  THE  CONSULS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ON 

THE  FILE  TRADE  IN  MEXICO,  AND  IN  CENTRAL  AND 

SOUTH  AMERICA,  IN  ANSWER  TO  A  CIRCULAR 

FROM   THE    DEPARTMENT    OF    STATE. 


ISSUED  *ROU  THE  BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS,  DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE. 

ALL  REQUESTS  FOR  THESE  REPORTS  SHOULD  BE  ADDRESSED 
TO  THE  SECBETARY  OF  STATE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING   OFFICE, 
1300. 


FILE  CIRCULAR. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE, 

Washington,  August  28, 1889. 

To  the  consuls  of  the  United  States  in  Mexico  and  in  Central  and  South 

America. 

GENTLEMEN  :  Some  of  the  leading  file  manufacturers  of  the  United 
States  are  desirous  of  extending  their  commercial  relations  to  Mexico 
and  to  Central  and  South  America,  and,  to  that  end,  have  submitted  to 
the  Department  the  following  interrogatories,  which  you  are  requested 
to  answer  at  your  earliest  convenience : 

(1)  Is  there  any  demand  for  American  files  in  your  districts  ?    If  there  is,  give  par- 
ticulars ;  if  there  is  not,  what  is  the  prospect  for  creating  such  demand  ? 

(2)  Are  any  files  imported  into  your  districts  ?    Whence  and  kinds  imported. 

(3)  Are  files  manufactured  in  your  districts  ? 

(4)  Give  prices  at  which  files  are  purchased  by  the  wholesale  dealers  in  your  dis- 
tricts, based  on  the  inclosed  list,  by  discount.    This  request  (No.  4),  if  it  can  be  even 
approximately  correctly  answered,  will  enable  the  American  manufacturers  to  form  a 
correct  estimate  of  the  value  to  them  of  the  trade,  as  well  as  their  ability  to  compete 
therein  with  other  foreign  manufacturers. 

Give  all  the  necessary  information  as  to  tariff  and  other  charges  to 
which  the  introduction  of  files  into  your  districts  are  subject. 
I  am,  gentlemen,  your  obedient  servant, 

WILLIAM  F.  WHARTON, 

Acting  Secretary. 
241 


ENGLISH  vs.  AMERICAN  FILES.* 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MERR1AM,  OF  IQUIQUE,   CHILL 

There  is  no  demand  for  American  files  in  this  district,  for  the  reason 
that  dealers  find  that  they  can  buy  files  from  Sheffield  much  cheaper. 
So  considerable  is  the  difference  in  price,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  ac- 
companying comparative  table,  that  one  is  inclined  to  believe  that  the 
question  of  quality  may  be  an  important  factor  in  favor  of  the  Ameri- 
can article. 

This  point,  however,  can  not  now  be  determined  here,  as  there  is  not 
an  American  file  in  the  market  to  enable  me  to  make  the  coinparision. 

Still,  one  thing  is  certain.  While  as  a  rule,  speaking  of  merchandise 
in  general,  first-class  articles  are  in  demand,  and  are  sold  at  remunera- 
tive prices,  in  some  lines  of  goods,  as  files,  for  instance,  people  have  be- 
come accustomed  to  pay  a  certain  price  for  them,  and  will  not  pay  a 
higher  price  for  a  similar  article,  which  may  be  better,  while  the  inferior 
can  be  obtained. 

The  only  way  for  the  American  manufacturer  to  compete  with  the 
English  in  the  sale  of  files  in  this  district,  is  to  furnish  them  to  the  deal- 
ers here  at  the  English  prices,  even  though  at  the  outset  they  may  gain 
nothing,  or  even  suffer  a  small  loss.  If  the  American  file  is  really  su 
perior  to  the  Sheffield  article  people  will  soon  find  it  out  and  will  readily 
pay  a  higher  price,  once  accustomed  to  its  use  and  convinced  of  its  su- 
periority. 

The  accompanying  table  shows  the  comparative  prices  in  Troy,  1ST.  Y., 
and  Sheffield,  England.  On  the  prices  in  the  Sheffield  list,  there  is  at 
present  in  this  market  a  discount  of  60  and  5  per  cent.  The  duty  on 
all  classes  of  files  is  15  cents  on  30  cents  the  kilogram,  payable  in  silver 
with  the  surcharge  corresponding  to  the  rate  of  exchange  from  month 
to  month. 

J.  W.  MERRIAM, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Iquique,  December  29,  1889. 

*  Constant  reference  to  Sheffield  file  prices  are  made  throughout  these  reports. 
Consul  Merriam,  however,  was  the  only  consul  who  forwarded  a  Sheffield  price-list. 
For  this  reason  (for  ready  reference),  as  well  as  for  his  table  comparing  American  and 
Sheffield  prices,  Consul  Merriam's  report  is  inserted  first  in  the  series. 

243 


244 


FILES    IN   SPANISH    AMERICA. 


[Inclosure  1  in  Consul  Merriam's  report.] 

SHEFFIELD  PRICES  OF  FILES  AND  RASPS. 

[Descuento  (discount)  60  and  5  per  cent.] 

In  consequence  of  considerable  advances  both  in  wages  and  materials,  it  was 
unanimously  resolved  at  a  general  meeting  of  file  manufacturers,  held  at  the  Cutlers' 
Hall,  Sheffield,  on  the  16th  May,  1872,  that  the  following  list  of  prices  be  adopted 
by  the  trade  from  this  date : 

Flat,  half-round,  square,  round,  entering,  taper  cotter,  liorse,  shoe,  flat,  and  half-round 
rasps.  Mill  saws,  one  or  two  square  edges,  single  and  double  cut.  Topping  files,  single 
and  double,  left  at  point,  and  safe  edges. 

[Per  dozen.] 


Inches. 

Bough  and 
bastard. 

Second  cut, 
fiat  and 
half-round 
gunstock- 
ers'  and 
round 
rasps. 

Smooth  and 
cabinet 
flies  and 
rasps. 

Dead 
smooth  and 
extra 
smooth 
cabinets. 

1  to  4 

£    s.    d. 
4     9 

£    *.    d. 
5      6 

&    s.    d. 
6     9 

£      s.    d 
10      3 

41 

6      0 

7      6 

11      2 

5*  

5      9 

6      9 

8      3 

12      6 

Rl 

6      3 

7      6 

9      0 

13      6 

6               :::::::":::::::::::::..::..:::::. 

7      0 

'  8      3 

9      6 

14      6 

6ft 

7      6 

8      9 

10      6 

15      9 

7                          ":::"::;::::::::::: 

8      6 

9      9 

11      6 

17      6 

71 

9      6 

10      9 

12      3 

18      6 

8*::: 

10      6 

12      0 

13      6 

100 

gl 

11      0 

12      9 

14      6 

120 

9 

12      0 

13      6 

15      6 

136 

9*  . 

13      6 

15      3 

17      0 

156 

10  ... 

15      0 

17      0 

19      0 

186 

lOi 

16      6 

18      6 

106 

1     11      0 

11*:: 

18      0 

100 

130 

1    15      0 

11* 

100 

120 

150 

1    18      0 

12  

116 

140 

166 

200 

124 

130 

156 

180 

220 

13  

150 

170 

1    10      0 

250 

14  

1    10      0 

1    13      0 

1    16      0 

2    14      0 

15  . 

3     16      0 

]     19      0 

220 

330 

16  

230 

270 

2    12      0 

3     18      0 

17... 

2    10      0 

2    15      0 

330 

4     14      0 

18  ... 

300 

350 

3    14      0 

5     11      0 

19 

380 

3    15      0 

440 

660 

20.  

410 

490 

4    19      0 

799 

21 

4    13      0 

510 

5    13      0 

8    10      0 

22  

560 

5    15      0 

680 

9    12      0 

23  

610 

6    12      0 

760 

11      0      0 

24  

700 

7    11      0 

860 

12    10      0 

Extras.—  All  above  24  inches,  20«.  per  inch  extra.    Flat  files,  double  cat  on  the  edge,  to  advance  half 
ng,  bquare  cut  edges,  to  advance  half  inch. 
er  edge  and  knife  flies,  to  advance  3  inches. 


. 

Inuh.    Topping,  bquare  cut  edges,  to  advance  half  inch.      Mill  saw,  two  round  edges,  advance  half 
inch.    Feather  ede  and  kn 


FILES    IX    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


245 


Three  square  hand,   ctpialinf/  one  xat'c  rdt/c.  parallel,  rotter,  pillar,  needle,  roundoff,  bone 
pottance,  round  edged  flat.      Extra  thin  flat,  and  flat  aiullnyh  back  half-round. 

[Per  dozen.] 


Inches. 


Ito4 


Rongh 
and 

bastard. 


£    *.     d. 
5      3 

5  9 

6  3 

7  0 

8  6 

9  6 

10  6 

11  0 

12  0 

13  6 

15  0 

16  6 
18      0 

0  0 

1  6 
3      0 
5      0 
8      0 

10  0 
16  0 
230 
2  10  0 
300 
380 
410 
4  13  0 
560 

6  1       0 
700 

7  19      0 


Second  cut. 


*.  d. 

6  0 

6  9 

7  6 

8  3 

9  9 
10  9 
12  0 

12  9 

13  6 
15  3 

17  0 

18  6 
0  0 
2  0 

4  0 

5  6 
7  0 

10  0 

13  0 

1  19  0 
270 

2  15  0 
350 

3  15  0 
490 
510 

5  15  6 

6  12  0 


7  11 

8  12 


Smooth. 


£     t.    d. 

7  C 

8  3 

9  0 
9      6 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

17 

19 

1  0 
1  3 
1  5 
166 
180 
1  10  0 
1  13  0 
1  16  0 
2  0 


2    12      0 
330 


3  14 

4  4 

4  19 

5  13 
8  0 


9      8 


Dead 
smooth. 


£,      g.    d. 

11  3 

12  6 

13  6 

14  6 

17  6 

18  6 
1 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1  11 


0  0 

2  0 

3  6 
5  9 
8  6 


1     15      0 

1  18      0 
200 
220 
250 

2  10      0 

2  14 

3  3 

3  18 

4  14 

5  11 


7  9 

8  10 

9  12  0 

11  0  0 

12  10  0 
14  2  0 


Extra*.— All  above  24  inches,  20*.  per  inch  extra.  Pin  files  and  tanged  horse  rasps,  to  advance  1  inch. 
Rouud-off,  with  points,  to  advance  1  inch.  Xeedle,  exceeding  breadth  of  hand  files,  as  equaling  cut  on 
both  edges.  Equaling  and  cotter  files,  extra  thin,  to  advance  1  inch. 

Hand  and  equaling  cnt  both  edges,  or  with  one  double  cut  edge.  Lock,  arch,  riffler,  tum- 
bler,oval  saw  files,  cant,  taper  cross,  bellied  three  square.  Double  tanged  mill  saw,  top- 
ping, two  round  edges. 

[Per  dozen.] 


Inches. 

Rough 
and 
bastard. 

Second 
cut 

Smooth. 

'  Dead 
smooth. 

1  to  4          

£    s.  d. 
6    3 
7    0 
7    6 
8    6 
9    6 
10    6 
11    0 
12    0 
13    6 
15    0 
16    6 
18    0 
100 
116 
130 
150 
170 
1  10    0 
1  13    0 
1  19    0 
260 
2  15    0 
340 
3  14    0 
470 
500 
5  14    0 
6  11    0 
7  10    0 
880 

£    *.   d. 
7    6 
8    3 
8    9 
9    9 
10    9 
12    0 
12    9 
13    6 
15    3 
17    0 
18    6 
100 
120 
140 
156 
170 
1  10    0 
1  13    0 
1  16    0 
230 
2  11    0 
300 
3  10    0 
420 
4  15    0 
580 
630 
710 
810 
920 

£    *.   d. 
9    0 
9    6 
10    6 
11    6 
12    3 
13    6 
14    6 
15    6 
17    0 
19    0 
106 
139 
5    0 
6    6 
8    0 
10    0 
13    0 
1  16    0 
1  19    0 
280 
2  18    0 
370 
3  19    0 
4  11    0 
560 
600 
6  16    0 
7  16    0 
920 
10    8    0 

£    «.  d. 
13    6 
14    6 
15    9 
17    6 
18    0 
0    0 
2    0 
3    6 
5    6 
8    6 
11    0 
15    0 
18    0 
200 
220 
250 
2  10    0 
2  14    0 
2  19    0 
3  10    0 
460 
520 
5  18    0 
6  18    0 
800 
900 
10    6    0 
11  16    0 
13  14    0 
15  12    0 

5          .                

5i 

6  '"               ::::.::::;:::::::::::::::::: 

64 

74 

8*  .       .. 

84 

?  

94 

3*:  :..:::::  

104 

S*  

114 

12        .                

121 

13          .     .                       .                  

14 

15                   ..              

16  

17 

18 

19                                                                                        

•JO  

21 

21.                               ...                    

23 

24                             .                                          

Extras.—  All  above  24  inches  20  ».  per  inch  extra.    Hand  and  equaling  with  round  edges,  advance  1 
jich  ;  if  double  cut,  2  inches.    Two-tanged  mill  saw,  two  round  edges,  advance  half  inch. 

246 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

Beat  refined  cast-steel  saw  files. 

[Per  dozen.] 


Inches. 

Taper  saw  files. 

Frame  saw  flies  and 
gulleting. 

Blunt, 
segment 
saw  files, 
and  taper 
cut  to 
point,  sec- 
ond cut 
single. 

Blunt, 
second  cut 
double, 
and  band 
saw,  second 
cut  single, 

Second  cut 
single. 

Second  cut 
double. 

Smooth 
single. 

Second  cut 
single. 

Second  cut 
double. 

Ito  3J  

£  8.  d. 
4    0 
4    6 
5    0 
5    6 
6    6 
7    6 
8    6 
9    6 
10    6 
12    0 
13    6 
15    6 
17    6 
19    6 
140 
190 
1  14    0 
200 

£  s.  d. 
4    9 
5    3 
6    0 
6    6 
7    6 
8    6 
9    6 
11    0 
12    0 
13    6 
15    0 
17    0 
19    6 
110 
160 
1  11    0 
1  17    0 
230 

£  s.  d. 
5    6 
6    0 
6    3 
7    0 
8    0 
9    0 
10    0 
1    0 
12    6 
14    0 
15    6 
17    0 
19    6 
110 
160 
1  11    0 
1  17    0 
230 

£   g.  d. 
4    9 
5    3 
5    9 
6    6 
7    6 
8    6 
9    6 
10    6 
12    0 
13    6 
14    6 
16    0 
18    0 
100 
150 
1  10    0 
1  16    0 
230 

£  g.  d. 
5    9 
6    3 
6    9 
7    6 
8    6 
9    6 
10    6 
12    0 
13    0 
14    6 
16    0 
17    6 
19    6 
120 
170 
1  12    0 
1  19    0 
260 

&  g.  d. 
5    0 
5    6 
6    6 
7    6 
8    6 
9    6 
10    6 
12    0 
13    6 
15    6 
17    6 
19    6 
116 
140 
190 
1  14    0 
200 

£  s.  d. 
6    6 
7    6 
8    6 
9    6 
10    6 
12    0 
13    6 
15    6 
17    6 
19    6 
116 
140 
166 
190 
1  14    0 
200 

4^       

5 

51 

6 

6i 

?"::.:  

7i 

8  : 

gi 

9  ":::::: 

gi 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Reaper-knife  files. 
[Net  prices  per  dozen.] 


Inches. 

Plain  and  swaged. 

Knife  shape. 

Cant  shape. 

Single. 

Double. 

Single. 

Double. 

Single. 

Double. 

7  

*.   d. 
8    6 
9    3 
11    6 
13    6 

*.    d. 
9    0 
10    0 
12    9 
15    6 

g.    d. 
8    6 
9    6 
11    9 
13    9 

*.    d. 
9    6 
10    6 
13    3 
16    0 

s.    d. 
12    6 
13    6 
16    3 
19    0 

£    g.    d. 
13    6 
14    9 
17    i 
113 

8.     ... 

9  

10 

Extras.— Taper  saw  files,  double  cut  smooth,  to  advance  half  inch  on  single  smooth.    Frame  equal- 
ing  saw  files,  3  inches  on  frame  saw  price. 

Extras. 

Rubbers :  s.  d. 

Rough  and  bastard.., ,.._ .....per  pound..  1  3 

Second  cut do 1  5 

Smooth do I  1  7 

Rough  and  bastard : 

I  pouod  rubber ....per  pound..  1  8 

2.pound  rubber do 1  5 

3poundrubber do 1  4 

Second  cut : 

1  pound  rubber perpound..  1  9 

2poundrubber do 1  6 

3  pound  rubber do 1  5 

Smooth : 

1  pound  rubber perpound..  1  10 

2  pound  rubber do 1  7 

3  pound  rubber ...do...  1  6 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


247 


Strong  flat  tiles  and  half-thicks  : 

Rough  and  bastard per  pound..  1  5 

Secondcut do 1  7 

Smooth do..^.  1  9 

Three-square  Id.  per  pound,  extra  to  flat  files ;  horse  mouth  rasps,  5«.  each  ;  bread 
r;><!  is,  handled,  30«.  per  dozen;  single  improved  shoe  rasps,  one-half  inch  on  flat  price ; 
double  improved  shoe  rasps,  1  inch  on  flat  price ;  last  makers'  rasps,  to  advance  5>  inches; 
s;nldle-tree  rasps,  to  advance  3  inches;  all  parallel  files  to  advance  1  inch  on  their 
iv-iM'ctive  descriptions;  all  quarter  inches,  the  price  of  the  next  size  above.  Round, 
half-round,  and  cross  files,  double  cut,  second  cut,  to  advance  half  an  inch;  round 
double  cut  smooth,  to  advance  1  inch ;  flat,  three-square,  and  hand  files,  rough  and 
middle  cut  above  14  inches,  6d.  per  dozen  extra  to  bastard  cut.  New  cut  files  to  ad- 
vance 1  inch. 


TROY  PRICE  LIST  OF  FILES  AND  RASPS. 

[Inclosure  2  in  Consul  Merriam's  report.] 


Inch. 

Mill  and  round. 

Flat  and  square. 

Bastard. 

Second 
cut. 

Smooth. 

Bastard. 

Second 
cut. 

Smooth. 

4 

$1.80 
2.00 
2.25 
2.55 
2.90 
3.30 
3.80 
4,50 
5.40 
6.50 
7.80 
9.30 
11.00 
12.90 
15.10 
17.60 
20.40 

$2.15 
2.40 
2.65 
3.00 
3.40 
3.85 
4.40 
5.20 
6.20 
7.45 
8.90 
10.60 
12.50 
14.60 
16.90 
19.70 
22.85 

$2.40 
2.65 
2.95 
3.30 
3.70 
4.20 
4.80 
5.65 
6.75 
8.05 
9.65 
11.45 
13.40 
15.60 
18.10 
21.10 
24.50 

$2.00 
2.20 
2.50 
2.90 
3.40 
4.00 
4.70 
5.60 
6.70 
8.  CO 
9.50 
11.20 
13.10 
15.25 
17.65 
20.30 
23.20 

$2.40 
2.60 
2.95 
3.40 
4.00 
4.70 
5.45 
6.50 
7.70 
9.15 
10.90 
12.75 
14.85 
17.  25 
19.75 
22.75 
26.00 

$2.65 
2.90 
3.25 
3.75 
4.35 
5.10 
5.90 
7.05 
8.40 
10.00 
11.80 
13.75 
16.00 
18.45 
21.20 
24.35 
27.85 

5. 

6  

7 

8  

9 

10 

11  

12 

13  

14 

15                          .           ...                         

16  

17 

18  

19 

20  

Extras.—  Mfll  double  cut, 
advance  1  inch.    Mill  narrow 
points,  advance  1  inch.  Cross- 
cut saw  (blunt),  advance  2 
inches. 

Extras—  Cant  blunt   (dou- 
ble cut),  advance  2  inches. 

248  FILES    IV    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

TROY  PRICE   LIST   OF   FILES  AND   RASPS — Continued. 


Inch. 


10. 

11. 

12. 

13. 

14 

15. 

16. 

17. 

18.. 

19.. 

20.. 


Hand,  warding,  and  pillar. 


Bastard. 


$2.25 

2.50 

2.80 

3.20 

3.70 

4.35 

5.20 

6.30 

7.50 

8.90 

10.50 

12.30 

14.  30 

16.60 

19.20 

22.10 

25.30 


Second 
cut. 


$2.70 

3.00 

3.30 

3.75 

4.35 

5  10 

6.00 

7.30 

8.60 

10.20 

12.00 

14.00 

16.20 

18.75 

21.50 

24.75 

28.35 


Smooth. 


$3.00 

3.30 

3.65 

4.15 

4.75 

5.55 

6.55 

7.95 

9.40 

11.00 

13.00 

15.10 

17.50 

20.10 

23.00 

26.50 

30.35 


Half-round  and  three-square. 


Bastard. 


$2.50 

2.80 

3.20 

3.70 

4.30 

5.00 

5.80 

6.70 

7.80 

9.10 

10.60 

12.40 

14.50 

16.90 

19.60 

22.60 

26.00 


Second 
cut. 


$3.00 

3.35 

3.80 

4.35 

5.00 

5.85 

6.75 

7.75 

9.00 

10.40 

12.10 

14.15 

16.50 

19.10 

22.00 

25.30 

29.10 


Smooth. 


$3.30 
3.70 
4.15 
4.80 
5.50 
6.40 
7.30 
8.45 
9.75 
11.25 
13.10 
15.25 
17.70 
20.50 
23.50 
27.10 
31.20 


Extras.— Ginsaw  (single  <^ut), 
take  bastard  price ;  slot- 
ting (blunt),  advance  2  in- 
ches. 


Extras.— Knife,  advance  1 
inch ;  high  back  half-round 
(blunt),  advance  2  inches; 
cross  (blunt),  advance  2  in- 
ches; feather  edge  (blunt), 
advance  2  inches. 


Description. 


Tapers,  single  cut 

Tapers,  double  cut 

Slim  tapers,  single  cut 

Slim  tapers,  double  cut 

Piteaw  blnnt,  single  cut 

Hooktooth  blunt,  single  cut 


1 


1. 10 1. 
1.601. 
1.201. 
1.  8011. 


101 


.  20  1.  40  1. 70  2.  00  2. 40  3. 00  3. 80  4. 60  5.  70  7 
.752.002.402 

.  30  1.  45J1. 70;i.  90  2. 10  2.  50  3.  00  3.  70  4.  50  5. 
.  90|2. 10  2. 40  2.  60  2. 85  3.  30  3.  90  4.  70  5.  60  6.  75 
2.  10  2. 10  2. 20  2.  30  2.  50  2.  80  3.  20  3. 70  4.  30  5. 00  5.  80  6 


70 
3.603.904.405.106.007.10 


9.  00  11. 00  13. 20 

75  3.  25  4.  00  4.  95  5. 90  7. 10  8.  80  10. 80  12. 90  15. 20 

8.3010.00 
9.7511.50 


6.80 
8.20 
7.70 
8.40 


Extras.— Bandsaw,  heavy,  blunt,  take  taper  double  cut  price.  Bandsaw,  light,  blunt,  take  slim 
tap*.- r  double  cut  price  ;  taper  points  same  price.  Cant  saw,  blunt,  single  cut ;  round  gulleting,  blunt, 
single  cut,  take  pitsaw  price.  Round  off,  blunt,  single  cut,  take  hooktooth  price.  Tapers,  pointed 
at  both  ends  (without  handles),  double  the  price  of  slim  tapers  of  half  their  length. 


Description. 

4 

3 

s 

A 

Q 

.9 
tA 

f 

00 

1 

S 

| 

o 

11-inch. 

12-inch. 

13-inch. 

A 

9 

a 
3 

| 
5 

,C 

a 

s 

4 

a 
tA 

1 

06 

Horse  rasps  : 
Plain  

6.50 

7.20 
9.00 

8.75 

11.20 

8.75 

8.00 
9.10 

7.50 

8.30 
10.25 

10.40 

13.00 
10.40 

9.10 
10.  30 

9.00 

10.00 
12.00 

12.30 

15.00 
12.30 

10.30 
11.60 

10.70 

11.80 
14.00 

14.50 

17.20 
14.50 

11.60 

12.70 

14.00 
16.50 

16.90 

19.60 

16.90 

13.00 

15.00 

16.50 
19.50 

19.60 

22.20 
19.60 

17.60 

19.40 
23.00 

22.50 

25.00 
22.50 

20.50 
22.  50 
••%•• 

23.70 
26.00 

Beveled     and     three-quarters 
rasp  

Tanged  

Wood  rasps  : 
Half-round  and  flat  

4.20 

6.00 
4.20 

4.60 
5.30 

5.00 

7.00 
5.00 

5.30 
6.10 

6.10 

8.20 
6.10 

6.10 
7.00 

7.30 

9.60 
7.30 

7.00 
8.00 

Cabinet  : 
Rasps  

Files  

Shoe  rasps: 
Half-round  and  flat... 

Oval  

Extras.—  File  rasps,  flat  and  half-round,  take  flat  and  half-round  wood  rasp  price.    "Wood  files,  flat 
and  halt-round,  take  flat  and  half-round  bastard  price.    Last  maker's  rasps,  one  inch  advance  on  cabi- 
net rasp  price. 

Extras  (general"). 

One  round  edge,  advance  7£  per  cent.,  and  two  round  edges,  15  per  cent,  on  respec- 
tive kinds  aud  cuts.  Blunt  files,  not  specified,  advance  one  inch  on  respective  kinds 
and  cuts.  Dead-smooth,  double  the  price  of  bastard  cut.  Equalings  (bellied), 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


249 


advance  two  inches  on  respective  kinds  and  cut.  Sizes  below  4  inches,  not  extended, 
take  4-inch  price;  one-half  inches  not  specified,  take  next  higher  full-inch  price.  Rough, 
coarse,  union  cut,  brass,  or  other  than  regular  cuKs  (not  specified),  made  upon  regu- 
lar or  standard  shaped  blanks,  advance  one  inch  011  respective  kinds  and  cuts.  Single 
or  float  cut  (not  specified),  on  regular  shapes,  take  double  cut  price. 

Irregular  goods. — All  lengths  above  those  listed,  and  files  varying  from  standard 
sizes,  to  be  classed  as  irregular,  and  subject  to  special  prices. 


[Inclosure  3  in  Consul  Merriam's  report.] 

Sheffield  vs.  Troy  price*. 

MILL  AND  ROUND. 


Inch. 

Bastard. 

Second  cut. 

Smooth. 

Troy. 

Sheffield. 

Troy. 

Sheffield. 

Troy. 

Sheffield. 

4        

$1.80 
2.00 
2.25 
2.55 
2.90 
3.30 
3.80 
4.50 
5.40 
6.50 
7.80 
9.30 
11.00 
12.90 
15.10 
•      17.60 
20.40 

$1.15 
1.35 
1.70 
2.06 
2.55 
2.92 
3.65 
4.38 
5.23 
6.08 
7.30 
8.76 
10.46 
12.16 
14.60 
16.54 
19.71 

$2.15 
2.40 
2.65 
3.00 
3.40 
3.85 
4.40 
5.20 
6.20 
7.45 
8.90 
10.60 
12.50 
14.60 
16.90 
19.70 
22.85 

$1.33 
1.64 
2.00 
2.37 
2.92 
3.28 
4.13 
4.87 
5.84 
6.57 

a  03 

9.49 
11.43 
13.38 
15.81 
18.25 
21.66 

$2.40 
2.65 
2.95 
3.30 
3.70 
4.20 
4.80 
5.65 
6.75 
8.05 
9.65 
11.45 
13.40 
15.60 
18.10 
21.10 
24.50 

$1.64 
2.00 
2.31 
2.79 
3.28 
3.77 
4.62 
5.60 
6.45 
7.30 
8.76 
10.21 
12.65 
15.33 
18.00 
20.44 
24.09 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9  .   .   . 

10 

11  .. 

12 

13 

14... 

15 

16  

17 

18  

19 

20  

FLAT  AND  SQUARE. 


4                         

$2.00 

$1.15 

$2.40 

$1.33 

$2.  65 

$1.64 

5 

2.20 

1.35 

2  60 

1.64 

2  90 

2  00 

6 

2.50 

1.70 

2.95 

2.  WO 

3.25 

2.31 

7     

2.90 

2.06 

3.40 

2.37 

3.75 

2.79 

g 

3.40 

2.55 

4.00 

2.92 

4.35 

3.28 

y     

4.  tO 

2.92 

4.70 

3.28 

5.10 

3.77 

10 

4.70 

3  65 

5.45 

4.13 

5.90 

4.62 

11 

5.60 

4.38 

6.50 

4.87 

7.05 

5.60 

12  

6.70 

5.23 

7.70 

5.84 

8.40 

6.45 

13 

8.00 

6.08 

9.15 

6.57 

10.00 

7.30 

14  

9.50 

7.30 

10.90 

8.03 

11.80 

8.76 

15 

11.20 

8.76 

12.75 

9.49 

13.75 

10.21 

16     .    .         

13.10 

10.46 

14.85 

11.43 

16.00 

12.65 

17 

15  25 

12.16 

17.25 

13.38 

18.45 

15.33 

18    ...            

17.65 

14.60 

19.75 

15.81 

21.20 

18.00 

19 

20  30 

16.54 

22.75 

18.25 

24.35 

20.44 

•JO                    

23.20 

19.71 

26.00 

21.66 

27.85 

24.09 

HAND  AND  PILLAR 


4 

$2.  25 

$1.27 

$2.70 

$1.46 

$3.00 

$1.82 

5                     

2.50 

1.52 

3.00 

2.19 

3.30 

2.19 

6 

2.80 

2.06 

3.30 

2.37 

3.65 

2.79 

7                  

3.20 

2.5o 

3.75 

2.92 

4.15 

3.28 

8                                                               .  ... 

3.70 

2.92 

4.35 

3.28 

4.75 

3.77 

9                         

4.35 

3.65 

5.10 

4.13 

5.55 

4.62 

10 

5.20 

4.38 

6.00 

4.87 

6.55 

5.60 

11          .             

6.30 

5.23 

7.30 

5.84 

7.95 

6.45 

12 

7  50 

6.08 

8.60 

6.61 

9.40 

7.30 

13               

8.90 

7.30 

10.20 

8.03 

11.00 

8.76 

14  

10.50 

8.76 

12.00 

9.49 

13.00 

10.21 

15              .  .                

12.30 

10.46 

14.00 

11.43 

15.10 

12.65 

16  

14.30 

12.16 

16.20 

13.38 

17.50 

15.33 

17                             

16.60 

14.60 

18.75 

15.81 

20.10 

18.00 

18  

19.  20 

16.54 

21.50 

18.25 

23.00 

20.44 

19      

22.10 

1§.71 

24.75 

21.66 

26.50 

24.09 

20  

25.30 

22.63 

28.35 

24.57 

30.35 

27.49 

250  FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

MEXICO. 

LA  PAZ. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  VIOSOA. 

Ill  acknowledgment  of  receipt  of  circular  dated  August  28,  1889, 
wherein  the  Department  of  State,  for  the  benefit  of  the  file  manufact- 
urers of  the  United  States,  desires  to  be  informed  as  per  interrogatories 
within  contained  of  the  extent  of  the  demand  for  American  files,  etc., 
I  have  the  honor,  in  obedience  with  the  said  instructions,  to  say  that  the 
demand  for  files  is  here  limited  to  insignificance  ;  the  small  supply  re- 
quired for  this  market  is  imported  from  San  Francisco. 

No  industry  in  the  form  of  iron  and  wood  manufacture  has  as  yet 
found  its  way  into  this  country.  Mining  is  also  very  limited ;  therefore 
it  makes  it  impossible  to  give  a  formal  reply  to  the  questions  contained 
in  the  aforesaid  interrogatories. 

JAS.  YIOSCA, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

La  Paz,  Mexico,  October  26, 1889. 


MAZATLAN. 
REPORT  OF  CONSUL  KELTON. 

(1)  There  is  some  demand  for  American  files  in  this  district.    They 
are  considered  superior  to  English  files  but  are  said  to  cost  more. 

(2)  Files  are  imported  from  England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States. 
The  total  value  of  the  importations  does  not  exceed  $1,500  per  annum. 

(3)  No  files  are  manufactured  in  this  district. 

(4)  I  am  informed  that  the  prices  of  files  imported  from  England  and 
Germany  are  60  and  10  per  cent,  lower  than  the  prices  quoted  in  the 
Troy  list  inclosed  with  the  circular. 

EDWARD  G.  KELTON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Mazatlan,  Mexico,  October  1, 1889. 


PIEDRAS  NEGRAS. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FECHET. 


The  demand  for  American  files  in  this  district  is  very  small,  being  lim- 
ited to  the  machine-shops  of  the  Mexican  International  Railway.  The 
few  mining  companies  that  employ  machinery  use  a  small  number  of 
files ;  as  more  work  shops  are  erected  the  demand  for  files  will  increase. 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  251 

As  a  rule,  the  nationality  of  the  owners  of  industrial  plants  in  Mexico, 
or  that  of  the  manager  in  charge  locally,  generally  will  determine  in 
what  market  foreign  supplies  are  purchased.  At  present  more  English 
files  are  sold  to  Mexico  than  American.  Files  are  imported  into  this  dis- 
trict for  railway  use  only.  Files  are  not  manufactured  in  this  district. 
The  Mexican  International  Railway  use  American  files  of  all  kinds 
in  their  shops  here.  Price  is  that  of  the  "  American  Association  List," 
less  50  per  cent.  off. 

The  tariff  on  files  at  the  Mexican  customs  is  10  cents  per  kilogram, 
or  about  4£  cents  per  pound. 

EUGENE  O.  FECHET, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Piedras  Negras,  September  130,  1889. 


TUXPAN. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DRAYTON. 

In  answer  to  file  circular  dated  August  28,  1889, 1  state  as  follows: 

(1)  There  is  very  little  demand  here  for  files,  as  there  are  very  few 
machines. 

(2)  Files  are  principally  imported  from  the  United  States,  some  from 
England,  which  are  cheaper  than  those  from  the  United  States. 

(3)  Files  are  not  manufactured  here. 

(4)  The  prices  at  which  files  are  purchased  by  dealers  is  according  to 
the  valuation  which  wholesale  dealers  in  the  United  States  place  upon 
them,  and  can  not  be  correctly  stated  here. 

The  duties  on  same  are  10  cents  per  kilogram,  gross  weight,  being 
considered  a  tool  for  mechanical  purposes. 

All  other  charges  are  according  to  freights  and  lighterage,  if  any,  and 
vary  from  three-quarters  of  a  cent  to  1  cent  per  pound,  gross,  as  may 
be  the  case. 

JOHN  DRAYTON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Tuxpan,  Mexico,  October  4,  1889. 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 
NICARAGUA. 

MANAGUA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WILLS. 

Iii  response  to  "  file  circular,"  dated  August  28, 1889, 1  give  the  fol- 
lowing answers  : 

(1)  There  are  six  saw-mills  in  Nicaragua,  all  brought  from  the  United 
States.  These  mills  use  American  files. 


252  FILES   IN   SPANISH   AMERICA. 

(2)  The  files  imported  by  the  merchants  are  very  few.    They  come 
mostly  from  England,  a  few  from  Germany.     The  kinds  are  triangular, 
in  lengths  from  3  to  5  inches.    Mill  and  blacksmith  files  are  not  salable, 
no  horse-shoeing  being  done  here. 

(3)  No  files  are  manufactured  in  this  country. 

(4)  Assorted  triangular  files,  in  lengths  3,  3J,  4,  4J,  5,  and  5J  inches, 
cost  $3  for  6  dozen  in  England. 

A  leading  merchant  of  Managua  told  me  he  bought  in  England,  four 
years  ago,  4  dozen  8-inch  mill  files,  costing  $5.  He  has  2  dozen  still 
on  hand.  The  tariff  on  files  is  5  cents  (American  gold,  3£)  a  pound, 
gross  weight,  including  the  package  in  which  they  are  brought. 

OH  AS.  H.  WILLS, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 
Managua,  February  4, 1890, 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 
ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BAKER,  OF  BUENOS  AYRES. 

I  am  in  receipt  of  the  circular  of  the  Department  of  State  of  the  25th 
of  August  last,  stating  that  some  of  the  file  manufacturers  of  the  United 
States  are  desirous  of  extending  their  trade  to  South  America  ;  and,  to 
that  end,  have  submitted  certain  interrogatories,  which  I  am  requested 
to  answer. 

(1)  There  is  no  call  for  American  files  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  for 
the  reason,  perhaps,  that  little  if  anything  is  known  in  regard  to  them. 
If,  however,  they  were  properly  introduced,  and  they  should  meet  the 
views  of  the  market,  it  is  not  improbable  that  a  demand  could  be 
created  for  them. 

(2)  Files  are  imported  into  this  country  of  almost  every  variety,  and 
they  come  mostly  from  France,  Germany,  and  England. 

(3)  No  files  are  manufactured  in  the  Argentine  Republic. 

(4)  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  get  the  price  of  purchase  at  wh^ch  im- 
porters or  wholesale  dealers  are  supplied  by  manufacturers,  for  the  rea- 
son that  they  do  not  care  to  reveal  the  secrets  of  their  trade  to  outsiders. 
By  inquiry,  however,  I  learn  that  wholesale  dealers,  when  gold  was  at 
50  per  cent,  premium,  sold  three-cornered  files,  sizes  3  to  5  inches,  at 
90  cents  to  $1.20,  Argentine  paper  currency,  per  dozen,  according  to 
brand.    To-day,  with  gold  at  112  per  cent,  premium,  they  are  selling 
them  at  $1.50  to  $2,  Argentine  paper  currency,  per  dozen. 

To-day,  with  gold  as  I  have  said  at  112  per  cent,  premium,  wholesale 
dealers  are  selling  flat,  half-round,  and  square  files  of  all  kinds,  coarse 
cuts,  at  from  5  to  6  cents  per  inch,  Argentine  paper  currency,  per 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  253 

dozen,  and  iiiie  cute  at  from  6  to  8  cents  per  inch,  Argentine  paper  cur- 
rency,  per  dozen. 

(5)  The  duty  on  tiles  is  25  per  cent,  on  the  value ;  and  for  custom- 
house purposes  the  official  value  on  all  sizes  and  classes  of  files  is  fixed 
at  50  cents  per  kilogram.  To  reduce  this  duty  to  the  paper  currency 
the  government  adds  15  per  cent,  to  the  amount. 

E.  L.  BAKER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Buenos  Ayres,  November  15,  1889. 


BRAZIL. 

BAHIA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BURKE. 

I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  following  answers  to  questions  con- 
tained in  the  "  File  circular,"  dated  August  28th,  and  received  at  this 
consulate  October  9.  I  would  say,  while  the  circular  of  the  Troy  file 
manufacturers  that  accompanied  the  "File  circular,"  with  its  "price-list 
of  files  and  rasps,"  is  well  enough  to  forward  to  the  consul,  it  would  be 
much  better  if  the  Troy  manufacturers  would  inform  the  consul  at  the 
same  time  whether  the  prices  mentioned  in  the  list  are  subject  to  any 
discount,  and  if  so,  to  how  much  or  what  ?  While  the  consul  is  seek- 
ing information  from  the  dealers,  the  dealers  in  turn  would  like  infor- 
mation from  the  consul.  But  the  latter,  as  in  this  case,  when  asked  if 
the  prices  in  the  circular  are  subject  to  a  discount,  could  reply,  "I  don't 
know  exactly,  but  suppose  so."  It  is  embarrassing  for  the  consul  and 
does  not  aid  him  in  obtaining  the  information  he  seeks,  when  he  displays 
so  much  ignorance  of  a  subject  about  which  the  manufacturers  should 
thoroughly  post  him. 

Manufacturers  ought  to  understand  that  it  is  the  consul's  business 
not  only  to  obtain  the  information  they  desire,  but  to  impart  informa- 
tion to  the  dealer  in  the  article  or  articles  about  which  inquiries  are  be- 
ing made. 

And  if  such  information  regarding  styles,  qualities,  prices,  etc.,  of 
certain  articles  is  not  given  to  the  dealer  when  asked,  why,  he  will  sim- 
ply conclude  the  consul  does  not  know  his  business ;  or,  knowing  it,  with- 
holds the  information  sought  by  him,  and  is  acting  as  a  sort  of  detect- 
ive from  some  motive  for  a  certain  manufacturing  concern. 

Then,  I  say,  every  manufacturer  desiring  information  in  regard  to  his 
line  of  manufactures,  in  sending  questions  to  be  answered,  inquiries  to 
be  made,  etc.,  should,  in  a  private  letter,  if  not  otherwise,  thoroughly 


254 


FILES    IN   SPANISH   AMERICA. 


iiiform  the  consul  about  the  prices,  qualities,  kinds,  discounts,  etc.,  of 
the  manufactures  he  may  desire  to  introduce. 

(1)  There  is  no  demand  for  American  files.    In  the  three  principal 
hardware  stores  in  the  city  not  an  American  file  could  be  found. 

(2)  The  only  prospect  for  creating  a  demand  is  to  have  American  manu- 
facturers deliver  as  good  a  quality,  and  perhaps  it  would  be  necessary 
now  to  deliver  a  better  quality  of  the  articles  at  the  same  or  at  a  less 
price  to  the  dealers  than  they  pay  in  England,  where  the  most  of  that 
class  of  articles  is  now  purchased.    When  the  Bahia  purchaser  is  per- 
fectly satisfied  with  the  manufacturers  from  whom  he  purchases,  as  one 
of  the  parties  said  to  me,  better  inducements  must  be  offered  from  other 
manufacturers  in  order  to  cause  him  to  change.    Files  are  imported 
into  this  district  principally  from  Sheffield.    All  kinds  that  are  manu- 
factured, are  imported. 

(3)  Piles  are  not  manufactured  in  this  district. 

(4)  I  give  herewith  as  taken  from  the  bill  forwarded  from  Shef- 
field to  one  of  the  purchasers  in  this  city  the  following  prices  of  files 
and  rasps  corresponding  to  some   mentioned  in  the  price-list  of  the 
Troy  manufacturers : 


Kind  and  size. 

Cost  per 
dozen. 

Kind  and  size. 

Cost  per 
dozen. 

Single  cut,  steel  taper  saw  files  : 
3-inch                    --  

£    *.  d. 
4    0 

Frame  saw  files  and  gullet  ing  (second 
cut  singles)  —  Continued. 

£    «.  d. 

31  jjHjji 

4    0 

5-inch 

6    6 

4  inch 

4    6 

6-inch                          

8    6 

4%-inch 

5    0 

250 

5    6 

Frame  saw  files  and  gulleting  (second 

7    6 

cat  double)  • 

200 

5    9 

6    3 

4    9 

5-inch                                 .      ..... 

7    « 

5    3 

9    6 

•l^inch 

6    0 

2  10    0 

6    6 

Rough  and  bastard: 

8    6 

'     4-inch     

6    3 

230 

7    0 

7    6 

4    9 

8    6 

5  inch 

5    9 

6-inch                    

9    8 

5Mnch 

6    3 

8  15    0 

7    0 

Second  cat: 

Up  to  24-inch 

700 

7    6 

44-inch 

9    3 

1  to  4  inch 

6    9 

5-inch        

8    9 

4J-inch 

7    6 

5^-inch  

9    9 

5-inch 

8    3 

6-inch                  ...  .......... 

10    9 

6-inch 

9    6 

*9    3    4 

7-inch               

11    6 

Smooth  : 

8  10    0 

4-inoh 

9    0 

4i-inch                    .     

9    6 

5-inch 

10    6 

1  to  4  inch 

10    3 

oj-inch      .          

11    6 

4i-inch 

11    3 

6-inch  

12    3 

5-inch          

12    6 

Up  to  24-inch  '. 

10  13    4 

14    6 

Dead  smooth  : 

7-inch     

17    6 

13    6 

Up  to  24-inch 

12  10    0 

44-inch         

14    6 

5-  inch 

15    9 

5jj-inch           '.          

17    6 

4    9 

6-inch 

18    6 

4-inch 

5    3 

Up  to  24-inch 

15  10    0 

4^-inch  

5    9 

FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  255 

Every  one  of  the  above  prices  is  subject  to  a  discount  that  now  is  and 
for  some  time  bas  been  i>'2.[  per  cent. 

Any  and  every  article  manufactured  under  the  foregoing  specified 
list  at  Sheffield  has  a  fixed  price  as  specified  above.  The  dealer  here 
must  make  the  best  terms  possible  with  the  Sheffield  dealer.  It  is  need- 
less to  go  through  the  entire  list  in  the  Troy  circular.  There  are  the 
prices  lor  the  above  articles  and  a  proportional  price  runs  through  the 
entire  list  of  this  class  of  goods  manufactured  in  Sheffield.  In  fact, -the 
Sheffield  manufacturers  formed  an  organization  some  years  ago,  fixed 
their  prices,  and  have  not  deviated  from  those  established  prices  since, — 
so  I  am  informed. 

I  have  no  doubt  the  Troy  File  Works  Company  can  obtain  on  appli- 
cation to  any  Sheffield  manufacturer  a  price-list  of  all  articles  manufact- 
ured by  them.*  To  this  price  list,  I  am  informed,  the  manufacturers 
adhere.  As  far  as  I  can  learn,  the  purchasers  here  pay  cash  on  receipt 
of  goods,  receiving  as  before  stated  a  discount  that  has  often  reached 
62.}  per  cent. 

The  rate  of  discount  varies,  of  course,  with  the  demand  for  the  arti- 
cles. There  are  three  large  hardware  houses  in  the  city ;  one  English, 
selling  on  its  own  account  and  on  commission  also,  and  two  Brazilian 
houses  doing  business  in  the  same  way,  I  believe. 

The  present  rate  of  duty  on  all  files  and  rasps  is  500  reis,  or  say  25 
cents  per  kilogram. 

It  is  probable  on  or  about  January  1  proximo,  the  present  tariff 
schedule  will  be  revived.  Whether  the  duty  as  it  now  stands  on  these 
articles  will  undergo  a  revision  is  as  yet  unknown.  The  other  charges 
lor  discharging,  employment  of  lighters,  etc.,  are  more  or  less  the  same 
as  paid  to  similar  labor  in  the  United  States. 

DAVID  N.  BURKE, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Bahia,  December  9,  1889. 


PERNAMBUCO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BORSTEL. 

For  the  following  information,  in  answer  to  the  file  circular,  I  am 
indebted  to  Mr.  William  Halliday,  the  principal  of  the  largest  wholesale 
iron-mongers  in  this  city.  Mr.  Halliday  informed  me  that  if  this  matter 
was  pushed  by  a  competent  salesman  he  had  no  doubt  but  sales  of 
American  files  could  be  made  here. 

*  The  Sheffield  price-list,  was  transmitted  by  Consul  Mercian,  and  is  printed, 
page  244. 

758A 2 


256 


FILES   IN    SPANISH   AMERICA. 


(1)  There  is  no  demand  for  American  files  in  our  market,  but  with 
much  perseverance  and  efforts  they  might  be  introduced  if  at  prices  to 
compete  with  English  and  German  manufacturers. 

(2)  Files  sold  in  this  market  are   generally  English   and   German 
makes,  of  sizes  and  shapes  as  noted  at  end. 

(3)  No  files  are  manufactured  in  this  province. 

(4)  The  following  are  the  current  prices  in  wholesale  stores,  subject 
to -14  per  cent,  discount  in  thirty  days. 

Quotations  for  first-class  English  files. 
[Prices  per  dozen.] 


Half 

Size. 

Round. 

Flat  and 
square. 

round 
and  three 

Wood 

rasps. 

Tapers. 

square. 

3-inch                    

$0  90 

1.00 

4-iiich                                            .................... 

1  10 

4  J-inch                    

1  20 

1  35 

$1.65 

$1.65 

$1  65 

$1  65 

2  00 

1.80 

1.80 

1.80 

1.80 

2.75 

2  50 

2  50 

2  50 

2  50 

3  00 

9-inch                

3.50 

3  50 

3.50 

3  50 

6  50 

6  50 

6  50 

6  50 

12-inch                         .      -           

8.50 

8  50 

8  50 

8  50 

12.00 

12.00 

12.  00 

12.00 

16-inch 

15  00 

15  00 

15  00 

15  00 

Quotations  for  common  German  files. 
[Prices  per  dozen.] 


Size. 

Round. 

Flat  and 
square. 

Half 
round 
and  three 
square. 

Wood 
rasps. 

Tapers. 

3-inch             -  --  

$0  55 

0.75 

0  85 

1.00 

$1  00 

$1  00 

$1  00 

1  10 

$1.30 

1.20 

1.20 

1.20 

1.30 

1  50 

1  40 

1  40 

1  40 

1  50 

8-inch                                .  .................. 

1.75 

1  60 

1.60 

1.60 

1.95 

9-inch 

2  45 

1  90 

1  90 

1  90 

10-inch                                                .  . 

3  55 

2  40 

2  40 

2  40 

2  45 

12-inch            

5.50 

3.50 

3.50 

3.50 

14  inch 

6  60 

5  40 

5  40 

5  40 

16-inch             

8.00 

7.50 

7.50 

7.50 

The  only  charges  to  which  files  are  subject  are  30  cents  per  kilogram 
duties  in  custom-house. 

H.  CHRISTIAN  BORSTEL, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Pernambuco,  October  15,  1889. 


FILES    IN   SPANISH   AMERICA.  257 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL- GENERAL  DOCKERY. 

(1)  There  is  no  demand  for  American  files. 

(2)  Files  are  imported  from  England  and  Germany. 

(3)  Files  are  not  manufactured  here. 

(4)  I  can  not  obtain  much  information  in  regard  to  your  fourth  ques- 
tion.   A  short  time  ago  the  leading  importers  here  attempted  to  intro* 
duce  American  tiles  for  Henry  Diston  &  Sons,  of  the  Keystone  works. 
It  was  asserted  that  American  files  were  as  good  or  better  than  others, 
but  prices  were  too  high.    The  trade  here  demands  cheap  files,  even  if 
of  inferior  quality.    There  is  a  general  complaint  that  American  manu- 
facturers will  not  make  goods  suitable  to  this  market. 

The  Troy  price-list  of  files  is  very  much  above  prices  paid  in  Eng- 
land and  Germany.  This  company  must  make  a  large  reduction,  even 
if  they  make  files  of  inferior  quality,  before  they  can  sell  here. 

O.  H.  DOCKERY, 

Consul-  General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  November  5,  1889. 


RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BENNINGTON. 

As  the  only  industry  of  this  country  of  which  it  is  worth  while  to 
speak  is  grazing,  the  demand  for  files  of  any  kind  or  origin  is  naturally 
very  limited,  and  unless  there  should  occur  great  changes  in  the  in- 
auguration of  manufacturing  industries  the  present  demand  will  not 
soon  be  increased. 

By  reference  to  the  records  of  foreign  imports  for  the  civil  year  1888, 
custom-house  of  Eio  Grande  do  Sul,  one  box  of  files  only  appears  to 
have  been  despatched ;  the  number  or  kind  of  files  it  contained  is  not 
given. 

The  railway  machine-shops,  Southern  Brazilian.  Eio  Grande  and 
Bagd  line,  a  small  foundry  and  machine  repair  shop  in  this  city3  a 
small  government  arsenal,  and  a  foundry  and  machine-shop  in  Porto 
Alegre,  all  quite  small  in  their  way,  are  the  only  establishments  of  the 
kind  in  this  province  so  far  as  can  be  ascertained. 

The  railway  shops  use  English  files,  furnished  direct  from  England 
by  the  company  which  owns  and  controls  the  road. 

American  files  are  unknown.  All  importations  in  this  line  are  from 
England  and  Germany. 


258 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


I  give  the  following  as  the  wholesale  prices  of  English  files,  by  the 
dozen  here,  according  to  the  best  obtainable  information.  What  the 
importers  pay  for  their  files  in  England  I  am  unable  to  say  : 


Size. 

Half  round, 
bastard. 

Flat 
bastard. 

Tapers, 
saw  flies. 

$0  76 

$0.97 

$0.97 

.87 

4^-inch                 

98 

1.19 

1.19 

1  08 

Si-inch.                                     -      ....  .     ..        ..   ...... 

1  25 

1.41 

1  41 

1.46 

7-inch 

1  78 

1  78 

2  08 

2  08 

The  foregoing  prices  are  subject  to  a  discount  of  10  per  cent.  I  ap- 
plied to  a  German  importing  hardware  establishment  in  this  city  for 
information  respecting  prices,  but  was  informed  that  they  imported 
no  German  files,  but  that  German  files  ranged  from  10  to  15  per  cent, 
cheaper  than  English  manufacture. 

By  the  special  tariff  for  this  province  the  duty  on  files  is  27  cents  per 
kilogram  and  the  official  value,  according  to  a  raz&o  of  48  per  cent.,  is 
1.020  reis,  or  about  55  cents  ;  the  storage,  according  to  this  rate  of  razao 
on  each  kilogram,  will  be  one-half  of  1  per  cent,  of  the  official  value 
for  the  first  month,  which  must  be  paid  if  goods  do  not  remain  in  the 
custom-house  one  hour.  •. 

The  prices  and  tariff  referred  to  are  based  upon  a  rate  of  54  cents 
United  States  gold  to  1,000  reis  Brazilian  currency,  the  ruling  sight 
rate  of  exchange  on  London  this  date. 

LEBBEUS  G.  BENNINGTON, 
Consul 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Rio  Grande  do  8ul,  November  6,  1889. 


CHILI. 

COQUIMBO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GRIJSRSON. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  the  amount  of  files  imported  here,  as  all  iron 
articles  are  simply  described  as  iron  goods,  and  when  dispatched  from 
the  custom-house  are  weighed  and  valued  at  30  cents  per  kilogram, 
the  duty  being  15  per  cent,  on  this  quantity  with  a  recargo  on  account 
of  exchange  of  37  per  cent.,  which  is  diminishing  1  per  cent,  monthly. 

J.  GRIERSON, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 
Coquimlo,  November  14,  1889. 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  259 

TALCAHUANO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  VAN  INGEN. 

The  importation  of  files  into  this  consular  district  is  very  limited,  and 
there  is  not  sufficient  business  done  in  that  article  in  this  market  to  in- 
terest American  exporters.  The  trade  is  so  small  that  it  would  be  very 
difficult  to  give  the  information  required  by  the  circular. 

I  have  no  doubt  the  Valparaiso  consulate,  which  is  more  of  a  center 
in  the  hardware  business,  will  forward  with  much  greater  facility  the 
requisite  in  formation,  and  that  will  apply  to  the  whole  country. 

J.  F.  VAN  INGKEN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Talcahuano,  October  29,  1889. 


DUTCH    GUIANA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BROWNE. 

There  are  no  American  files  in  use  in  this  colony  at  the  present  time. 
A  demand  for  such  may  be  created  by  the  American  manufacturers 
forwarding  their  illustrated  price-lists  and  sample-cards  to  the  prin- 
cipal hardware  dealers  in  this  colony,  P.  A.  Bruggemanu,  L.  C.  Leef- 
maus,  J.  de  la  Parra,  and  Beelfs  Bros. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of  files  in  use  in  this 
colony,  imported  from  England  and  Germany  : 

Taper  saw  files,  3  to  6  inch  ;  four  square  bastard  file,  8  to  14  inch  ; 
flat  bastard  file,  8  to  18  inch ;  flat  file,  second  cut,  8  to  18  inch  ;  flat  file, 
smooth,  8  to  18  inch;  flat  file,  dead-smooth,  8  to  18  inch;  half-round 
bastard  file, 8  to 20  inch;  second  cut,  smooth,  8  to 20 inch  ;  dead-smooth, 
round  bastard  file,  8  to  10  inch;  second  cut,  smooth,  dead-smooth,  half 
bastard  equaling  file,  smooth  and  bastard;  knife-files,  smooth  and 
bastard;  rasp-files;  shoe-makers'  files;  wood-rasps;  cabinet  files; 
taper  saw  files,  3  to  6  inch ;  frame  saw  files  6  to  7  inch.  These  are  the 
files  mostly  in  use  in  this  colony,  while  there  is  little  demand  for  the 
following :  Square  blunt  file,  4  to  6  inch ;  entering  file,  smooth  and 
bastard,  8-inch  ;  taper  lopping  file,  6  to  12  inch  ;  topping  file,  12-inch  ; 
mill  saw  file,  8  to  16  inch ;  needle  file,  8  to  16  inch ;  round-off  tile,  8  to 
16  inch. 

Files  are  not  manufactured  in  this  colony. 


260 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


The  prices  at  which,  files  are  purchased  by  wholesale  dealers  in  this 
colony  are  very  varying,  German  files  being  generally  cheaper  than 
English. 

The  following  is  an  approximate  list  of  prices  per  dozen  for  files  most 
in  use  in  this  colony : 


Size. 

Taper 
saw  flies. 

Frame 

saw  flies. 

Knife 
file, 
smooth. 

Half 
round, 
bastard. 

Half 
round, 
smooth. 

3-inch  

s,  d, 
4    0 

s.  d. 

*.   d. 

a.   d, 

*.   d. 

4-inch 

4    6 

5-inch         .... 

5    6 

(J-inch  

7    6 

8    6 

15    6 

1    0 

9    6 

7-inch 

10    8 

19    6 

8    6 

10    6 

8-inch  

23    0 

10    6 

13    fr 

10-inch 

12    6 

16    6 

Discount  57J  per  cent. 

Files  imported  in  this  colony  are  subject  to  an  ad  valorem  duty  of  10 

per  cent. 

THOMAS  BROWNE, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 
Paramaribo,  October  16, 1889. 


PERU. 


CALLAO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BRENT. 

In  reply  to  your  inquiry  concerning  files,  dated  August  28  last,  I 
have  to  state  that  no  such  articles  are  manufactured  in  this  consular 
district. 

I  can  recommend  Messrs.  Humphreys  &  Co.  and  Evanisto  Barrios,  of 
Lima,  as  reliable  representatives  for  all  American  manufacturers.  *  Let- 
ters to  them,  directed  to  my  care,  will  be  safely  delivered. 

Files  dispatched  in  the  custom-house  here  are  valued  at  2  sols  per 
dozen  (1  sol  equals  68  cents  American)  and  40  per  cent,  duties  on  the 
same. 

H.  M.  BRENT, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 
Callao,  October  10,  1889. 


PILES   IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  261 

REPUBLIC  OF  COLOMBIA. 

BARRANQUILLA. 
REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  WHELPLEY. 

Any  community  within  the  United  States  or  Canada,  of  3,000  inhabi- 
tants, would  use  more  files  in  one  year  than  this  consular  district,  say 
of  50,000  inhabitants,  would  use  in  two.  In  the  United  States,  in  city 
or  country,  the  merchant,  mechanic,  farmer,  artisan,  or  citizen  of  any 
grade,  would  consider  his  household  equipment  incomplete  without  his 
kit  of  tools,  among  which  the  file  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  important. 
Mechanical  ability  has  been  very  sparsely  distributed  in  this  country. 
Comparatively  speaking,  there  are  no  agricultural  tools  or  machinery 
in  use,  no  constructive  mechanics,  coppersmiths,  lock-smiths,  brass- 
fitters,  farriers,  gas-fitters,  plumbers ;  no  makers  of  cutlery,  fire-arms  or 
labor- saving  devices.  Every  article  of  iron,  steel,  copper,  or  brass  must 
be  imported.  Outside  of  the  towns,  among  the  gente  of  the  country 
(the  bogas,  foresters,  herdsmen,  etc.,  that  comprise  four-fifths  of  the 
population),  the  only  use  for  a  file  may  be  to  be  driven  into  one  of  the 
posts  of  the  ranch  as  a  peg ;  or,  if  a  flat  file,  to  be  converted  into  a  knife 
blade  at  the  nearest  native  smithy. 

The  two  steam- boat  companies  navigating  the  Magdalen  a  Kiver  im- 
port their  own  files  from  England,  and  being  under  English  manage- 
ment are  unwilling  to  concede  any  merit  whatever  to  American  tools. 

The  company  under  German  management  seems  to  entertain  the  same 
idea  relative  to  the  superiority  of  German  files. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Oswald  Berne,  the  largest  dealer  in  tools,  hard- 
ware, and  house-furnishing  implements  in  Colombia,  for  the  following 
data  in  regard  to  the  trade  in  files.  His  sales,  of  all  sizes,  amount  to 
from  4  to  6  dozen  a  year.  He  orders  2  dozen  of  each  size  at  a  time  as  his 
stock  diminishes.  He  has  remnants  of  stock  upon  his  shelves  ordered 
in  1883. 

He  called  my  attention  to  a  letter  from  a  New  York  house  in  regard 
to  some  American  files  shipped  to  him  some  months  ago,  urging  the 
sale  at  one-third  reduction  from  the  original  invoice  prices,  which 
would  still  be  12  per  cent,  higher  than  English  files  of  the  same  grade. 

He  gets  part  of  his  file  stock  from  Germany,  at  the  following  prices : 
8  marks  *  per  dozen  for  12-inch  flat ;  12  marks  per  dozen  for  14-inch 
Hat.  Discount,  25  per  cent. 

English  prices  are  :  21s.  Qd.  per  dozen  for  12-inch  flat;  30*.  per  dozen 
for  14-inch  flat ;  33«.  per  dozen,  second  cut,  14-inch  flat;  43*.  per  dozen 
for  16-inch  flat.  Discount,  55  per  cent. 

The  12  and  14  inch  are  the  only  size«  called  for,  and  are  quoted  to 
illustrate  prices  in  comparison  with  the  Troy  company's  list. 

•  1  mark  =  23.8  cents. 


262 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


Most  of  the  other  different  styles  and  u  extras"  are  unknown  and  un- 
called for,  with  the  exception  of  the  4-inch,  and  more  rarely  the  6-inch 
triangular.  Rasps  are  seldom  called  for,  except  from  the  mountainous 
regions  of  the  interior,  where  horses  are  shod;  but  local  sales  do  not 
amount  to  a  dozen  a  year. 

Probably  10  dozen  a  year  of  all  kinds  would  be  a  liberal  estimate  of 
sales  by  the  three  or  four  traders  in  this  district. 

I  submit  the  inclosed  memorandum,  marked  A,  as  compiled  from  the 
books  of  M.  Berne,  under  his  direction. 

S.  M.  WHELPLEY, 

Vice-Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Barranquilla,  October  7,  1889. 


German  files. 
iMarks  per  dozen,  j 


Size. 

Triangular,  square,  flat,  round,  and  half-round. 

Shoe  rasps. 

Horse  rasps.  * 

First  quality.  g  ^ 

!  •  s® 

Second  quality,  j  ~l"«.lir 

First  quality. 

Second  quality. 

Extra  quality. 

1 
1 

cS 

M 

aJ 

a 

«H 
1 

i 

0 

H 

\ 

PR 

s 

«3 

^ 
,q 

1 

o 

3 

£ 

"g 

C3 

1 

1 

|M 

13 
A 

2 
§ 

4-inch  . 
5-incli  . 
6-inch  .     . 
7-inch  . 
8-inch  .     . 
9-inch  .     . 
10-inch  .     . 
11-inch  .     . 
12-inch  .     . 
13-inch  .     . 
14-  inch  .     . 
15-iuch  ..   . 
16-inch  .  . 

1.65 
2.20 
2.65 
3.25 
4.00 
4.75 
5.80 
7.  25 
8.75 
10.50 
12.  7? 
15.  00 
18.00 

2.20 
2.65 
3.25 
4.00 
4.75 
5.80 
7.00 
8.60 
10.40 
12.  50 
15.00 
18.00 
21.50 

2.40 
3.00 
3.85 
4.60 
5.60 
6.75 
8.45 
10.  25 
12.  25 
14.75 
17.50 
21.  00 
25.00 

1.35 
1.75 
2.25 
2.60 
3.10 
4.00 
5.15 
6.15 
7.30 
8.80 
10.  25 
12.00 
13.50 

1.85 
2.15 
2.75 
3.25 
4.00 
4.90 
5.70 
0.90 
8.00 
10.10 
12.  25 
14.50 
16.50 

2.10 
2.60 
3.20 
4.00 
4.65 
5.60 
6.90 
8.10 
0.60 
11.50 
13.50 
16.00 
19.00 

1.80 
2.35 
2.95 
3.70 
4.50 
5.35 
6.90 
8.40 
10.25 
12.50 
15.00 
18.00 
22.00 

2.30 
2.90 
3.70 
4.40 
5.40 
6.50 
8.00 
9.85 
12.00 
14.75 
18.00 
21.50 
20.00 

2.65 
3.40 
4.40 
5.20 
6.40 
7.65 
9.50 
11.50 
13.75 
17.00 
20.50 
25,00 
30.00 

7.  00  to    8.50 
8.  50  to  10.  00 
10.  00  to  12.  00 



12.00 

8.00 



15.00 

9.00 

17.00 
19.50 
23.00 

18.00 

11.00 

24.00 



*  Second  quality,  marks  1. 20  per  kilogram,  all  sizes. 
Discount  25  and  4  per  cent. 

English  files. 

[Per  dozen.] 


t  Per  gross. 


Size. 

C.S. 
pit  saw. 

Round 
bastard. 

Flat  bas- 
tard. 

Square 
bastard. 

Half- 
round 
bastard. 

Half- 
round 
rasps. 

Flat 
rasps. 

Trian- 
gular saw 
files. 

4-inch  

s.    d. 

s.    d. 

*.    d. 

*.    d. 

s.    d. 

9.    d. 

*.    d. 

*.    d. 
4    6 

4^-inch  

5    0 

6-inch     .   . 

8    6 

7    0 

1    0 

8  inch  

10    6 

10    6 

10    6 

10    6 

10-inch. 

15    0 

15    0 

15    0 

15    0 

15    0 

15    0 

12-inch  

21    6 

21    6 

21    6 

21    6 

14-inch 

30    0 

30    0 

16  inch  

43    0 

Duty  on  files,  30  cents  per  kilogram. 


FILES    IN    SPANISH   AMERICA. 


263 


COLON. 
REPORT  RY  CONSUL  VIFQUAIN. 

(1)  There  is  no  demand  now  for  files  or  anything  else;  the  few  deal- 
ers have  enough  of  a  supply  to  do  them  for  a  long  time,  all  industries 
being  virtually  dead  since  the  work  on  the  canal  has  stopped. 

A  file  is  not  a  luxury,  it  is  not  an  ornament,  it  is  in  fact  a  tool,  and 
there  is  only  a  demand  for  tools  where  there  is  industry.  At  the  pres- 
ent time  there  is  no  such  a  thing  as  industry  here.  But  I  dare  say  that 
if  the  Panama  Canal  resumes  work  the  demand  for  files  will  be  greatly 
enhanced. 

(2}  Files  are  not  imported  into  this  district  now.  In  the  good  days 
of  the  canal  there  were  probably  5  tons  of  files  per  annum  imported  at 
this  place  for  distribution  along  the  line  of  the  canal,  and  for  the  use  of 
the  industries  necessary  to  supply  the  works  with  the  necessary  material, 
such  as  timber  for  bridges,  fences,  ties  for  railroads,  etc. 

The  kind  imported  was  nearly  all  American.  There  are  some  English 
files,  also  some  Belgian;  but  nearly  99  per  cent,  are  American. 

The  English  ranks  first  for  temper,  the  American  for  cut  and  shape, 
the  Belgian  for  cheapness ;  but  withal  the  American  rules  the  market. 

(3)  Files  are  not  manufactured  in  this  district. 

(4)  The  price-list  of  the  Troy  manufacturers  is  far  in  excess  of  the 
prices  at  which  files  are  bought  from  other  American  manufacturers, 
and,  as  I  have  been  able  to  secure  the  exact  prices  of  such  files  as  are 
here,  I  deem  it  wiser  to  give  those  prices.     The  several  files  cited  are 
bought  in  the  States  at  wholesale  per  dozen,  as  follows : 


3-iuch. 

4-inch. 

5-inch 

6-inch 

7-inch 

8-mcli. 

10- 

12- 

14- 

10- 

18- 

inch. 

inch. 

inch. 

inch. 

inch. 

Taper  

$0.40 

si  >  43 

$0.71 

Bastard  flat  

$2.45 

Flat  

1  22 

$2  08 

$4.71 

Half-  round  bastard..  . 

••H.'iii 

$2.81 

5.00 

$6.35 

Rasps  

$1  58 

$1  81 

2  09 

To  these  prices  must  be  added  the  freight,  and  they  are  sold  here,  as 
a  general  rule,  at  10  cents  Colombian  per  inch.  The  profits  on  these 
files  therefore  average  100  per  cent,  at  the  present  rate  of  exchange. 

The  prices  in  the  States  of  the  four  different  manufactures  cited  are 
virtually  the  same. 

(5)  I  have  found  no  other  files  in  this  market  for  sale  than  those 
cited,  and  there  is  no  tariff  on  files  in  this  consular  district.  There  are 
no  charges  between  the  manufacturer  in  the  States  and  the  merchants' 
stores  here  except  the  freight  on  the  goods. 

VICTOR  VIFQUAIN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Colon.  October  1, 1889. 


FILES   IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

PANAMA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  ADAMSON. 

(1)  There  is  no  special  demand  for  American  files  in  this  consular  dis- 
trict, neither  is  there  a  great  demand  for  files  from  any  other  country. 
The  conditions  under  which  we  live  in  this  country  are  so  different 
from  those  that  prevail  at  home  that  it  is  difficult  to  make  our  people 
comprehend  our  case.     Briefly  stated,  there  are  no  roads  worthy  of 
mention,  and  therefore  few  vehicles  to  be  repaired  or  horses  to  be  shod. 
The  mechanics  who  use  files  are  then  few.    During  the  time  when  the 
works  on  the  Panama  Canal  were  in  operation  there  was  a  considerable 
consumption  of  files  in  the  machine  and  blacksmith  shops  of  the  com- 
pany, but  that  demand  has  ceased,  and  there  is  no  prospect  for  creating 
a  fresh  demand. 

There  is  but  one  store  in  the  whole  department  of  Panama  which  is 
solely  devoted  to  the  business  in  hardware,  and  the  purchases  of,  files 
by  that  establishment  amount  to  $250  a  year.  Under  such  circum- 
stances as  now  exist  here  the  total  trade  in  files  for  the  whole  depart- 
ment will  hardly  reach  $1,000  per  annum. 

(2)  All  the  files  used  here    are  imported  from  Sheffield,  England. 
The  kinds  imported  are  such  as  are  most  used  by  blacksmiths,  shoe, 
makers,  and  workers  in  wood. 

(3)  Files  are  not  manufactured  in  this  district. 

(4)  The  principal  dealer  in  hardware  at  this  place  does  not  keep  in 
stock  all  the  kinds  or  sizes  of  files  mentioned  in  the  list  which  accom- 
panies the  circular,  and  would  only  quote  the  cost  of  a  few  numbers. 
For  instance,  he  buys  10-inch  bastard  round  files  in  Sheffield  at  15 
shillings  per  dozen,  less  60  and  5  per  cent. ;  16-inch  bastard  flat,  43 
shillings,  less  same  discount;  8-inch  flat  bastard,  10  shillings  6  pence, 
same  discount;  16-inch  half  round,  43  shillings,  same  discount;  16- 
inch  horse  rasps,  plain,  43  shillings,  same  discount. 

The  ports  of  this  isthmus  are  "  free  ports,"  but  in  the  duty  ports 
there  are  no  higher  duties  imposed  on  American  files  than  on  those 
from  Sheffield,  and  consequently  the  tariff  can  have  nothing  to  do  with 
the  competition. 

THOMAS  ADAMSON,  * 

Consul-  General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Panama,  October  4,  1889. 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  265 

VENEZUELA. 

LA  GUAYRA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BIRD. 

(1)  There  is  no  demand  in  this  consular  district  for  American  files. 
Importers  declare  that  English  tiles  are  much  cheaper  in  price. 

(2)  Files  of  all  kinds  in  sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  ordinary  de- 
mands of  trade  are  imported  from  England. 

(3)  No  files  are  manufactured  in  Venezuela. 

(4)  Four-inch  bastard  mill  and  round  files,  flat  and  square  tiles,  hand, 
warding,  and  pillar  files,  and  half-round,  and  three-square  files,  at  in- 
voice price,  cost  4£  shillings  per  dozen,  with 60  per  cent,  discount.   These 
figures  are  so  much  lower  than  American  quotations  that  it  is  probably 
unnecessary  to  say  more  upon  the  subject. 

(5)  The  duty  on  files  amounts  to  $6.66  in  United  States  gold  per  100 
pounds  gross  weight  and  12  j  per  cent,  of  amount  of  duties  for  internal 
tax. 

The  foregoing  report  is  based  upon  information  furnished  by  Messrs. 
Becker,  Brun  &  Co.,  the  largest  hardware  importers  in  this  consular 
district. 

WINFIELD  S.  BIRD, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 
La  Guayra,  October  7,  1889. 


MARACAIBO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PLUMAOHEB. 

(1)  There  is  little  demand  for  American  files  in  this  district,  as  it  is 
understood  that  American  files  are  machine-made  and  customers  prefer 
hand-made  ones. 

(2)  Files  are  imported  into  this  district  from  England  and  Germany, 
but  only  the  very  best  quality  :  flat,  half-round,  three-square,  and  rasps. 

(3)  There  are  no  files  manufactured  in  this  district. 

(4)  Files  are  not  purchased  on  the  spot,  but  ordered  direct  from  Eng. 
laud  and  Germany  at  prices  well  known  to  American  makers. 

(5)  Files  are  subject  to  fourth-class  duty  of  the  tariff  of  Venezuela ; 
that  is  to  say,  15  cents  American  gold  for  every  kilogram  gross  weight. 

E.  PLUMACHEB, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 
Maracaibo,  September  28,  1889. 


266 


FILES    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


PUERTO  CABELLO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DE  BLANC. 

(1)  No  American  files  are  imported  into  this  district  as  far  as  I  have 
been  able  to  ascertain.    The  hardware  importing  business  in  this  port 
is  limited  to  three  firms  (A.  Mestern  &  Co.,  Max  Keinboth  &  Co.,  and 
L.  Seidel  &  Co.),  who  also  have  branch  houses  in  Valencia.     A  demand 
for  American  files  might  be  created  by  introducing  and  making  them 
known  in  this  market.     For  that  purpose  I  would  suggest  the  sending 
of  samples  to  the  above-named  houses,  who  have  assured  me  of  their 
willingness  to  import  from  the  United  States  if  they  can  do  so  on  terms 
as  favorable  as  those  they  obtain  at  presentfrom  the  English  manufact- 
urers. 

(2)  All  the  files  imported  into  this  district  come,  almost  exclusively, 
from   England.    The  kinds  imported   are:    bastard,  half-round,  flat, 
round,  and  square ;  taper  saw  files,  and  pit  saw  files. 

(3)  No  files  of  any  kind  are  manufactured  in  this  district. 

(4)  The  following  list  shows  the  prices  at  which  the  kinds  of  files  im- 
ported into  this  district  are  purchased  by  the  wholesale  dealers  of  this 
port: 

List  of  prices. 


Size. 

Bastard, 
half  round, 
ronnd,  flat, 
and  square. 

Bastard, 
three 
square. 

Taper  saw 
tiles, 
second  cut. 
single. 

Pit  saw 
files, 
second  cut, 
single. 

4£-inch 

*.  d. 

*.  d. 

8.  d. 
5    0 

s.  d. 

5    6 

6    6 

6-inch                                       .               .           

1    0 

8    6 

8    6 

8    6 

8-incli 

10    6 

12    0 

9-inch     .                                                ..            ....... 

12    0 

10-inch 

15    0 

18    0 

11-inch 

21    6 

12-inch  

21    6 

All  the  above  are  subject  to  65  per  cent,  discount. 

(5)  Custom  dues  in  Venezuela  are  wholly  specific,  and  are  levied  on 
the  gross  weight  of  packages.  All  foreign  merchandise  is  divided  into 
nine  classes.  Files  are  in  the  fourth  class,  and  pay  75  centimes  of  a 
bolivar  per  kilogram  ($6.6346  United  States  currency  per  100  pounds). 
No  other  charges  are  imposed  on  the  introduction  of  files  into  this 
district. 

CHARLES  DE  BLANC, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Puerto  Cabellr,  October  30,  1889. 


SPECIAX,    CONSULAR    REPORTS. 


CARPET  MANUFACTURE 


IN 


FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


REPORTS    FROM    THE    CONSULS    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES    ON    THE 

MANUFACTURE  OF  CARPETS  AND  RUGS  IN  THEIR  SEVERAL 

DISTRICTS,  IN  ANSWER  TO  A  CIRCULAR  FROM 

THE    DEPARTMENT    OF    STATE. 


ISSUED  FROM  THE  BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS,  DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE. 

ALL  BEQUESTS  FOR  THESE  REPORTS  SHOULD  BE  ADDRESSED 
TO  THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING   OFFICE, 
1890. 


CARPET  CIRCULAR. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE, 

Washington,  June  10,  1889. 

To  the  Consul  at : 

SIB  :  The  Department  has  been  requested  by  representatives  of  the 
carpet  manufacturers  of  the  United  States  to  secure  statistics  concern- 
ing that  industry  in  the  leading  countries  of  Europe.  In  compliance 
with  such  request  the  following  interrogatories  and  suggestions  have 
been  prepared  with  the  view  to  obtaining  the  information  desired : 

(1)  Number  of  mills  or  distinct  establishments  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  car- 
pets in  your  district.     (Give  a  list  thereof,  together  with  the  proper  business  address 
of  each.) 

(2)  Number  of  looms  in  each  establishment.     Where  exact  information  in  this  re- 
gard is  not  obtainable  give  the  closest  estimate,  making  a  careful  distinction  between 
hand  and  power  looms. 

(3)  Proportion  of  pure  carpets  to  those  of  lower  grades,  making,  if  possible,  the 
following  distinctions:  (a)  Brussels,  Wilton,  Saxony,  velvet,  etc.  (6)  Rugs  and  whole 
carpets— Smyrna,  Turkish,  etc.     (c)  Ingrain,  Kidderminster,  Venetian  damask,  etc. 

(4)  Number  of  persons  who  find  wage  employment  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets, 
rates  of  wages,  hours  of  labor,  manner  of  living,  etc.,  distinguishing  between  those 
employed  at  their  homes  from  those  employed  in  factories. 

(5)  Is  the  industry — dyeing,  spinning,  weaving,  etc. — conducted  unitedly  or  in  sep- 
arate divisions  by  independent  interests  ? 

(6)  How  is  the  product  placed  upon  the  market— direct  from  the  factories  by  the 
factors  or  through  commission  agents,  etc.  T 

(7)  Where  does  the  product  find  consumption,  at  home  or  abroad?    If  abroad,  to 
what  cou  a  tries  is  it  exported,  and  on  what  terms  are  sales  conducted  ? 

You  are  requested  to  prepare  a  report  upon  the  foregoing  interroga- 
tories and  suggestions  and  forward  the  same  to  the  Department  at  your 
earliest  convenience. 

I  am,  sir,  your  obedient  servant, 

WILLIAM  F.  WHARTON, 

Assistant  Secretary. 


CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  GOLDSCHMIDT,  OF  VIENNA. 
MILLS  AND  ESTABLISHMENTS. 

(1)  Imperial,  Royal  Carpet  and  Tapestry  Factory  of  Philipp  Haas 
&  Sous,  in  Ebergassing  (Actieugesellschaft  der  k.  k.  priv.  Teppich-  it* 
Mobel-Stoff-Fabrik  von  Philipp  Haas  &  Sohne). 

(2)  Johann  Backhausen  &  Sons,  Tapestry  and  Carpet  Factory  (M6- 
belstoff-  u.  Teppich-Fabrik),  in  Vienna  and  Hoheneich. 

(3)  Hackl  &  Sons,  T.  R.,  Carpet  and  Tapestry  Factory  (k.  k.  priv, 
Teppich  u.  Mobelstoff-Fabrik),  in  Vienna  and  in  Briihl,  near  Weitra. 

(4)  Leopold  Silberstein,  in  Vienna. 

(5)  Gross-Sieghartser  Tapestry  Blanket  and  Carpet  Factory  (Mobel- 
stotf,  Decken-  u.  Teppicli-Fabrik),  in  Gross- Siegh arts. 

All  of  the  aforesaid  are  in  Xether-Austria. 

(G)  T.  Ginsky,  in  Maffersdorf,  near  Reicheuberg,  Bohemia. 

(7)  Aubin  Protzeu  &Co.,  in  Reichenberg,  Bohemia. 

(8)  Carl  Wag/ier  &  Co.,  in  Maffersdorf. 

LOOMS. 

The  number  of  looms  in  the  foregoing  establishments  amounted  to  756 
hand,  and  338  power. 

GRADES  MANUFACTURED. 

This  question  is  hard  to  answer.  All  the  articles  named  are  produced. 
The  production  changes  according  to  the  fashion  and  demand,  one  year 
is  unlike  the  other,  hence  it  is  impossible  to  make  a  statement  giving 
the  proportion  of  the  different  grades  of  carpets  manufactured. 

271 


272         CARPP:T  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 
NUMBER  OF  EMPLOYES. 

The  following  table  answers  the  question  as  to  the  number  of  persons 
who  find  wage-employment  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  in  Austria 
and  Bohemia : 


Countries. 

Chambers  of 
Commerce. 

Num- 
ber of 
spin- 
dles. 

Machines. 

Workmen. 

Value  of 
produc- 
tion. 

Hand-looms. 

Power- 
looms. 

| 

Women. 

Children. 

1 

Jacquard. 

ri 

1 

Jacquard. 

Austria  

Vienna  

70 
30 
5 

10 

80 
30 
5 

44 
2 
6 

231 
35 
44 

209 
46 
70 

18 

10 

458 
91 
144 

1,460 
86 
232 

Florins. 
675,  000 
48,  000 
148,  000 
33,  000 
1,  900,  000 
128,000 
300,  000 

Austria  
Steuerinark  .  . 
Tirol  

Linz  
Graz  

600 
1,860 
1,185 

32 
60 

50 

Bohemia  .  .  £ 
Mahren  

Total 

Iteichenberg 
Buihveis  
Briinu  

3,  500 
1,000 
1,830 

270 
50 
114 

110 
6 

22 

380 
56 
136 

130 

780 
50 
120 

620 
34 
112 

60 
2 

90 

9,975 

539 

148 

687 

182 

142 

1,260 

1,031 

2,441 

3,  227,  000 

RATES  OF  WAGES  PER  WEEK. 


Class. 

Men. 

Women. 

Adults. 

Children. 

Adults. 

Children. 

BoLemian  : 
Formen              

$4.  00-$5  60 

2.  00-  3.  60 
2.40-2.80 
2.  30-  2.  80 
3.  20-  3.  40 
2.  40-  3.  20 
3.  00-  3.  40 
2.40-  2.80 

5.30    7.46 

$1.  30-$1.  40 
1.  30-  1.  50 
1.80-  2.00 
1.60 
1.  00-  1.  30 
1.  10-  1.  40 

$1.60-$2.00 
1.60 
1.  70-  1.  90 

$1.50 
$1.  20-  1.  50 

Dyers    

Helpers  to  hand-weavers  

1.  40-  1.  80 
1.  80-  2.  00 
1.60-  2.  GO 

1.  00-  1.  40 
1.20-  1.60 

Shoddy  wool-workers 

Austria  : 

Hand-weavers    ..             

2.  60-  4.  80 
3.  20-  3.  75 
3.  10-  3.  75 
4.  20-  4.  40 
3.  20-  4.  20 
4.  00-  4.  40 
3.20-  3.75 

1.  70-  2.  00 
1.  "0-  2.  00 
2.  40-  2.  66 
2.15 
1.  33-  1.  70 
1.  46-  1.  90 

2.  15-  2.  65 
2.15 
2.  30-  2.  50 

2.00 
1.  60-  2.  00 

Dyers 

Skilled  workmen.         .....     ....          

1.  90-  2.  40 
2.  40-  2.  66 
2.  15-  2.  66 

1.33-  1.90 
1.  60-  2.  15 

Helper  to  power-weavers 

Shoddy  wool-  workers  ...     

The  foregoing  table  shows  that  the  weekly  wages  in  Austria  in  this 
particular  branch  of  business  are  sufficiently  moderate,  but  those  paid 
in  Bohemia  are  starvation  wages. 

HOURS  OF  LABOR. 

Eleven  hours  constitute  a  work  day  in  both  countries,  one -half  hour's 
time  being  allowed  for  dinner. 

Work  in  the  Austrian  weaving  establishments  goes  on  throughout 
the  whole  year,  with  the  exception  of  Sundays  and  church  festivals 
and  certain  national  or  local  festivals,  which  number  76  out  of  the  365 
days,  making  289  work  days. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  273 

Workmen  as  a  rule  in  this  monarchy  are  usually  steady  and  methodi- 
cal iu  their  labor,  but  do  not  work  as  energetically  as  the  American 
workman. 

HOW   THE  WORK  PEOPLE   LIVE. 

They  are  industrious,  but  fond  of  amusement,  and  are  too  often  in- 
terrupted by  the  numerous  holidays  observed  here.  Their  homes  are 
far  from  comfortable.  There  are  few  houses  inhabited  by  a  single 
family,  generally  one  house  shelters  from  eight  to  twelve  families ;  over- 
crowding is  great  in  these  dwellings,  and  morality  is  affected  by  it.  On 
account  of  the  dearuess  of  the  land,  there  is  a  scarcity  of  small  houses 
suitable  for  a  single  family.  The  dress  of .  the  workman  is  tolerably 

good. 

.Much  wine  and  beer  are  consumed  by  the    lower  classes,  though 

drunkenness  does  not  prevail  to  a  great  extent.  Since  the  great  battle 
between  capital  and  labor  has  begun,  the  condition  of  the  laboring 
classes  of  this  monarchy  has  been  visibly  and,  I  trust,  permanently  im- 
proved, although  there  is  great  room  for  improvement  in  wages  in  this 
special  line  of  business. 

WOMEN  WORKERS. 

A  great  deal  of  heavy  work  here  is  done  by  women  of  all  ages,  not 
only  in  carpet  factories,  but  in  the  open  air,  such  as  sawing  wood,  mak- 
ing and  carrying  mortar  in  buckets,  and  hauling  the  brick  used  in  build- 
ing. The  wages  they  earn  are  40  cents  per  day.  In  the  carpet  manu- 
factories only  a  very  small  percentage  of  the  workmen  are  employed  at 
their  homes. 

HOW  THE  INDUSTRY  IS  CONDUCTED. 

In  three  factories  dyeing,  spinning,  and  weaving  are  combined,  but 
colored  carpet- warp  in  the  Bohemian  factories  of  the  firms  of  T.  Ginsky 
and  Aubin  Protzen  &  Co.,  is  obtained  from  other  countries.  The  other 
establishments  limit  themselves  to  the  weaving  and  finishing  of  carpets. 

HOW  THE  PRODUCT   IS  MARKETED. 

The  manufacturer  has  large  warerooms  in  the  prominent  cities,  from 
whence  the  goods  are  retailed  to  the  consumer  direct;  for  instance,  the 
linn  of  Philipp  Haas  &  Sons,  of  Vienna,  has  large  retail  establishments 
in  the  following  cities :  Budapest,  Prague,  Graz,  Liuz,  Lemberg,  Bu- 
charest, Milan,  Home,  Naples,  and  Genoa.  They  also  employ  traveling 
men  who  canvass  the  country. 

In  a  few  instances,  especially  in  the  smaller  concerns,  commission 
agents  and  jobbers  market  the  product  of  the  carpet  manufacturers  in 
conjunction  with  other  goods,  such  as  furniture,  house-furnishing  goods 
in  general,  dry  goods,  etc. 


274 


CARPET    MANUFACTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


WHERE  THE  PRODUCT  FINDS  CONSUMPTION. 

The  product  finds  the  greatest  consumption  at  home,  though  there  is 
some  exportation  to  the  Orient,  Russia,  Italy,  Servia,  Eoumania,  and 
other  countries. 

Terms  of  sale  vary  greatly  ;  there  are  no  established  rules  as  to  time 
and  discount,  each  manufacturer  having  his  own  method  of  doing  busi- 
ness. 

MOTORS  IN  USE. 

In  conclusion  and  in  addition  to  the  questions  propounded,  I  give  be- 
low a  table  compiled  by  the  various  chambers  of  commerce  in  the 
different  sections  of  Austria,  showing  the  motors,  representing  the 
amount  of  horse-power  used  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and  blankets. 


Countries. 

Chambers  of  commerce. 

to 

1 
S 
A 

1 

CM 

O 

0 

to 

Steam 
machines. 

Water- 
power,  tur- 
ttlne  wheel. 

Water- 
power. 

Other 
motors. 

Total. 

Number. 

• 

Horse-power. 

Number. 

Horse-power. 

Number. 

Horse-power. 

Number. 

Horse-power. 

Number. 

Horse  power. 

Austria  J 

Steiermark 

Vienna    

8 
1 

4 

140 

1 

114 

2 
2 

41 
70 

1 

8 

8 
2 

303 
70 

67 

257 
27 
128 

932 

Graz 

2 
3 

1 

60 

1 

7 

Tyrol 

Bohemia  5 

Reichenberg  

4 
1 

2 

21 

6 
1 
3 

285 
12 
128 

3 

42 

1 
1 

30 
15 



10 
2 

3 

27 

Main-en 

Total 

6 

156 

1 

8 

15 

625 

5 

163 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 

I  am  indebted  and  make  in  consequence  my  acknowledgment  to  Mr. 
Gustav  v.  Schceller,  of  Briinu,  for  most  of  the  information  herein  em- 
braced. 

JULIUS  GOLDSCHMIDT, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Vienna,  October  31,  1889. 

I 


BELGIUM. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ROOSEVELT,  OF  BRUSSELS. 

With  the  exception  of  a  small  factory  at  Touruai,  known  as  the  Royal 
Carpet  Manufactory,  employing  only  eight  workmen,  the  carpet  indus- 
try has  completely  disappeared  from  this  consular  district,  owing  in 
part  to  aversion  by  the  Belgians  to  new  inventions,  and  greatly  to  com- 
petition by  the  English.  Some  years  ago  the  weaving  of  carpets  by 


BELGIUM  AND  FRANCE.  275 

hand  was  a  special  feature  of  the  Tournai  factory,  which  produces  an 
article  justly  renowned  for  its  durability,  beauty,  and  fine  workman- 
ship. At  present  this  factory  employs  machinery,  and  manufactures 
only  such  carpets  as  are  specially  ordered. 

Owing  to  the  above-mentioned  causes  and  low  rate  of  duty,  10  per 
cent,  ad  valorem,  on  carpets  coming  into  Belgium,  this  last  existing 
factory  is  about  to  suspend  operations. 

I  may  add  that  carpets  were  never  manufactured  at  Brussels,  but  in 
former  years  beautiful  tapestry  used  for  wall  decoration  was  made  here. 
This  industry,  however,  no  longer  exists,  the  disappearance  of  which  is 
also  attributed  to  the  English,  who  adopted  the  designs  and  imitated 
them  in  carpets  which  they  introduced  to  the  trade  as  "  Brussels  tapes- 
try carpets;"  hence  the  origin  of  the  name,  Brussels  carpets. 

The  so-called  Brussels  carpets,  manufactured  in  England,  are  placed 
upon  this  market  at  a  much  lower  rate  than  the  same  article  can  be 
produced  in  Belgium;  consequently  England  supplies  this  market,  and 
Belgium  dealers  exporting  carpets  furnish  foreign  markets  with  En 
glish  goods. 

GEORGE  W.  KOOSEVELT, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Brussels,  October  31, 1889. 


FRANCE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  RATHBONE,  OF  PARIS. 
EXPLANATORY. 

I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  on  "  French  carpets,77 
as  per  instructions  received  from  you. 

I  regret  to  state  that  it  is  not  better  provided  with  figures  and  tables 
and  statistics  generally,  but  I  have  been  utterly  unable  to  obtain  same. 
Manufacturers  seem  to  be  suspicious,  and  will  not  give  the  figures  or 
particulars.  My  predecessor,  Consul-General  Walker,  in  1882  sent  out 
forty  letters  requesting  information  and  got  no  replies,  and  I  have  sent 
twelve  and  received  two.  I  also  directed  a  letter  to  the  ministry  of 
commerce,  the  answer  to  which  I  inclose,  which  states  that  no  statis- 
tics have  been  made  on  the  subject. 

The  number  of  establishments  devoted  exclusively  to  the  manufacture 
of  carpets  in  France  is  not  so  large  as  the  flourishing  state  of  the  car- 
pet trade  would  lead  one  to  suppose.  The  Government  establishments 
of  Les  Gobelins  and  at  Beauvais,  by  producing  a  quantity  of  carpets 
of  the  very  best  quality  in  their  own  peculiar  style,  hamper  private 
enterprise.  Moreover,  in  a  country  like  France,  where  the  manufacture 


276     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

of  hangings  of  all  kinds  has  been  brought  to  such  perfection,  manufact- 
urers are  often  induced  to  make  the  production  of  carpets,  properly 
so  called,  a  part  only  of  their  business. 

The  chief  centers  for  the  manufacture  of  carpets,  exclusive  of  the 
Government  ones,  are  at  Aubusson  and  ia  the  department  of  the  Nord. 

NAMES  OF  MANUFACTURERS. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  best  houses  in  France:  Messrs. 
Braguenie  et  Cie,  at  Aubusson:  Paris  house,  16  Rue  Vivienne.  Messrs. 
G.  and  R.  Hamot,  at  Aubusson ;  Paris  house,  75  Rue  de  Richelieu. 
Messrs.  Croc,  pere  et  fils,  and  A.  Jorrand,  at  Aubusson ;  Paris  house, 
12  Rue  Cle'ry.  Messrs.  Sallaudroze  freres,  at  Felletin,  near  Aubusson  j 
Paris  house,  36  Rue  des  Jeuueurs.  Messrs.  A.  L.  Dupont  et  Com- 
pagnie  and  William,  Tetard,  L'aine  et  Rupp,  both  at  Beauvais. 

The  manufactories  of  Bernard  Welcomme,  Auguste  Johnville-Rav- 
esteyn-Rudent  are  at  Roubaix.  Those  belonging  to  Raymond  Par- 
mentier — Moulin — Pipart,  Messrs.  Rambaud  and  Monuier,  and  Messrs. 
Lorthiois  freres,  are  at  Turcoing.  Both  these  towns  are  in  the  depart- 
ment of  the  Nord.  It  is  impossible  to  obtain  any  complete  figures  re- 
lating to  the  number  of  looms  in  the  different  French  establishments. 
They  are  not  to  be  found  at  the  ministry  of  commerce,  and  the  manu- 
facturers to  whom  application  has  been  made  for  data  have  almost 
unanimously  declined  to  give  any  After  a  great  deal  of  sesearch  we 
can  only  obtain  a  more  or  less  correct  estimate. 

The  comparative  number  of  hand  and  steam  looms  in  use  depends  on 
the  extent  of  the  establishment  in  which  they  are  found.  As  a  general 
rule,  the  number  of  hand  looms  exceeds  that  of  steam,  ones  in  the  pro- 
portion of  about  four  to  one. 

GRADES  OF  CARPETS  MADE. 

The  quantity  of  carpets  of  first-rate  quality  manufactured  in  France 
is  slightly  smaller  than  that  of  carpets  of  inferior  quality.  Carpets  of 
almost  every  conceivable  kind  are  made  in  France.  The  demand  for 
Oriental  carpets  is  steadily  increasing,  and  vigorous  efforts  have  been 
made  by  several  well-known  French  houses  to  produce  some  of  the  best 
Oriental  carpets  that  have  ever  been  placed  on  the  market.  Monsieur 
Ferdinand  Leborgne,  who  has  an  important  establishment  at  L  annoy, 
in  the  department  of  the  !S~ord,  is  probably  second  to  none  in  chis 
respect. 

WORKMEN  EMPLOYED. 

The  number  of  men  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  is  very 
considerable.  Aubusson  has  some  one  thousand  six  hundred  or  two 
thousand  of  them,  distributed  among  ten  or  twelve  different  houses. 
A  large  number  of  hands  are  also  employed  at  Les  Gobelins  and  at 
Beauvais.  Though  Paris  is  the  center  of  great  industrial  activity,  it  is 
far  from  taking  the  first  rank  for  the  manufacture  of  carpets. 


FRANCE.  277 

WAGW8. 

Wages  fluctuate  ft  om  time  to  time,  but  since  the  last  quaiter  of  a 
century  they  have  risen  a  great  deal,  especially  in  Paris.  But  the  rate 
of  wages  for  women  has  not  risen  in  anything  like  the  same  proportion 
as  for  men.  At  present,  wages  rise  more  quickly  in  the  province's  than 
in  the  capital,  but  in  spite  of  this,  the  Paris  workmen  are  far  better 
paid  than  their  provincial  brothers,  as  the  following  table  will  show: 


Class  of  workmen. 

Paris. 

Usual 
wages. 

Frana. 

7  Oil 

Francs. 

:>  .">«) 

5  50 

4.  00 

Workmen  above  t  \venty-one  yeai's  old  

ft.  00 
3.00 

8.50 
2.00 

2  f»o 

1  75 

Boys                         .«      .     ...  ............  

1.75 

1.25 

Girls     

1.50 

1.00 

The  figures  given  in  the  second  column  show  the  usual  rate  of  wages. 
It  must  be  remembered  that  wages  vary  according  to  the  part  of  the 
country  in  which  the  work-people  live,  and  that,  in  some  places,  they 
are  allowed  their  food.  They  are  often  fed,  or  both  fed  and  lodged,  and 
receive  an  inferior  wage.  In  this  case  the  figures  given  above  are 
usually  reduced  in  the  proportion  of  from  one- fifth  to  three  -fifths. 

HOURS  OF  LABOR. 

All  ages  and  both  sexes  work  twelve  hours  daily,  except  apprentices, 
who  work  ten  hours  only. 

WOMEN  WORKERS. 

The  number  of  women  and  girls  employed  amounts  to  nearly  50  per 
cent,  of  the  entire  number  of  hands.  Though  the  demand  for  female 
labor  is  always  considerable,  the  wages  given  to  women  and  girls  show 
few  signs  of  increasing  in  the  same  proportion  as  the  men's.  This  is 
explained  by  the  great  abundance  of  the  supply  of  female  labor. 

APPRENTICES  AND  PIECEWORK. 

The  system  of  apprenticing  boys  and  girls  is  fast  dying  out  in  the 
carpet  industry.  The  piece-work  method  has  produced  excellent  re- 
sults, on  the  whole,  and  it  is  now  being  adopted  generally.  It  follows 
that  work-people  do  not  require  the  same  amount  of  technical  skill  as 
formerly.  They  have  to  know  what  more  immediately  concerns  their 
own  particular  division  of  labor,  and  are  not  expected  to  know  any 
more.  Any  additional  knowledge  is  not  generally  of  use  to  them,  and 
hardly  increases  their  value  in  the  labor  market. 

The  law  on  apprentices  is  very  rigidly  enforced,  and  masters  hesi- 
tate to  take  apprentices  in  order  not  to  place  themselves  within  its 


278     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

reach.  Boys  and  girls  when  twelve  or  thirteen  years  old  are  therefore 
taken  on  as  work-people,  but  with  a  small  wage,  and  they  work  twelve 
hours  per  day.  What  technical  instruction  they  require  is  easily  ac- 
quired in  schools  opened  on  purpose  for  them,  either  by  the  Govern- 
ment or  by  private  individuals. 

When  it  is  found  necessary  to  take  an  apprentice,  the  boy  or  girl  is 
bound  for  the  space  of  one  year  only.  This  period  of  time  is  usually 
found  to  be  amply  sufficient. 

MANNER  OF  LIVING. 

The  manner  of  living  among  the  carpet  hands  varies  greatly  accord- 
ing to  the  importance  of  the  town  they  inhabit.  On  the  whole  the  Paris 
workman  is  less  well  off  than  the  provincial  one.  He  has  acquired  more 
or  less  expensive  tastes  from  which  the  other  has  abstained.  Also  the 
price  of  rent  is  very  high  in  the  capital  and  moderate  in  most  of  the 
provincial  towns.  If  we  add  to  a  father's  earnings  those  of  his  wife  and 
children,  we  obtain  a  figure  which  enables  him  and  them  to  live  mod- 
estly. It  has  long  been  an  acknowledged  fact  that  a  man  cannot 
earn  enough  for  the  support  of  his  family.  At  the  same  time,  it  should 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  workmen  employed  in  the  carpet  trade  are 
poor,  because  some  of  them  earn  less  than  those  engaged  in  other 
branches  of  industry.  Many  a  French  operative,  in  the  provinces,  is  the 
owner  of  the  cottage  he  inhabits,  and  of  the  plot  of  ground  around ; 
but  the  number  of  workmen  engaged  in  the  carpet  industry,  who  are  at 
the  same  time  their  own  landlords,  is  exceedingly  limited.  To  make 
matters  worse,  the  conscription  deprives  many  a  family  of  a  much- 
needed  pair  of  arms ;  and  when  young  men  can  earn  enough  to  maintain 
themselves,  they  often  quit  the  paternal  roof.  The  women  are  the  main- 
stays of  many  a  home;  by  doing  a  great  deal  of  piece-work  at  home, 
without  neglecting  their  domestic  duties,  by  their  thrift  and  by  their 
knowledge  of  turning  money  to  the  best  advantage,  they  render  services 
which  are  too  seldom  appreciated  and  acknowledged. 

The  carpet  hands,  like  the  majority  of  working  people,  are  paid  at 
shorter  intervals  than  formerly.  They  pay  ready-money  for  all  they 
buy  much  more  frequently  than  a  few  years  ago,  and  this  may  produce 
beneficial  results.  Some  years  back,  the  small  dealers  readily*gave 
credit,  but  this  encouraged  indiscriminate  spending.  A  reaction  fol- 
lowed. The  venders,  who  experienced  the  greatest  difficulty  in  obtain- 
ing their  money,  began  to  refuse  selling  on  credit-  As  a  consequence, 
working  people  are  learning  to  regulate  their  expenses  according  to 
their  means,  as  they  can  only  buy  with  ready  money. 

But  no  permanent  improvement  can  be  expected  while  the  custom 
still  obtains  of  doing  what  is  popularly  called  "  la  Saint- Lnndi ;  "  that 
is  to  say,  working  on  Sunday  morning  and  then  idling  and  drinking  on 
Mondays  from  morning  till  a  great  deal  past  evening.  This  is  a  fear- 


FRANCE.  279 

ful  cause  of  demoralization,  and  unfortunately  shows  few  signs  of  dis- 
appearing. 

By  far  the  great  number  of  hands  are  employed  inside  the  manufac- 
tories. Those  employed  outside  are  chiefly  women  and.,  girls.  The 
practice  of  giving  women  and  girls  work  at  home  is  becoming  more  and 
more  popular.  The  masters  like  it  because  it  lightens  female  labor,  and 
the  girls  and  women  like  it  because  it  enables  them  to  earn  money 
while  attending  to  their  domestic  duties.  Both  sexes  are  employed  011 
night  work ;  but  apprentices  are  entirely  free  from  anything  of  the 
kind.  Much  has  been  done  of  late  years  to  improve  the  sanitary  con- 
dition of  workshops.  But  much  remains  to  be  done  in  this  way,  and 
the  zealous  surveillance  of  the  authorities  is  constantly  required. 

CHEAPENING  LABOR. 

The  cheapening  ot  labor  is  a  question  of  the  very  greatest  importance 
to  French  carpet  manufacturers.  Having  outstripped  their  rivals  in 
the  race  for  superiority,  they  are  now  attempting  to  surpass  them  on 
the  score  of  cheapness;  but  their  efforts  in  this  direction  have  not 
always  been  attended  with  success.  They  have  to  struggle  against 
German  and  Italian  competition,  especially  the  latter.  Dyeing,  weav-' 
ing,  and  spinning  are  carried  on  either  in  the  same  or  in  different  ones, 
according  to  the  importance  of  the  firm  or  the  resources  of  the  country 
in  which  it  is  situated.  Local  customs  have  sometimes  much  to  do 
with  this  distribution  of  labor.  But  in  the  most  important  firms,  such 
as  that  of  Messrs.  T£tard  L'aine,  at  Rupp,  at  Beauvais,  for  example,  the 
three  processes  are  always  carried  on  in  the  same  establishment. 

HOW  THE  PRODUCT  IS  MARKETED. 

The  manufactured  goods  are  usually  placed  on  the  market  by  the 
manufacturers  themselves.  This  is  especially  the  case  when  they  have 
a  depot  or  branch  house  in  Paris.  The  number  of  firms  employing  com- 
mission agents  is  constantly  decreasing,  and  this  decrease  is  likely  to 
continue. 

WHERE  THE  PRODUCT  FINDS  CONSUMPTION. 

France  buys  up  the  greater  quantity  of  the  carpets  she  produces. 
Since  the  last  few  years  she  has  partially  undersold  England  in  several 
parts  of  the  world  in  the  matter  of  expensive  carpets  and  of  those  of 
inferior  quality — this  is  especially  true  in  the  case  of  Northern  Europe, 
and  some  parts  of  South  America.  The  French  export  carpets  to  every 
European  country ;  and  in  Egypt,  where  carpets  in  the  oriental  style 
are  made  in  large  quantities,  the  produce  of  their  carpet-looms  finds  a 
ready  market. 

The  total  value  of  declared  exports  of  carpets  and  tapestries  (princi- 


280     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

pally  tapestries)  from  France  to  tlie  United  States  was  $14,480  for  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1889. 

The  total  value  of  carpets  exported  from  France,  principally  to  Bel- 
gium and  England,  during  the  year  1888,  amounted  to  $570,991. 

J.  L.  RATHBONE, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE  GENERAL, 

Paris,  October  18,  1889. 


ST.  ETIENNE. 

REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  MALMROB. 

On  receipt  of  circular  I  made  immediately  diligent  inquiries  in  every 
department  attached  to  ray  agency,  but  in  no  part  of  my  district  could 
1  find  that  any  manufacture  corresponding  to  the  character  of  those 
mentioned  in  the  circular  existed. 

There  is  however  a  small  manufactory  situated  in  the  town  of  Tullius, 
in  the  department  of  the  Isere>  for  the  fabrication  of  a  kind  of  coarse 
stair-carpeting,  owned  by  a  man  named  Drevet,  who  employs  about 
twenty  workmen ;  but  as  this  industry  is  only  in  its  inception  the  amount 
of  work  done  is  not  considerable.  Notwithstanding,  the  owner  assured 
me  that  he  has  plant  enough  to  employ  two  hundred  artisans  and  turn 
out  2,000  yards  of  carpeting  a  day.  The  material  he  employs  is  hemp, 
and  his  machinery  is  moved  by  water  with  a  force  of  about  fifty  horse 
power.  At  present  the  dyeing,  spinning,  and  weaving  are  all  done  on 
the  premises,  and  all  sales  are  effected  directly  through  the  manufact- 
urer, no  commission  agent  being  employed.  He  exports  none  of  his 
fabrication  save  a  little  to  Algeria.  As  regards  the  pay  and  manner  of 
living  of  the  workmen,  M.  Drevet  vouchsafed  the  following  information : 
The  pay  of  the  men  ranges  from  2.50  to  3  francs  a  day  (5.18  francs =$1), 
the  women,  from  1.50  to  2  francs.  Their  rent  does  not  exceed  60  francs 
a  year  ($13).  Their  manner  of  living  is  frugal  and  simple.  A  vegetable 
soup  is  taken  invariably  in  the  morning;  for  dinner  a  plate  of  meat, 
with  generally  two  kinds  of  vegetables  and  a  bottle  of  red  wine ;  in  the 
evening  a  soup  same  as  in  the  morning  and  whatever  remains  from 
dinner,  the  whole  coming  to  about  60  francs  a  month  for  a  man  and  his 
wife  and  two  children. 

The  men  work  ten  hours  a  day;  the  time  for  breakfast  (half  an  hour) 
and  dinner  (an  hour  and  a  half)  are  not  included. 

OSCAR  MALMROS, 

Commercial  Agent. 
,  UNITED  STATES  COMMERCIAL  AGENCY, 

St.  Mienne,  August  21,  1889. 


GERMANY.  281 


GERMANY. 
AIX  LA  CHAPELLE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PARSONS. 
FACTORY. 

There  is  but  oiie  establishment  in  this  consular  district  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  carpets.  The  business  address  of  said  establish- 
ment is  Gebriider  Schoeller,  DUren,  Rheinprovinz,  Germany. 

LOOMS. 

With  the  exception  of  several  hand  looms  for  new  designs  or  patterns 
of  carpets,  all  looms  are  power  looms.  There  are  about  two  hundred 
of  these  power  looms  of  different  sizes  and  systems.  This  estimate  is 
the  closest  obtainable  and  can  not  vary  more  than  two  or  three  from 
the  exact  figures. 

GRADE   OF   CARPETS  MADE. 

The  principal  carpets  made  are  (1)  Brussels,  (2)  velvet  carpets  (vel- 
our),  and  (3)  tapestry  carpets.  Rugs  from  smaller  sizes  up  to  4  meters 
by  4  meters,  in  these  three  grades,  are  also  manufactured,  as  well  as 
carpets  and  rugs  of  lower  grades.  Samples  will  be  forwarded  if  de- 
sired. 

EMPLOYES. 

About  five  hundred  persons,  men,  women,  and  children,  are  employed 
in  this  factory  of  Gebriider  Schoeller  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets. 
Gebriider  Schoeller  own,  in  addition  to  this  carpet  factory,  a  cloth  man 
ufactory,  which  is  also  located  at  Diiren,  under  the  firm  name  Leopold 
Schoeller  und  Sohne.  The  spinning  of  the  yarns  for  the  carpets  is  done 
in  this  cloth  factory,  the  dyeing  and  weaving  in  the  carpet  factory.  As 
workmen  are  employed,  therefore,  partly  in  the  spinning  of  carpet  mate- 
rial and  partly  in  that  of  cioth  material,  it  is  impossible  to  fix  with  en- 
tire accuracy  the  total  number  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets. 
Five  hundred  is  the  closest  estimate  obtainable. 

WAGES. 

The  wages  vary  from  6  to  18  marks  ($1.43  to  $4.28)  per  week,  payable 
weekly. 

HOURS  OF  LABOR. 

The  hours  of  labor  are  from  6  a.  m.  to  8  p.  m.,  with  intermissions  of 
two  hours,  as  follows:  Half  an  hour  between  Gam.  and  12  m.,  one 
hour  at  midday,  and  half  an  hour  between  1  p.  m.  and  8  p.  m.  There 


282     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

are  therefore  twelve  working  hours  for  six  days  of  the  week,  excepting 
Saturday,  when  work  is  stopped,  as  a  rule,  an  hour  earlier.  It  seems 
hardly  necessary  to  add  that  no  work  is  done  Sunday.  All  work  is 
done  in  the  factories.  There  are  no  persons  employed  by  Gebriider 
Schoeller  at  their  homes  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets. 

MANNER  OP  LIVING. 

The  manner  of  living  of  these  employe's  is  simple.  During  the  half- 
hour  intermissions  the  laborers  partake  of  coffee  and  bread  and  butter, 
brought  from  their  homes.  At  midday  those  living  near  the  factory 
return  to  their  homes  for  dinner,  those  living  at  a  distance  eating  their 
dinner  brought  from  home  in  the  factory.  The  dinner  consists  of  soup 
and  vegetables,  and  occasionally  a  bit  of  meat.  A  few  who  live  in  the 
country  and  neighboring  villages  return  to  their  homes  but  once  a 
week.  These  sleep  also  in  the  factory.  The  laborers  living  in  the 
country  own  for  the  most  part  their  small  homes  with  garden  j  those 
living  in  the  city  rent  lodgings. 

SPINNING,   DYEING,  ETC. 

As  stated  under  answer  to  question  4,  Gebriider  Schoeller  own,  in  ad- 
dition to  the  carpet,  a  cloth  manufactory,  which  is  also  located  in  Diiren, 
under  the  firm  name  Leopold  Schoeller  und  Sohne.  The  spinning  of 
the  yarn  for  the  carpets  is  done  in  the  cloth  factory,  the  dyeing  and 
weaving  in  the  carpet  factory. 

HOW  THE  PRODUCT  IS  MARKETED. 

The  product  is  placed  upon  the  market  direct  from  the  factory,  partly 
through  traveling  salesmen  who  receive  fixed  salaries  in  addition  to 
their  traveling  expenses  j  partly  through  agents  who  receive  a  percent- 
age of  the  sales.  The  demand  being  greater  than  the  supply,  the  manu- 
facturers are  enabled  in  a  measure  to  choose  their  customers. 

WHERE  THE  PRODUCT  FINDS  CONSUMPTION. 

The  product  finds  consumption  principally  at  home  in  Germany,  and 
in  Belgium  and  France.  The  sales  in  England  are  also  considerable. 
Gebriider  Schoeller  have  exported  no  carpets  to  the  United  States  since 
November  19,  1884,  when  an  invoice  amounting  to  1,000.90  marks  was 
legalized  at  this  consulate.  The  usual  terms  upon  which  sales  are  con- 
ducted are  ninety  days,  with  a  discount  of  2  per  cent,  for  cash. 

Gebruder  Schoeller  aim  at  the  greatest  secrecy  in  this  carpet  manu- 
facture. While  the  entrance  to  cloth  and  most  other  factories  in  this  dis- 
trict is  easy,  even  for  foreign  manufacturers,  entrance  to  this  carpet  fac- 
tory is  strictly  forbidden.  More  than  this,  the  workmen  themselves  are 


GERMANY.  283 

separated  and  watched,  so  that  few  of  them  understand  more  of  the  fab- 
rication than  conies  under  their  especial  charge. 

JAMES  RUSSELL  PARSONS,  JR., 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

AIJU  la-Chajpcllej  August  6,  1880. 


BARMEN. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FALKEKBACH. 
FACTORIES. 

In  the  United  States  District  of  Barmen  there  are  three  carpet  fac- 
tories, viz:  (1)  The  Barmen  Carpet  Factory,  formerly  Vorwerk  Co., 
Barmen;  (2)  Eugel  &  Hunsche,  Unter  Barmen j  (3)  Korte  &  Co.,  Her- 
ford,  Westphalia. 

LOOMS. 

The  Barmen  Carpet  Factory  has  only  power  looms,  obtained  exclu- 
sively from  England,  the  number  in  operation  being  from  forty  to  forty- 
five.  Engel  &  Hunsche  have  both  hand  and  power  looms,  but  I  am 
not  able  nor  in  a  position  to  give  any  information  as  to  their  number, 
which  is  likewise  the  case  in  regard  to  Korte  &  Co. 

GRADES  OF  CARPET  MADE. 

The  Barmen  Carpet  Factory  principally  produces  piece-goods  in 
rolls  (Brussels  and  Tournay  or  Wilton)  in  a  width  of  68  to  70  centi- 
meters. The  factory  possesses,  in  addition,  a  loom  for  goods  90  centi- 
meters wide,  and  several  looms  in  which  full-size  carpets  (130  centi- 
meters— 3  yards — wide,  and  upwards)  can  be  woven.  A  number  of  the 
narrow  (68  to  70  centimeters)  looms  were  last  year  employed  in  the 
production  of  furniture  stuffs  resembling  carpets,  which  are  brought 
into  market  partly  in  running  meters,  and  partly  in  full  sizes.  The 
former  is  the  so-called  "Moquette  stuff;"  the  latter  are  known  in  the 
English  and  American  markets  as  "saddle-bags,"  and  are  manufactured 
in  the  factory  in  question  in  the  following  sizes:  45  by  45  centimeters, 
oo  by  58  centimeters,  70  by  70  centimeters,  70  by  135  centimeters  (the 
so-called  "divan  lengths"),  and  90  by  180  centimeters  (Daghestans). 
While  the  Moquette  stuff  is  only  made  in  one  quality,  the  saddle-bags 
are  produced  in  two,  viz :  a  fine  Moquette  quality  and  a  coarse  Tournay 
quality.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  former  is  the  dearest  of  the 
two,  it  is  far  more  saleable. 

Engel  &  Hunsche  do  not  manufacture  many  roll  goods,  and,  as  far 
as  I  could  learn,  they  possess  no  wide  looms.  Like  the  Barmen  Carpet 
Factory,  they  principally  manufacture  furniture  stuffa,  aud  in  addition, 
17A 2 


284     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

rugs.     Korte  &  Go.  produce  cheap  woolen  carpets  in  full  ^sizes,  with 
printed  designs. 

EMPLOYES. 

The  Barmen  Carpet  Factory  employs  between  one  hundred  and 
thirty  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  hands,  who  are  paid  according  to  the 
nature  of  their  employment  or  the  amount  of  work  done.  With  a  few 
exceptions  the  hands  in  the  factory  are  paid  by  the  piece,  and  conse- 
quently it  is  very  difficult  to  give  information  as  to  the  amount  they 
earn. 

Carpet  weavers  earn  between  20  and  40  marks  per  week ;  the  spoolers 
from  6  to  12  marks,  and  the  girls  who  examine  and  darn  the  goods  per- 
haps even  as  much.  The  amount  earned  depends  even  too  much  upon 
the  diligence  and  the  efficiency  of  the  individual  hands. 

DYEING,   SPINNING,   ETC. 

Connected  with  the  carpet  factory  are  the  dye-works ;  as  in  this  es- 
tablishment (Barmen  Carpet  Factory),  all  such  work  is  generally  carried 
on  which  is  necessary  for  the  manufacture  of  carpets,  etc.  The  Barmen 
Carpet  Factory  dyes  the  raw  yarn,  which  it  imports  almost  exclusively 
direct  from  English  spinners ;  it  shears  and  dresses  the  warp.  The 
factory  likewise  has  its  own  steam-spoolers ;  it  steams,  shears,  and 
mends  the  finished  manufacture. 

HOW  THE  PRODUCT  IS  MARKETED. 

The  finished  article  is  delivered  directly  to  the  customer  by  the  Bar- 
men Carpet  Factory.  Commission  agents,  and  other  intermediary  per- 
sons are,  if  possible,  always  avoided.  The  factory  employs  its  own  trav- 
eling agents,  and,  in  addition,  has  agents  in  the  chief  commercial  cen- 
ters, who  work  on  commission. 

WHERE   THE  PRODUCT  FINDS  CONSUMPTION. 

The  chief  market  of  the  Barmen  Carpet  Factory  is  Germany,  where, 
in  consequence  of  the  protective  tariff  and  the  really  rare  unity  among 
German  manufacturers,  good  prices  are  obtained.  The  Barmen  factory 
does  an  export  trade  also,  though  less  in  carpets  than  in  furniture 
stuffs.  The  export  of  carpets  is  small,  possibly  because  the  factory 
possesses  but  few  original  designs,  the  majority  being  copied  from  those 
of  other  manufacturers,  particularly  of  English. 

In  moquettes  and  saddlebags,  however,  this  factory  possesses  many 
original  designs,  and  exports  these  furniture  goods  to  England,  Holland, 
Belgium,  Denmark,  Sweden,  Austro-Hungary,  Switzerland,  and  Kou- 
mania.  Franco  delivery  is  generally  not  customary  in  Germany,  while 
to  foreign  countries  it  is.  The  factory  allows  several  per  cent,  for  cash, 
but  seldom  gives  more  than  three  to  four  months  credit. 

JOSEPH  FALKENBACH, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Barmen,  July  24,  1889. 


GEKMANY. 


285 


GERA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  NEUER. 

I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  the  Department's 
circular  letter  of  June  10,  ultimo,  requesting  consular  officers  in  the  in- 
terest of  the  carpet  manufacturers  of  our  country,  to  secure  statistics 
concerning  that  industry  in  the  leading  countries  of  Europe.  In  com- 
pliance with  this  request  I  have  done  my  best  in  order  to  obtain  the 
desired  information,  but  I  am  compelled  to  state  that  my  endeavors 
in  gathering  reliable  data  on  the  subject  in  question  were  attended 
with  great  difficulties,  the  manufacturers  refusing  to  divulge  what  they 
call  their  business  secrets.  In  view  of  these  obstacles  many  details 
were  obtained  from  outside  parties,  and  by  circuitous  routes,  and  in 
presenting  the  following  accurate  facts,  I  hope  that  they  may  prove  of 
interest  to  the  carpet  manufacturers  of  the  United  States. 

LIST  OF  FACTORIES. 

In  conformity  with  the  interrogatories  contained  in  the  Department' s 
circular,  I  begin  in  giving  a  list  of  the  factories  employed  in  the  pro- 
duction of  carpets,  together  with  the  proper  business  address  of  each, 
as  well  as  the  number  of  operatives  and  hand  and  power  looms  in  each 
establishment. 

Carpet  factories  in  the  district  of  the  consular  agency  at  Gera. 


Names  of  the  firms. 

Place. 

No.  of 
opera- 
tives. 

No.  of 
power 
looms. 

No.  of 
hand 
looms. 

•Toh  Fr  Spaethe                ............................ 

Gera  

63 

41 

3 

Hilpert  &  Co 

Do 

55 

30 

Carl  &.  Port  eger                                .   .  ..  ....... 

Do  .. 

13 

g 

Do 

7 

"  "  _ 

Do  . 

g 

5 

Hartwi"  &.  Poser         

M  ii  nchenbernsdorf 

35 

25 

('  K  Erdmann 

Do 

33 

22 

Do  

25 

7 

1° 

R  Eisenahiuidt 

Do 

16 

•»•> 

C  E  Schneider                    ..            . 

Do 

14 

10 

H;ii»  lli  irth  <fc  Kellner 

Weida 

60 

45 

Total                 

329 

178 

47 

As  will  be  seen  from  the  foregoing  table,  carpet  factories  of  the  pro- 
portions of  those  existing  in  the  United  States  are  unknown  in  this 
district.  Moreover  it  will  be  noted  that  in  Germany  it  takes  compara- 
tively the  largest  number  of  operatives  to  run  looms,  while  in  the 
United  States  the  greatest  possible  result  is  derived  from  the  most  lim- 
ited number  of  operatives. 

CONDITION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY. 

The  condition  of  the  industry  under  review  is  according  toarecently 
published  report  of  this  city's  chamber  of  commerce  considered  a  satis- 


286     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

factory  one.  It  is  especially  a  more  favorable  political  outlook  ana 
an  advance  of  the  prices  of  raw  jute,  which  have  a  stimulating  influ- 
ence upon  business.  As  a  consequence,  yarns  of  jute  forming  the  main 
material  of  the  carpets  manufactured  in  this  district  experienced  an 
upward  tendency,  and  a  greater  activity  is  the  result.  The  increased 
demand  is  also  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  the  jute  spinning  mills  are  in  the 
possession  of  incorporated  companies,  well  provided  with  capital,  and 
which  by  agreement  manage  and  regulate  the  yarn  being  brought  into 
the  market  in  such  quantities  and  at  such  prices  as  to  insure  good 
profits.  While  thus  high  dividends  are  paid  by  these  establishments, 
a  complaint  being  made  by  the  carpet  manufacturers  is  the  moderate 
profit,  which  however  is  only  justified  in  so  far  as  the  extensive  and 
steadily  growing  field  of  competition  reduced  the  former  high  margin 
of  profit.  From  a  long  experience  and  close  observation  I  can  state 
that  the  wealth  of  the  manufacturers  generally  is  continually  and  mater- 
ially increasing.  Besides  I  am  informed  on  good  authority  that  ordin- 
ary carpets  yield  a  profit  from  6  to  12.  and  superior  articles  from  10  to 
15  per  cent,  which  is  doubtlessly  a  fair  standard  of  profit. 

GRADES  OF  CARPETS  PRODUCED. 

As  regards  the  grades  of  carpets  produced,  the  inferior  qualities  form 
the  bulk,  and  it  is  stated  that  only  one-fourth  of  the  entire  output  con- 
sists of  superior  grades.  The  principal  article,  and  embracing  about 
oue-half  of  the  whole  production  in  this  region,  are  so-called  "Laeufer- 
stoffe"  (stair  carpets),  a  texture  of  none  but  jute  yarns,  and  sold  in  a 
width  from  25  ^to  35  inches  at  35  pfennigs  (8J  cents)  up  to  1.20  marks 
(29  cents)  per  meter  (39.37  inches).  Next  to  it,  and  constituting  about 
one  fourth  of  the  entire  fabrication,  stands  a  specialty  named  "Gerrna- 
nia,"  a  manufacture  composed  of  jute,  cotton,  and  shoddy,  varying  from 
51  to  79  inches  in  width  and  from  57  to  102  inches  in  length,  and  sell- 
ing at  from  7  marks  ($1.67)  to  14  marks  ($3.33)  a  piece.  The  remainder 
consists  of  Brussels,  velvets,  and  tournays,  costing,  according  to  size 
and  quality,  from  about  20  marks  ($4.76)  to  80  marks  ($19.04)  per  piece. 
Table-covers,  hearth  rugs,  sofa  covers,  and  shoe  findings  form  also  a  part 
of  the  production,  arid  it  is  especially  the  first-named  article  which  finds 
an  extensive  and  remunerative  sale. 

The  jute  yarns  entering  so  largely  into  the  carpets  of  this  district  are 
supplied  by  two  of  the  leading  German  spinning  mills  at  Triebes  and 
Meissen.  They  are  spun  from  No.  £  to  No.  7,  and,  according  to  a  price- 
list  of  August  15,  ultimo,  vary  in  prices  from  47J  marks  ($11.30)  for 
No.  J  to  f  of  lowest  grade  up  to  60  marks  ($14.28)  per  100  kilograms 
(224  American  pounds)  for  No.  7  of  best  quality.  In  case  the  yarns  are 
twisted  an  addition  is  made  from  95  cents  to  $1.42.  A  discount  of  2 
per  cent,  is  allowed  for  cash.  Cotton  yarns  and  shoddy  are  supplied 
by  Saxony  and  England. 


GERMANY.  287 

MILL   MACHINERY. 

The  machinery  applied  in  the  carpet  mills  was  formerly  mostly  of 
English,  but  is  now  almost  exclusively  of  German  origin.  Prominently 
among  the  machinery  works  furnishing  same  stand  the  Saxon  Machin- 
ery Works  (formerly  Richard  Hartman)  at  Chemnitz.  Their  power 
looms  are  of  the  latest  patterns,  and  are  obtainable  in  all  appliable 
sizes.  Preferentially  used  by  the  carpet  manufacturers  are  two  looms 
70  and  78  inches  wide,  with  wooden  Jacquard  machines  and  double- 
sided  five-fold  changes  of  the  shuttle,  costing  1,245  marks  ($296.31)  and 
1,275  marks  ($303.45),  respectively.  Most  of  the  narrow-power  looms 
for  stair-carpets  are  bought  from  the  Saxon  Power  Loom  Factory  (for- 
inerly  Louis  Schonherr)  at  Chemnitz,  at  about  500  marks  ($119)  to  800 
marks  ($190.40)  apiece.  Winding  machines  are  extensively  supplied 
by  the  machinery  works  of  Rudolph  Voigt,  also  at  Chemnitz,  and  vary 
in  prices  from  220  marks  ($52.36)  to  1,070  marks  ($254.66),  according  to 
the  number  of  spindles  and  the  height  of  the  spools,  fland  looms  are 
obtainable  from  joiners  at  an  expense  from  40  marks  ($9.52)  to  50  marks 
($11.90)  each. 

The  rate  of  wages  stands  in  sad  contrast  with  the  earnings  of  our 
factory  hands.  While  the  standard  of  wages  remain  stationary,  pro- 
visions are  constantly  rising  in  prices.  Thus  food  can  only  be  scantily 
provided  by  the  laboring  classes,  and  the  means  of  their  subsistence 
have  to  be  restricted  to  the  barest  necessaries  of  life.  Much  of  the 
daily  diet  of  an  American  workman  would  be  considered  a  luxury  in  a 
German  workiugmau's  family. 

WAGES  AND  HOURS  OF  LABOR. 

The  following  is  an  exhibit  of  the  weekly  wages  paid  in  Gera  in  the 
carpet  trade  at  the  present  time.  It  is  an  abstract  from  the  pay-roll  of 
one  of  the  principal  establishments,  and  may  be  considered  as  correctly 
representing  the  wages  paid  in  all  factories  : 

Weavers  of  ordinary  carpets,  hearth-rags,  and  shoe  findings $3.33-3.81 

Weavers  of  sofa  and  table  covers 4.04-4.52 

Weavers  of  superior  quality  of  carpets 4.28-4.76 

Packers 4.04 

Shearers 3.81-4.29 

Spoolers,  women .... 1.90 

Dressers 3. 57 

Drawers,  men 2.38-2.86 

Drawers,  women 1.  67 

Pickers,  women 2.38 

Carpet  cleaners,  women 1.67 

Overseers 8. 93 

With  the  exception  of  the  cleaners  all  of  the  foregoing  laborers  are 
employed  in  the  factories. 

The  hours  of  labor  are  from  6  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  7  o'clock 
in  the  evening,  excepting  thirty  minutes  for  breakfast,  an  hour  and  a 
quarter  for  dinner,  and  thirty  minutes  for  vespers. 


288  CARPET    MANUFACTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES.   ., 

RENTS  AND   FOOD   PRICES. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  of  interest  to  learn  that  the  lodgings  of 
the  factory  hands  in  this  city  consist  mostly  of  two  to  three  comfortless 
rooms,  for  which  according  to  locality  a  rent  from  120  marks  ($28.56) 
to  150  marks  ($35.70)  has  to  be  paid.  Kents  are  somewhat  lower  in  the 
neighboring  villages,  and  consequently  not  a  few  of  the  working  peo- 
ple are  living  outside  the  city  in  spite  of  one  and  even  two  hours'  walk 
to  and  from  the  factory,  and  of  being  exposed  to  the  inclemency  of 
snow  and  cold  during  winter  time. 

I  give  also  a  statement  of  the  retail  prices  of  some  of  the  necessaries 
of  life  at  Gera,  viz  : 

Cents.  Cents. 


Rye  bread per  pound..  3 

Wheat  flour do 4 

Pork..... do....  '20 

Beef do....  16 

Veal do....  15 

Mutton do 15 

Bacon do 24 

Hams do....  34 

Potatoes per  5  liters..  6 


Rice  ................  per  pound  .  .  5-10 

Eggs  ----  ............  per  dozen  .  .  18-21 

Butter  ..............  per  pound..  16 

Milk  ..................  per  liter..  5 

Sugar  ...............  per  pound  .  .  8 

Coffee,  ordinary  ..........  do  .....  34 

Beer  .....  .  ............  per  liter.. 

Petroleum  .............  ___  do  ____ 


DYEINGr. 

The  leading  establishment  in  the  city  of  Gera  is  the  carpet  factory  of 
Joh.  Fr.  Spaethe.  It  is  one  of  the  few  mills  in  this  country  in  which 
dyeing  and  weaving  are  conducted  unitedly,  and  its  products  are  con- 
sidered the  best  in  this  district.  Dyeing,  weaving,  and  spinning  form 
in  all  other  cases  separate  divisions  which  are  owned  by  independent 
interests.  Almost  all  of  the  jute  yarns  used  are  dyed  in  the  nearly 
situated  towns  of  Wei  da  and  Miiuchen  and  Cernsdorf,  by  district  dye 
houses. 

The  following  rates  are  paid  for  dyeing,  viz :  For  aniline,  green,  and 
red,  3J  cents  ;  for  black,  one-half  to  three-fouith  cents,  and  for  all  other 
colors,  2£  cents  per  pound. 

HOW  THE  PRODUCT  IS  MARKETED. 

The  product  is  placed  upon  the  market  partly  direct  from  the  fac- 
tories by  the  factors,  and  partly  through  commission  agents.  MaYiy  of 
the  orders  in  the  German  market,  and  also  in  the  neighboring  Switzer- 
land are  procured  by  traveling  salesmen,  while  in  other  countries  the 
article  is  almost  exclusively  sold  through  commission  agents,  having 
their  seat  in  the  principal  commercial  centers.  Prominent  manufact- 
urers have  also  a  branch  office  in  Berlin. 

WHERE  THE  PRODUCT  FINDS  CONSUMPTION. 

Almost  all  of  the  manufactures  find  consumption  at  home.  Only 
limited  quantities  are  exported  to  Switzerland,  Austria,  and  Italy. 


GREAT    BRITAIN. 


289 


The  system  on  which  sales  are  effected  is  generally  the  credit  system, 
and  in  most  cases  three  months'  time  is  allowed,  whereas  cash  buyers 
enjoy  an  advantage  of  2,  and  in  exceptional  cases  of  5  per.  cent. 

England  is  the  principal  competitor  of  this  country  in  carpets  of 
lower  grades,  and  it  is  especially  a  much  cheaper  supply  of  raw  mate- 
rial which  gives  her  an  insurmountable  advantage  over  Germany. 

CHARLES  NEUER, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Gera,  September  28,  1889. 


GREAT   BRITAIN. 
LEEDS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WIGFALL. 

In  answer  to  instructions  conveyed  by  carpet  circular  from  Depart- 
ment of  State,  dated  June  10,  1889,  the  following  abstract  is  trans- 
mitted: 

MANUFACTURERS  AND  MANUFACTURES. 

The  annexed  list  contains  thirty-four  names  with  business  addresses 
covering  the  carpet  and  rug  making  trade  of  this  immediate  district  so 
far  as  identified.  Many  of  the  figures  given  are  derived  from  the  firms 
themselves,  others  are  approximations,  and  still  others  mere  estimates. 


Xo.  o 

f  looms. 

Opera- 

Hand. 

Power. 

tives. 

!  Character  of  products. 

Pray  shay,    Dockray  & 

2  A  ire  street,  Leeds  

17 

0 

25 

Kidderminster 

Co. 
Hotham  <fc  Whiting  

11  Wellington  street,  Leeds. 
Flyer's  Buildings  Wakeneld 

12 
21 

0 
0 

20 
30 

Do. 

W  S  Lawson  &  Co 

Millford  Place  Leeds 

U 

28 

60 

Scotch. 

J  &.  W  An  t  v 

Anchor  Mills  Dewsbury 

60 

0 

100 

and  Dutch. 
Art  squares    Kidder 

Chas.  Hill  <fe  Co  5 

Henry  Lea  &  Co  
S.  Bates  &.  Son  
I:.  A:  M  Hirst 

Victoria  Mills,  Baxley  Carr, 
Dewsbnry. 
Carlton  Road,  Dewsbary  
Watergate,  Dewsbury  .  "  

{       ° 

18 
(Jli 
100 

J            8 

>          M 

j 

}    « 

(       30 

1'_'0 
150 

minster  and  Dutch. 
Brussels  and  Wilton. 

Do. 
Ingraina  and  Dutch. 

do 

55 

*»       "13 

<      125 

rugs,  etc. 

]fi  Tolson  &  Son  . 

Mill    Road     Baxley    Carr 

25 

j 

J37 

George  Wallis 

Dewsbary. 
Eastneld  Mills  Dewsbury 

15 

20 

J*auicl  Exlev  

Watergate,  Dewsbnry  

25 

i 

37 

Do 

A  braharo  Grime 

102  Kirkstall  Road     Leeds 

2 

o 

2 

W.  Shaw  Singleton  .... 
John  Beever  . 

30  Metcalfe  street,  Leeds  
Alfred  street,  Hudderstield 

15 
45 

0 

o 

16 
100 

Cloth  hearth-ru£8 

Wright,  Blackburn  &. 
Co. 
Hirst  &  Co 

Slaithwaite,  Hnddersneld  .  .  . 
Providence  WV>rks    Henry 

40 
51 

0 

o 

70 

94 

Do. 
Do 

Alfred  Sykes  &  Co.... 

street,  Undderrifield. 
Viaduct  Works,  Huddersfield 
Albert    street,     Lockwood 

100 

20 

0 

o 

250 
50 

Do. 
Do 

Huddersfield. 

'Estimated  number  of  power  looms  for  those  firms. 


»  BuUding. 


290 


CARPF/l     MANUFACTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


Style  of  firm. 

Business  address. 

No  oi 
Hand. 

looms. 
Power. 

Opera- 
tives. 

Character  of  products. 

M  Gledhill  

Townend  Golcar   Hn.dd.ers- 

12 

0 

y 

Cloth  hearth-rugs. 

field. 
Criinble,  Slaithwaite    Hud- 

12 

o 

20 

Do 

Edmund  Swallaw 

dersfield 
20  St.  John's  Road  and  Page 

125 

o 

300 

Do 

W.  Arnritage  

Huddersfield    Hearth- 
Kug  Co. 
JobuT.Lord  &  Co  
Benj'n  ThArnton  &  Son 

Edward  Haigh  

street,  Huddersfield. 
Crosland  Moor  Bottom,  Hud- 
dersfield. 
Brook  street,  Huddersfield.. 

Bradley  street,  Huddersfield  . 
Bankfield  Works,  Hudders- 
field. 
Milusbridge,  Huddersfield 

12 
105 

12 

10 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

25 

200 

15 
108 

20 

Do. 

Jute,  and  clotli  hearth- 
rugs. 
Jute  and  cloth  rugs. 
Cloth  and  yarn  rugs. 

Cloth   and     finder 

William  Taylor  

Albion  street  Huddersfield. 

4'2 

0 

100 

hearth-rugs. 
Cloth  and  beam  rugs. 

George  Walker  

Moorfield  Works,  Leeds  

12 

0 

14 

Beam  rugs  and  mats. 

Chas.  Powell  &  Co  
Joseph  Hall 

14  Little  Woodhouse  street, 
Leeds. 
22  Browne's  Square  Leeds 

8 
1 

() 
() 

10 
1 

Beam  and  fi  n  g  e  r  e  d 

rugs. 
List  carpets 

W.  Mortimer  &  Co  

Patent  Woolen  Cloth 
Co 

Craven  Mills,  Wakeneld  .... 
Camp  Koad,  Leeds.-.—  

3 
No 

7 
looms. 

40 
250 

Cocoa  mattings   an  d 
mats. 
Feltings. 

1,106 

60 

2,495 

The  firms  whose  names  appear  above,  when  working  to  their  fall  ca- 
pacity, would  give  employment  to  perhaps  something  like  2,500  oper- 
atives in  the  manufacture  of  floor  coverings  of  various  kinds. 

RATES  OF  WAGES. 

Bates  of  wages  in  the  Dewsbury  district  are  quoted : 

Dyers  (exclusive  of  foreman)  23s.  per  week — ..  „—...  $5. 60 

Spinners  (exclusive  of  foreman )  29s.  per  week 7. 06 

Weavers  (exclusive  of  foreman)  25s.  per  week 6. 08 

Other  hands  (exclusive  of  foreman)  21s.  per  week 5. 11 

Another  estimate  (general)  for  weaving  Kidderminsters  gives  60 
yards  per  week  for  a  man  weaver  with  hand-loom  at  Qd.  (12.0  cents)  per 
running  yard  (1  yard  wide)  or  the  equivalent  of  30s.  ($7.30)  a  week 
wages. 

Two  other  estimates  coincide  for  an  approximate  average  of  20s. 
($4.87)  per  week,  taking  the  range  of  all  grades. 

Another  gives  6s.  to  60s.  per  week  ($1.46  to  $14.60) ;  while,  going  into 
details,  the  same  authority  reckons  as  follows : 

Weavers :  i 

Girls,  lOs-16* $2.43-  $3.89 

Men,  24s-40s 5.84-    9.73 

Tuners,  12«-45« 2.92-  10.95 

Dyers,  15*-40a 3.  Go-    9.73 

Still  another  quotation  is  for  weaving  Brussels,  three-quarters  wide, 
2^d.  to  2JcL  (4^6  to  4^  cents)  per  running  yard  by  power  loom ;  lOdf. 
(20J  cents)  per  running  yard  by  hand  loom.  For  weaving  Kidder- 
minster, 1  yard  wide,  5d.  to  Id.  (10|  to  14£  cents)  per  running  yard  on 
hand  loom  ;  and  for  squares  and  yard- wide  goods  on  power  loom 
to  l%d.  (2J  to  3  cents)  per  square  yard. 


GREAT    BRITAIN.  291 

In  ni« [-making  young  women  weavers  working  leu  and  one-half  hours 
PIT  day  are  said  to  be  able  to  earn  12s.  ($2.92)  a  week  by  piece-work. 

Another  return  shows,  girls,  per  week,  9s.  ($2.19) ;  men,  piece-work, 
LV7.  co  Is.  (4  to  24£  cents)  per  square  foot. 

Still  another  one  gives  mat- weavers,  girls,  in  full  work,  8s.  to  9s.  per 
week  ($1.95  to  $2.19) ;  rug- weavers,  girls,  in  full  work,  12s.  to  14s.  per 
week  ($2.92  to  $3.41). 

HOURS   OF  LABOR  AND  MANNER  OF  LIVING. 

Working  hours,  full  time,  are  about  fifty -six  per  week.  The  factory 
acts  apply  to  the  carpet  and  rug  manufacture  as  they  do  to  other  in- 
dustries. 

The  manner  of  living  among  the  rug  and  carpet  hands  is  essentially 
the  same  as  that  of  other  employes  in  the  textile  trade. 

There  is  no  cottage  work  worth  speaking  of.  Practically  the  entire 
product  is  derived  from  factories,  larger  or  smaller,  as  the  case  may  be. 

DIVISION  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

Dyeing,  spinning,  weaving,  and  finishing  are  conducted  unitedly  in 
some  instances  ;  but  this  is  by  no  means  universally  done.  It  would 
be  hard  to  assign  a  proportion. 

From  the  Dewsbury  district,  on  a  total  estimated  loom  force  of  385 
looms,  of  which  360  were  reckoned  as  hand-looms  and  25  as  power-looms, 
with  an  allowance  of  about  050  operatives  employed,  an  estimated  ap- 
portionment is  10  per  cent,  weaving  only,  and  90  per  cent,  spinning,  dye- 
ing, and  weaving. 

In  another  district  the  *c weaving  only"  would  be  likely  to  show  a 
larger  share  proportionately  of  the  work. 

HOW  MARKETED. 

The  whole  output,  or  nearly  the  whole,  is  sold  direct  from  the  manu- 
facturers. Most  of  it  goes  to  merchants ;  some,  perhaps,  to  retailers. 
Commission  houses,  as  such,  are  scarcely  dealt  with. 

WHERE  MARKETED. 

The  product  of  the  district  would  seem  to  be  consumed  in  Great  Brit- 
ain as  regards  the  larger  part  of  it.  Some  export  takes  place  to  the 
continent,  to  the  colonies,  and  to  the  United  States.  Sales  are  made, 
as  a  rule,  on  shore  credits  with  small  discounts — say  from  cash  to  one, 
two,  three,  or  four  months,  and  from  5  per  cent,  discount  to  net  terms. 

OUTPUT. 

A  cloth  rug  manufacturer  in  Leeds  with  fifteen  hand-looms  reckons 
them  capable  of  turning  out  four  thousand  rugs  per  annum,  working  un- 
interruptedly through  the  j  ear.  In  this  establishment  women  only  are 


292 


CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


weavers.  The  looms  are  perpendicular  and  a  long  shuttle  (about  27 
inches)  is  used.  The  warp  is  of  linen  manufactured  at  Leeds.  The 
weft  or  backing  is  of  jute,  and  is  brought  from  a  distance.  The  face  is 
composed  of  cloth  tufts  fixed  in  during  the  process  of  weaving.  The 
strips  of  cloth,  which  make  the  tufts,  are  trimmings  from  the  cloth  mills, 
clippings  from  the  cutters'  tables  in  ready-made  clothing  factories,  and 
waste  stuff,  perhaps,  from  still  other  sources. 

It  may  be  added  that  the  refuse  from  these  tuftings  goes  on  to  the 
shoddy  mills,  where  it  joins  the  general  collection  of  cast-off  material, 
and  is  given  a  fresh  start  in  the  round  of  usefulness.  The  Dewsbury- 
Batley  district,  which  lies  just  outside  the  municipal  limit  of  Leeds, 
was  the  birth-place  and  is  at  the  present  most  prominent  center  of  the 
shoddy  trade. 

Bugs  of  the  character  spoken  of,  woven  in  geometrical  designs  and 
showing  colors,  generally  somber,  by  reason  of  the  preponderance  of 
dark  stuffs  in  the  waste  cloth  employed  in  making  them,  are  much  used 
in  England,  and  particularly  in  this  district,  for  kitchens  and  the 
smaller  houses  occupied  by  the  working-classes.  The  rugs  are  very 
thick  and  heavy,  and  afford  the  needed  protection  from  the  damp  stone 
pavements,  which  are  so  frequently  found  in  basements  and  on  ground 
floors  in  cottage  dwellings. 

PRICE-LISTS. 
Annexed  details  are  from  price-list  of  a  Huddersfield  firm. 

Yorkshire  cloth  hearthrugs. 

Weight  of  these  cloth  hearthrugs  run  from  9  to  24  pounds  per  rug  according  to  size, 
quality,  and  make. 
Something  to  tread  upon — soft,  thick,  and  comfortable  to  the  feet. 


Description. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Price. 

BB. 
B. 
BX. 
CC. 
C. 

ex. 

EE. 
E. 
EX. 
DD. 
D. 
DX. 
H. 
J. 
M. 
N. 
0 
FF. 

First  quality  black  or  brown  grounds        

60  by  27 
60        27 
60        25 
66        27 
66        27 
66        27* 
68        31 
68        31 
68        31 
72        36 
72        34 
70        34 
72        36 
72        36 
72        36 
72        36 
76        36 
60        28 

s.d. 
4    0 
3    6 
2    9 
4    0 
4     U 
3    9 
5     0 
4    6 
3  11 
6    9 
5     9 
4     9 
8     0 
9     0 
10    0 
11    0 
12    0 
6    0 

Third  quality  dark  gray  grounds  not  so  heavy 

First  quality,  black  or  brown  grounds  _  . 

Second  quality  dark  gray  grounds 

Third  quality,  job  cloth,  all  colors        

First  quality  black  or  brown  grounds 

Second  quality  dark  gray  grounds  

Third  quality'  dark  grav  grounds  not  so  heavy 

First  quality  black  or  brown  grounds  .                         . 

Second  quality,  light  gray  or  drab,  or  self-color  grounds  

Third  qualitv  dark  grav  grounds 

Quality  fancy  designs  heavier  and  fuller 

Quality,  fancy  designs  little  more  pattern  and  color 

Quality  new'  art  designs  and  colors 

Quality,  do.   50  ends  more  warp  in        .             ... 

Quality  do.  more  warp  better*  still 

GREAT    BRITAIN. 


293 


Tin-  following  inott'ifs  or  \\ords  will  only  l»o  made  to  order.     Any  other  iiinttncH 
•»!  i  ideated  will  be  made  when  ordoivd. 


Xi 

Description. 

Size  in 

Pri 

ce. 

inches. 

H. 

DD. 

1R 

72  by  36 

*.d. 
S    0 

s.d. 
(j    t> 

10 

Wis»loin  is  happiness  

72        36 

g    o 

0    6 

''<) 

72        36 

8    0 

6    6 

"1 

Comfort  at  home          

72        36 

8    0 

t;    t; 

"7! 

Keep  £oo<l  company  -  -  

72        36 

8    0 

6    6 

?3 

Home,  awpet  borne      

72        36 

8    0 

C    6 

?4 

Our  own  fireside  

72        36 

8    0 

6    6 

9f> 

No  place  like  home 

72        36 

8    0 

6    6 

•>« 

Oar  own  fireside  is  the  best  .     .. 

72        36 

8    0 

Any  of  the  above  mottoes  if  done  in  wool,  two  colors,  Is.  6d.  each  extra,  or  if  let- 
ters, all  scarlet  cloth,  Is.  extra  only. 


No. 

Description. 

Pri 

ce. 

BB. 

CC. 

DD. 

EE. 

FF. 

H. 

?7 

Home  

g.d. 
0 

s.d. 
6 

s.d. 

6    ii 

s.d. 
0    0 

g.d. 

c 

s.d. 
8    0 

•'8 

o 

g 

6    6 

5    0 

Q 

8    0 

V» 

Comfort  .                    

II 

6 

6    6 

5    0 

6 

8    0 

30 

Welcome  

o 

Q 

6    6 

5    0 

Q 

8    0 

31 

Hope  

o 

6 

6    6 

5    0 

8    0 

39 

Sobriety      

4    0 

g 

6    6 

5    0 

Q 

8    0 

33 

Sweet  home  ... 

4    0 

Q 

6    6 

5    0 

Q 

8    0 

Cloth  mats  in  H  quality  28  by  14  inches,  18*.  per  dozen. 

Worsted  heald  hearthrugs  or  mats  sold  by  weight,  not  by  size.  Crimson  is  most  in 
demand  and  kept  in  stock,  from  15s.  to  30s.  each,  Is.  4d.  per  pound.  Mats,  28.  to  10s. 
each,  Is.  3d.  to  Is.  8d.  per  pound,  according  to  quality,  etc. 

Imitation  heald  hearthrugs,  72  by  30  inches,  5s.  1  Id.  to  10s.  6d. 

Imitation  heald  mats,  30  by  12  inches,  15s.,  16s.,  17s.,  18s.,  19s.,  and  20s.  per  dozen. 

Cloth  hearthrugs  made  to  order  any  particular  pattern,  quality,  or  price.  Any 
kind  of  mottoes  or  words  can  be  woven  in  (to  order  only). 

Terms  :  Accounts  monthly,  with  2£  discount ;  for  cash  in  ten  days,  1J  extra. 

All  accounts  are  to  be  remitted  direct  to  the  firm.  Cheques,  money-orders,  and 
postal-orders  all  to  be  crossed  and  made  payable  to  John  Sykes,  the  manager. 

No  carriage  paid. 

HUDDERSFIELD   HEARTHRUG  COMPANY, 

Brook  Street,  HuddersfaJd. 
MANUFACTURE   OF  FELTINGS. 

With  regard  to  the  Patent  Woolen  Cloth  Company,  whose  works  are 
at  Elmwood  Mills,  Camp  Koad,  Leeds,  it  may  be  premised  that  they 
use  no  looms  at  all.  Their  business  is  the  production  of  feltings. 
These  are  of  various  kinds,  and  in  this  variety  is  included  a  number  of 
different  sorts  of  floor  coverings,  all  made  of  felt.  They  comprise 
whole  carpets,  or  rtrgs,  stair  carpets,  and  carpeting  by  the  running 
yard,  but  none  of  the  stuffs  are  woven.  All  the  operations  of  this 


294     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

manufacture  are  conducted  under  one  management.  The  wool  is  taken 
as  it  comes  from  the  bale  and  the  finished  product  turned  out  ready  for 
shipment. 

These  mills  sell  their  goods  direct  to  distributers  without  the  inter- 
vention of  commission  merchants.  Most  of  their  production  is  con- 
sumed in  the  home  market,  or  else  goes  to  the  British  Colonies. 

They  use  raw  wool  of  almost  every  grade,  particularly  the  low  grades, 
including  the  by-product  of  the  cloth-mills  (as  noils,  waste,  etc.),  to- 
gether with  tow  and  perhaps  other  materials,  varying  as  to  the 
quality  of  the  goods  turned  out.  A  brief  summary  of  the  process  by 
which  the  felt  carpeting  is  made  may  be  of  interest.  Much  of  the 
wool  used  by  this  company  is  bought  washed,  and  goes  from  the  bale 
at  once  to  the  willeying  machine,  where  it  is  opened  out  and  the  fibers 
separated.  This  process  is  continued  by  another  machine,  termed  a 
"  teaser."  From  the  teaser  the  wool  is  taken  to  the  cards. 

The  card-cylinders  are*  made  sufficiently  long  and  are  set  in  the 
machine  at  right  angles  to  their  length,  so  that  the  desired  width  of  the 
future  piece  is  accommodated  within  the  length  of  the  cylinder,  and  when 
the  material  passes  from  the  face  of  the  cylinder  it  has  already  assumed 
the  requisite  dimension  of  breadth.  Length  and  thickness  remain  for 
further  operations. 

To  these  card-cylinders  the  wool  from  the  teasiug-machine  is  fed 
through  the  medium  of  a  trough,  which  automatically  weighs  and  trans- 
fers the  wool  to  the  cylinders,  distributing  the  material  duly  along  the 
carding  surface  as  it  does  so.  The  weight  of  the  fabric  is  thus  regu- 
lated, due  allowance,  no  doubt,  being  made  for  waste  and  any  other 
incident. 

from  the  first  set  of  cards  the  material  passes  to  a  parallel  set, 
whence  it  is  taken  in  a  thin  sheet  from  the  face  of  the  last  card-cylinder 
and  is  transferred  to  an  arrangement  in  the  nature  of  a  reel,  which  is  in 
width  equal  to  the  length  the  card-cylinder  face,  and  revolves  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  cards.  The  filmy  web  from  the  cards  is  wound 
upon  this  reel  (called  an  " accumulator")  to  the  extent  of  sundry  turns, 
and  being  then  cut  from  the  accumulator  it  gives  a  fluffy  length  com- 
prising several  folds,  which  is  eventually  to  go  to  the  making  of  a  piece 
of  felt  carpeting.  This  length  is  then  wound  into  a  roll  of  not  immod- 
erate tightness,  in  shape  somewhat  like  a  roll  of  bagging,  and  it  is 
then  termed  a  bat. 

The  bats  are  next  placed  on  a  machine,  where  the  web  is  still  further 
thickened  by  the  super  imposition  of  one  layer  upon  another  in  a  very 
ingeniously  combined  direct  and  indirect  acting  fashion,  which  it  may 
be  attempted  to  describe. 

The  machine  is  of  the  same  width  as  the  preceding  ones;  that  is  to 
say,  sufficiently  wide  to  take  the  fabric  flat. 

It  has  a  direct  action  swinging  screen  hung  above  and  across  its 
length,  wherefrom  one  web  is  laid  down  upon  another,  while  the  latter 


GREAT    BRITAIN.  295 

slowly  passes  across  a  bed-place  which  extends  before  the  screen,  the 
second  web  moving  horizontally  as  to  its  own  surface  and  at  right 
angles  to  the  direction  in  which  the  screen  swings. 

As  a  consequence  of  these  movements  the  web  from  the  screen  is  de- 
livered flat  upon  the  second  web  as  the  latter  unrolls  from  its  place  at 
the  side  of  the  machine,  and,  moving  across  the  bed-place,  takes  the 
portions  deposited  from  the  screen  along  with  it. 

Thence  this  double  web  goes  underneath  a  third  roll  or  bat  lying 
parallel  to  the  side  of  the  bed-place,  and  unwinding  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  that  in  which  the  material  passing  under  it  goes. 

This  third  web  is  thus  deposited  together  with  and  on  top  of  the  other 
two  combined,  with  which  it  forms  a  threefold  strip  of  incipient  felt. 

In  the  process  just  described  an  advantage  arises  with  reference  to 
the  next  step  which  is  to  be  taken  to  wards  con  verting  the  raw  wool  into 
a  felted  fabric.  The  advantage  is  derived  from  the  fact  that  during 
the  process  of  carding  the  wool  fibers  have  become  aligned  more  or  less 
regularly  in  the  direction  of  the  length  of  the  band  or  strip,  which,  as 
indicated,  comes  directly  from  the  surface  of  the  card-cyliuders  on  to 
the  accumulator,  whence  it  is  rolled  into  the  bats  with  which  we  are 
now  dealing. 

As  the  result,  therefore,  of  depositing  a  layer  from  one  bat  (that  from 
the  screen)  on  the  surface  of  the  second  unrolling  before  it,  which  in 
turn  carries  the  first  with  itself  beneath  the  third,  and  taking  up  the 
third  becomes  one  thickness  of  three  folds,  we  find,  since  the  upper 
and  lower  folds  have  the  fibers  lying  in  the  direction  of  their  length, 
while  the  intermediate  fold  sets  its  fibers  transversely  to  the  other  two, 
that  the  separate  layers  as  regards  the  fibers  composing  them  are  ar- 
ranged in  the  most  convenient  manner  for  furthering  the  next  step, 
viz.,  that  of  felting. 

This  method  of  combining  the  several  layers  into  one  web,  which  is 
quite  automatic,  facilitates  also  the  use  in  order  to  obtain  a  cheaper 
product  of  material  inside  the  fabric  different  in  character  from  what 
is  shown  on  the  exterior. 

Tow,  for  example,  in  some  of  the  lower  classes  of  goods  may  be  em- 
ployed to  make  the  interior  layer,  or  an  inferior  grade  of  wool  may  be 
put  in  for  mass  and  weight,  but  at  much  less  cost. 

At  the  stage  where  we  have  now  arrived  we  have  a  broad  baud  of 
carded  wool  (intermixed  material  not  now  reckoned  with)  which,  as  we 
have  seen,  is  composed  as  follows  :  First,  the  thin  film  from  the  cards 
folded  several  times  upon  itself  by  being  reeled  off  the  card  cylinder 
face  on  to  the  accumulator.  Next  the  material  taken  from  the  accu- 
mulator and  formed  into  a  roll  or  bat,  and  of  these  bats  three  combined 
by  superimposition,  as  already  explained.  So  that  the  thickness  of  the 
band  of  material  as  it  now  stands  is  made  up  of  three  layers ;  each  of 
these  layers  combines  several  thinner  ones  in  form  as  the  stuff  came 
from  the  cards  arid  further  the  wool  fibers  in  the  three  final  layers  are 


296     CLBPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

duly  set  in  counter  directions  within  the  body  of  the  web  all  ready  for 
the  felting  to  take  place. 

The  felting  is  effected  by  one  of  two  machines  used  for  the  purpose. 
In  one  of  these  machines  the  surface  of  the  web  as  it  unwinds  from  the 
roll  which  has  been  formed  from  the  separate  bats  is  passed  across  a 
series  of  small  revolving  cylinders  set  close  together  in  the  same  hori- 
zontal plane.  These  small  rollers  in  revolving  slightly  engage  the  lower 
surface  of  the  web  as  it  goes  over  them  gently  subtending  the  material 
in  the  direction  of  its  length,  and  at  the  same  time  by  a  movement  hor- 
izontally transverse  to  the  direction  in  which  their  own  revolution  oc- 
curs and  in  which  the  web  also  is  traveling  they  combine  a  slight  cross- 
wise oscillating  motion  with  the  other.  The  resultant  agitation  causes 
the  felting  of  the  fibers. 

This  latter  movement  of  the  rollers  is  accomplished  by  means  of  re- 
ciprocating attachments  fixed  at  the  ends  of  the  separate  rollers,  which 
attachments  slide  the  rollers  back  and  forth  in  their  beds  as  they  revolve, 
and  combining  with  the  rotary  motion  of  the  rollers  set  up  an  action, 
half  of  rubbing,  half  of  shaking,  operating  on  the  lower  surface  of  the 
web,  and,  as  already  stated,  producing  in  the  body  of  the  web  that  in- 
terlocked condition  of  the  fibers  which  is  known  as  "  felted."  Steam  is 
passed  through  the  material  during  the  course  of  the  felting  process  in 
in  order  to  facilitate  the  interlacing  of  the  fibers.  This  is  done  with 
each  of  the  felting  machines. 

The  second  felting  machine  referred  to  is  in  the  nature  of  a  long  flat 
frame,  on  and  to  which  four  rolls  of  webs  are  fed  simultaneously.  The 
sheets  unwinding  from  these  rolls  pass  horizontally  under  a  square  press, 
which  forms  part  of  the  machine  and  is  composed  of  a  number  of  small 
panels. 

The  four  sheets  go  under  the  press  together,  but  are  kept  separate 
from  one  another  by  strips  of  like  width  of  stout  linen  cloth,  which 
separate  them  while  permitting  free  action  to  the  press.  As  this  quad- 
ruple length  of  the  webs,  with  the  intervening  folds  of  the  linen,  comes 
into  position  underneath  the  press  the  machine  pauses  for  a  moment, 
then  the  plate  descends  upon  the  four-ply  mass  below  and  proceeds  to 
slowly  shake  itself  down  and  upon  it  with  a  peculiar  pulverizing  sort 
of  motion  which  is  hard  to  describe,  but  which  results  in  concerting 
the  previously  open-textured  substance  into  closely  matted  felt.  As  in 
the  other  machine,  steam  is  used  in  this  one,  also,  in  order  to  expedite 
the  felting.  At  this  stage  the  mechanical  constitution  of  the  fabric 
may  be  considered  pretty  nearly  complete. 

It  has  still,  however,  to  be  milled.  This  is  done  in  tubs,  or  stocks, 
as  they  are  called,  where  the  long  pieces  after  being  soaped  are  beaten 
with  wooden  hammers  set  in  motion  by  steam-power,  and  working  in 
some  of  the  tubs  perpendicularly,  in  some  horizontally. 

The  pieces  are  afterwards  washed  and  are  then  either  dyed  or  printed 
or  finished  plain. 


GREAT    BRITAIN.  297 

In  printing'  the  carpets  hand-stamps  are  used.  In  this  operation  the 
sheet  of  felt  having  be^ii  spread  upon  a  table  the  printer  impresses  the 
pattern  from  a  wooden  stamp  covered  with  pigment  and  struck  with 
the  closed  hand  or  with  a  mallet.  The  stamps  are  about  12  by  14  inches 
on  the  face,  and  the  pattern  is  produced  over  the  whole  surface  by 
repeated  applications  in  a  continuous  succession.  Where,  as  is  usually 
the  case,  more  than  one  color  is  required  a  series  of  stamps  are  imployed, 
a  separate  stamp  for  each  successive  color  being  used  to  superimpose 
its  portion  of  the  design  over  those  already  impressed  upon  the  fabric, 
with  proper  reference,  of  course,  to  the  combined  effect  5  the  method  be- 
ing much  like  that  in  use  for  lithographic  printing. 

In  order  to  remedy  imperfections  a  workman,  after  the  stamping  is 
done,  goes  over  the  surface  carefully,  and  where  he  finds  the  color  de- 
fective supplies  the  deficiency  by  the  aid  of  a  little  trowel  and  some 
extra  coloring  matter. 

The  stamped  surface  is  then  dusted  over  with  sawdust  and  the  pieces 
hung  on  screens,  which,  after  being  folded  into  comparatively  small 
compass,  are  shifted  as  they  stand  into  a  hot-air  bath  to  dry  the  fabric 
and  fix  the  colors. 

The  plain-dyed  stuffs  are  passed  through  a  finishing  machine,  where 
a  sharp  revolving  knife  trims  the  surface  to  smoothness. 

Exclusive  of  the  printing  department,  which  is  nearly  all  piece-work, 
the  Patent  Woolen  Cloth  Company  employs  about  two  hundred  and 
fifty  hands. 

Women,  fillers  or  feeders,  of  whom  not  many  are  employed,  earn 
about  9*.  ($2.19)  per  week;  boys,  8s.  to  15s.  ($1.95  to  $3.65) ;  willeyers 
and  hardeners,  fettlers,  etc.,  including  stackers.  18s.  to  22s.  or  24s.  per 
week  (84.38  to  $5.35  or  $5.84)  $  foremen,  of  minor  importance,  28s.  to 
30s.  ($6.81  to  $7.30) ;  skilled  mechanics  are  paid  according  to  merit  and 
trade  usages,  presumably  higher  rates  than  those  mentioned. 

The  company  consumes  about  30,000  to  40,000  pounds  of  material 
weekly,  which,  however,  is  of  very  mixed  character  and  indeterminate 
from  week  to  week  in  respect  of  value. 

F.   H.   WlGFALL, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Leeds,  November  14,  1889. 


LEITH. 

i:i;r<n;T  BY  CONSUL  WALLING. 

On  careful  inquiry  I  find  that  in  my  district  there  are  only  three 
carpet  manufactories.  Their  proper  business  addresses  are:  Henry 
Widnell  &  Co.,  carpet  manufacturers,  Lass  wade ;  Henry  Widneli  &  Co., 
carpet  manufacturers,  Koslin ;  Stewart  Brothers,  carpet  manufacturers, 
Dalkeith. 


CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

All  these  establishments  are  situated  within  a  few  miles  of  Edin- 
burgh. 

I  have  visited  the  Lass  wade  manufactory  and  had  an  interview  with 
Messrs.  George  and  John  G.  Stewart,  the  sole  proprietors  of  it,  and 
representatives  of  the  firm  of  Widuell  &  Co.,  there  and  at  Roslin. 
They  refused  to  answer  any  of  the  interrogatories  contained  in  the  cir- 
cular or  give  me  any  information  whatever  regarding  the  manufacture 
of  carpets. 

In  the  course  of  an  interview  at  Dalkeith  with  one  of  the  partners  of 
Stewart  Brothers,  above  named,  he  likewise  declined  to  give  me  any  of 
the  information  wanted. 

The  said  Stewart  Brothers,  of  Dalkeith,  are  sous  of  Mr.  George 
Stewart,  the  senior  partner  in  the  firm  of  Widuell  &  Co.,  Lasswade, 
and,  apparently,  have  agreed  with  them  to  withhold  the  information 
which  I  have  sought  from  them. 

WlLLOUGHBY    WALLING. 

Consul 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE. 

j  August  13,  1889. 


TUNSTALL. 

REPORT  HY  CONSUL  SGHOENHOF. 

[From  Consular  Keports,  No.  95,  vol.  27.] 

COST   OF  MANUFACTURING  INGRAIN   CARPETS  IN  ENGLAND. 

The  manufacture  of  ingrain  carpets  in  England  is  largely  constructed 
on  hand  looms  yet,  and  very  likely  will  be  continued  so  for  some  time 
to  come.  The  reasons  are  obvious.  The  cost  of  production  is  nearly 
the  same,  and  hand-loom  weaving  offers  to  the  manufacturer  the  great 
advantage  that  he  need  not  sink  the  greater  part  of  his  capital  into 
fixed  charges  of  costly  machinery. 

My  first  visit  was  to  a  manufacturer  who  employs  about  120  looms, 
all  of  which  are  hand  looms  belonging  to  the  weavers.  The  cost  of  his 
yarns  is  10  pence  a  pound,  or  20  cents  all  around,  dyeing  included ;  a 
pound  and  a  quarter  to  the  yard,  12  J  pence  or  25  cents.  The  cost  of 
manufacturing,  including  wages  and  expense,  delivered  free  on  board, 
is  7£  pence  or  15  cents.  A  sum  total  of  net  cost  of  40  cents.  The 
weaver  gets  his  yarn  and  delivers  the  finished  carpet,  all  ready  for  ship, 
ment,  without  any  further  charge  to  the  manufacturer.  That  is  to  say 
he  does  the  warping,  weaving,  and  all  of  what  is  contained  in  incidental 
labor  in  power  weaving,  and  for  the  completed  delivered  work  he  gets 
5  pence  or  10  cents  a  yard.  The  remaining  5  cents  cover  what,  in  our 
estimate,  is  contained  in  incidentals  and  a  small  profit  charge.  He 
has  no  loom  fixers,  winders,  spoolers,  warpers,  etc.,  to  pay,  no  engineer, 


KXGLANK  299 

no  coal  for  power,  e»;c.  The  interest  on  capital  is  not  heavy,  as  no  great 
capital  is  required.  The  wear  and  tear  percentage  is  entirely  absent, 
and  he  can  conduct  his  business  free  of  all  risks,  frequently  the  out- 
come of  the  ownership  of  a  large  plant  which  has  to  be  provided  with 
work  in  order  to  save  decay  and  decline  resulting  from  material  and 
pecuniary  shrinkage  of  idle  machinery.  The  cost  of  a  hand-loom  is  £13, 
or  $63,  while  a  power  loom,  such  as  used  in  England,  costs  £120,  or 
$580.  A  good  hand-loom  weaver  would  turn  out  about  120  yards  of 
this  quality  in  a  fortnight,  with  earnings  of  $6  a  week.  Another  man- 
ufacturer whom  I  visited  employs  both  hand  and  power  looms.  His 
firm  was  pointed  out  to  me  by  others  as  the  largest  makers  of  ingrain 
carpets  by  power.  But  he  also  stated  to  me  that  most  all  the  ingrain 
carpet  weaving  was  done  on  hand-looms  yet,  and  that  the  largest  makers 
were  still  making  them  in  this  manner.  They  commenced  in  1868  as 
single  workingmen  weavers,  he  and  his  brother,  and  had  gradually 
worked  up.  In  1874  they  first  began  power-loom  weaving.  They  were 
ridiculed  by  their  fellow  manufacturers,  who  all  predicted  disaster. 
Many  had  tried  it  before  and  had  failed.  Still  they  persisted  and  suc- 
ceeded. In  England  they  used  the  Murkland  loom,  the  loom  in  use  in 
America,  where  they  are  making  room  now  for  the  newer  and  improved 
ones,  Kuowles  &  Cromptou's,  alluded  to  before.  All  of  these  are  Amer- 
ican inventions,  as  power-weaving  in  ingrains  has  taken  its  rise  there. 
Indeed,  all  the  first  power  machines  used  in  England  were  of  American 
make.  They  were,  however,  soon  superseded  by  English  makers,  as 
the  American  were  found  too  poor — castings  being  used  where  ham- 
mered iron  and  steel  are  employed  in  the  English  loom,  as  my  inform- 
ant stated.  That  power- weaving  has  not  taken  deeper  root  in  England 
is  due  to  causes  partly  stated  above,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  to  make 
power-loom  weaving  profitable  would  require  a  large  output  with  infre- 
quent changes. 

The  output  is  not  large  enough  per  loom  to  warrant  the  introduction  of  costly 
machinery.  If  a  girl,  these  are  the  words  of  my  informant,  earns  12*.  a  wrrk, 
she  is  satisfied  and  can  not  be  brought  to  work  up  higher  thau  15*.  If  she  gets  above 
that  in  times  of  great  pressure,  when  some  work  up  to  £1  and  even  £1  4s.,  they  soon 
lall  back  again.  If  we  discharge  them  and  take  now  ones  it  would  be  the  same  again 
in  a  very  short  time.  They  lack  the  ambition  to  rise  above  their  station.  Their  pres- 
ent earnings  suffice  them  to  maintain  that  and  the  mode  of  living  they  are  used  to. 
Tho-e  who  go  to  America  go  there  to  make  their  fortune,  and  then,  of  course,  they 
work  with  a  different  spirit,  as  they  are  there  freed  from  home  influences  and  take  up 
the  spirit  of  their  sunouiidings. 

I  have  expressed  this  view  frequently  in  reports  and  otherwise.  Its 
correctness  has  been  questioned  in  some  quarters.  It  will  therefore  be 
of  value  to  have  the  corroborative  opinion  of  an  English  manufacturer 
whose  experience  and  intelligence  make  him  well  qualified  to  judge  the 
subject  of  comparative  productiveness  of  labor  from  the  English  stand- 
point. He  says  further  u  that  the  English  go  along  in  the  same  way  as 
their  fathers.  They  want  no  changes.  It  is  the  same  in  Sheffield  and 
17A 3 


300     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

other  places."  This  firm  (and  many  others  do  the  same)  is  selling  its 
own  goods  direct  to  the  retail  trade.  One  brother  is  almost  always 
traveliug  in  England  and  Scotland,  while  the  other  remains  at  home 
attending  to  the  business  and  the  factory. 

The  wages  paid  for  power-loom  weaving  are  2d.  farthing,  or  4£  cents 
per  yard  of  this  quality.  They  employ,  besides  the  hand-looms,  20 
power  looms,  with  an  average  in  a  busy  week  of  3,000  yards.  They 
employ  besides  the  weavers — 

1  loom  boss,  at  43s - $10.80 

2  loom-fixers,  at  30s.,  or  $7.20 14.40 

C  spool-winders,  at  12s.,  or  $-2.88 14.40 

2  winders,  at  12s.,  or  $2.88 5.66 

2  warpers,  at  12s.,  or  $2.88 5.66 

1  shearer,  at  16s 3. 84 

1  twister,  at  9s 2.16 

1  engineer,  at  30s 7.20 

1  cop  boy,  at  12s 2. 88 

1  card-cutter,  at  12s 2.88 

1  designer,  at  £5 24.00 

Total 93.88 

Burling  is  paid  by  the  piece  of  60  yards  at  Is.  7^.,  or  38  cents  per 
piece,  equal  to  .636  cents  per  yard ;  $93.88  of  general  labor  divided  on 
3,000  yards  is  3.129  cents,  and  with  burling,  3.765  cents  against  2.67 
cents  in  America.  This  is,  however,  for  a  larger  weekly  output  than 
ordinary,  and  for  a  week  where  a  lower  output  would  be  realized  a  cor- 
responding higher  additional  general  labor-cost  would  be  the  result. 

For  wear  and  tear  they  allow  10  per  cent.,  and  in  very  good  years 
write  off  as  high  as  15  per  cent.  The  selling  expenses,  as  they  have  a 
good  deal  of  traveling  to  do,  are  also  higher  than  in  the  American  cost 
statement,  and  amount  to  from  5  to  6  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the 
goods. 

The  selling  price  is  2s.  2d.,  or  52  cents  a  yard. 

The  cost  of  the  yarns  used  in  goods  of  this  quality  is  Is.  2f  d.  per  yard, 
or  28f  cents. 

J.  SCHOENHOF, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  t 

Tunstall,  July  9,  1888. 


HOLLAND.  301 

HOLLAND. 
AMSTERDAM. 

REPORT  BY  VICE  CONSUL  VINKB. 

MILLS  AND  MANUFACTURERS. 

• 

There  are  in  all  forty-five  manufactories  engaged  in  the  production  of 
carpets  in  the  Netherlands. 

The  following  list  gives  the  names  of  the  manufacturers  and  their 
business  addresses : 

Smyrna  carpets.— Royal  Carpet  Manufactory,  Deventer;  Garjeaune 
&  Co.,  Amersfoort;  W.  Stevens,  Kralingen  ;  Henkelsfeldt,  Delft. 

Brussels  and  tapestry  carpets.— Q.  de  Wit  &  Co.,  Hilversum. 

Wool  and  hair  carpet*.— W.  Andriessen,  Nzn.,  Hilversum;  D.  An- 
driessen,  Nzn.,  H.  Bylard  &  Co.,  J.  Bylard,  Bromver  &  van  der  Hey- 
deu,  W.  Esman,  J.  Fokker,  Hzn.,  J.  S.  Fokker,  F.  Ham,  Gebrceders 
van  der  Heyden,  Gebroeders  Jesbers,  Firma  Kuiper,  J.  Kreuning,  G. 
.Mulder,  J.  Reyn  Azn,  J.  Reyn,  Jzu.,  J.  van  Rhyn,  J.  C.  Reyn,  H.  Reyu, 
Jzu.,  N.  Reyn,  Zzn.,  A.  van  Rood,  W.  Reysberman,  K.  P.  Vlaanderen  & 
Zoou,  C.  Vlaanderen,  G.  Veen,  A.  de  Wit  Wyn,  Firma  A.  de  Wit  Ty- 
men  de  Wit  &  Co.,  Hilversmusche  Wevery,  of  Hilversum;  L.  van  Wyn- 
gaarden  &  Co.,  Rhenen ;  Huberts  &  Co.,  Deventer;  Firma  Trins,  Dinx- 
perlo;  Hamers  &  van  Beck,  Amersfoort;  Firma  van  den  Brink,  Lareu, 
Xoord  Holland;  Firma  van  Leer,  Amersfoort;  Willemans  &  Co.,  Delfs- 
haven;  Gildemeester  &  Co.,  Breda;  J.  A.  Kruisbriuk,  Amsterdam. 

DUMBER   OF  LOOMS. 

The  total  number  of  looms  is  925,  of  which  15  only  are  power  looms. 
The  number  of  looms  in  each  factory  varies  from  5  to  60. 

GRADES  OF  CARPETS  PRODUCED. 

There  are  40  factories,  principally  situated  in  the  district  of  Hilver- 
sum, near  Amsterdam,  engaged  in  the  production  of  the  lower  grade, 
cheap  wool  or  hair  carpets. 

Four  factories,  in  differents  parts  of  the  country,  produce  imitation 
Smyrna  and  Persian  carpets  ;  and  one  factory  at  Hilversum  produces 
Brussels  and  tapestry. 

WAGES  AND   HOURS  OF  LABOR. 

The  total  number  of  persons  employed  in  the  carpet  industry  is  about 
2,300;  nearly  all  men  and  boys.  They  work  ten  to  eleven  hours  per 
working-day,  and  their  wages  amount  to  10  to  11  florins  per  week  for 


302  CARPET    MANUFACTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

weavers,  and  2  to  5  florins  for  boys ;  mostly  in  piece-work,  which  is 
nearly  invariably  done  at  the  factory. 

The  manner  of  living  is  very  simple  and  economical,  the  factories 
being  located  in  the  country  districts,  where  the  cost  of  living  is  much 
less  than  in  the  towns. 

HOW  THE  INDUSTRY  IS  CONDUCTED. 

The  industry  is  conducted  iu»separate  divisions  by  independent  in- 
terests. 

Few  factories  spin  a  portion  of  the  yarns  which  they  use ;  these  ma- 
terials are  principally- purchased  in  the  English  markets. 

HOW  THE  PRODUCT  IS  MARKETED. 

Sales  for  home  consumption  are  made  direct  to  the  store-keepers  by 
the  manufacturers. 

The  carpet  industry  of  the  Netherlands  is  not  an  extensive  one,  prin- 
cipally confining  itself  to  the  production  of  the  cheaper  and  lower 
grades  of  wool  and  cow-hair  carpets  for  home  consumption. 

The  few  factories  producing  imitation  Smyrna  and  Persian  carpets, 
woven  in  one  piece,  have  a  well  deserved  reputation,  both  at  home  and 
abroad,  for  the  excellence  of  their  manufacture,  which  commands  in 
some  instances  very  high  prices,  and  their  sales  for  home  consumption 
and  export  are  steadily  increasing. 

Axminster  and  velvet  carpets  are  not  produced  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  the  one  factory  producing  Brussels  and  tapestry  has  only  been  in 
existence  since  a  few  years. 

The  general  condition  of  this  industry  in  the  Netherlands  is  a  flour- 
ishing one. 

There  is  a  considerable  importation  of  foreign-made  carpets,  princi- 
pally from  England  (Brussels,  tapestry,  Axminster,  and  velvet),  and 
to  a  smaller  extent  from  France  (velvet),  and  from  Germany  (Brussels, 
tapestry,  and  velvet). 

WHERE  THE  PRODUCTS  FIND   CONSUMPTION. 

The  lower  grades  of  wool  and  hair  carpets  are  nearly  altogether  for 
the  home  supply  ;  a  small  quantity  is  exported  to  Denmark.  Imitktion 
Smyrna  and  Persian  carpets  are  also  manufactured  for  the  home  market, 
and  to  a  lesser  extent  for  exportation  to  England,  France,  Denmark, 
Belgium,  and  America. 

Brussels  and  tapestry  are  produced  exclusively  for  home  use. 

Sales  are  generally  made  for  cash  with  2  per  cent,  discount,  or  at  three 

mouths  without  discount. 

ALBERT  VINKE, 

Vice  Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Amsterdam,  August  29,  1889. 


HOLLAND. 

ROTTERDAM. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ELLIS. 

I  can  not  give  the  Department  any  information  of  valne  from  tins 
district,  there  being  only  one  carpet  work  here,  that  of  W.  Stevens,  at 
Kralingen,  a  town  adjoining  the  city  of  Rotterdam,  where  Persian  car- 
pets are  made — rugs  and  whole  carpets — by  hand  looms,  at  a  high 
price — about  $5.50  a  square  meter.  This  work  is  done  by  women  and 
girls. 

Cocoa  matting  (rugs  and  carpets),  by  power  looms,  is  also  manufact- 
ured by  men  and  boys. 

This  information  was  acquired  by  me,  personally,  upon  a  casual  visit 
to  these  works.  Beyond  what  I  have  stated  I  can  give  the  Department 
no  further  information.  I  had  hoped  to  learn  all  about  these  works  upon 
the  occasion  of  the  visit  of  the  American  Workingmen's  Expedition, 
but  all  access  to  the  works  were  denied  to  them  upon  my  application, 
and  in  a  very  curt  way.  the  proprietor  stating  that  he  did  not  want  to 
have  anything  to  do  with  our  people ;  that  he  had  learned  sometime 
since  of  some  transactions  of  a  carpet  works  at  Delft,  now  closed, 
whose  workmen  are  now  employed  by  him,  which  influenced  him  to 
wish  not  to  deal  with  us ;  and  he  added  that  he  could  not  see  why  he 
should  give  any  information  to  our  workingmen,  since  the  duty  on  car- 
pets was  so  high  in  the  United  States  that  he  could  not  send  his  pro- 
ductions there  for  sale. 

I  can  leain  nothing  more,  there  being  no  official  or  trade  publication 
to  help  me.  However,  there  is  nothing  of  real  value  to  the  carpet  man- 
ufacturers of  the  United  States  to  be  stated  about  these  works.  The 
product  is  small,  and  for  local  sale  only,  the  Fags  and  carpets  being 
made  to  order  for  wealthy  people,  and  cocoa  matting  to  supply  the  re- 
tailers in  the  ordinary  stores  of  Holland.  The  general  carpets  in  use 
and  sold  here  are  brought  here  from  England,  trance,  and  Belgium, 
the  duty  being  5  per  cent.  I  have  found  the  prices  charged  for  these 
carpets  much  higher  in  Rotterdam  than  in  London. 

i  do  not  see  any  reason  why  good  carpets  of  American  manufacture 
should  not  be  sold  here.  Indeed,  there  is  a  good  market  in  Holland 
for  American  goods,  generally,  and  a  very  friendly  feeling  here  towards 
our  people. 

HOWARD  ELLIS, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Rotterdam,  October  14,  1889. 


304  CARPET    MANUFACTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


ITALY. 
FLORENCE. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  BERNARDI. 

The  only  distinct  establishment  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets 
in  this  district,  worthy  of  remark,  among  several  very  limited  mills  for 
the  production  of  mats,  is  managed  by  the  firm  of  "  Eredi  di  Luisa 
Parenti,  No.  100,  Via  Borgo  Allegri,  Florence,  Italy,"  where  are  to  be 
found  fifty  hand  looms,  applied  to  comparatively  coarse  and  jute  carpets. 

About  one  hundred  workmen  find  wage  employment  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  carpet  at  the  daily  rate  of  from  60  cents  to  $1  for  males  and  20  to 
60  cents  for  females  for  ten  hours  of  labor. 

As  a  rule  these  workmen  are  poorly  fed  and  miserably  housed,  being 
employed  at  their  homes.  Their  food  may  be  estimated  at  18  cents  per 
diem,  consisting  of  bread,  6  cents  ;  coffee,  1  cent;  salted  pork,  2  cents  ; 
cheese  or  fruit,  2  cents;  flour  paste,  3  cents;  beans,  cabbage  and  pota- 
toes,, 4  cents;  wine,  3  cents. 

The  dyeing  and  spinning  are  attended  to  at  Prato  (a  small  town  half 
hour  distant  by  rail  from  Florence),  and  the  weaving  in  this  city,  but 
conducted  unitedly. 

The  carpets  are  placed  upon  the  Italian  markets  only  and  directly 
from  the  factory  by  the  factors,  or  through  bagmen. 

SPIRITO  BERNARDI, 
Vice  and  Deputy  Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Florence,  August  9,  1889. 


LOMBARDY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  CROUCH,  OF  MILAN. 

As  far  as  I  can  ascertain  this  industry  is  of  very  little  importance 
in  Italy.  Other  than  the  establishments  mentioned  below,  there  are"  said 
to  be  only  two  or  three  small  manufactories  in  Turin  and  in  Florence. 
The  carpets  sold  here  come  mainly  from  England  and  Vienna;  a  smaller 
quantity  is  imported  from  France,  Belgium,  and  Germany. 

Number  of  mills. — As  far  as  I  can  learn  there  are  only  three  mills  in 
this  district,  viz,  Giacomo  Giacomini,  via  Quadrouno  19,  Milan;  Vedova 
Galizioli  and  Figlio  Carlo,  via  Nerino  5,  Milan  ;  Galizioli  Ernesto. 

Number  of  looms. — Giacomo  Giacomini,  twenty  looms;  Yedova  Gali- 
zioli, ten  looms ;  Galizioli  Ernesto,  four  looms.  These  are  all  hand- 
looms. 

Quality  of  the  carpets. — The  product  of  these  establishments  is  an  in- 


ITALY.  305 

ferior  article,  a  Venetian  damask.     Xo  other  qualities  are  manufact- 
ured. 

Number  of  persons  employed. — The  number  of  persons  employed  is  from 
80  to  90.  They  work  twelve  hours  a  day  and  receive  from  three  to  five 
lire=58  to  96i  cents. 

Dyeimji  *)>i nninf/i  weaving. — In  these  establishments  only  tho  weaving 
is  done.  The  dyeing  and  spinning  are  conducted  by  others  quite  inde- 
pendently of  the  carpet  manufactories. 

Placing  the  product  on  the  market. — The  product  is  sold  directly  here 
in  Milan,  for  the  most  part.  Giacoinini  has  also  a  traveling  agent  for 
Italy. 

Exportation. — The  products  of  these  establishments  are  not  exported. 

In  this  connection  I  may  mention,  as  of  interest  for  carpet  manufact- 
urers, the  fact  that  a  considerable  exportation  of  Italian  hemp  carpet 
yarn  from  this  district  has  sprung  up  in  the  last  two  years,  the  amount 
realizing  $92,594.52  for  the  year  ending  June  30, 1888,  and  $83,687.58 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1889. 

HENRY  C.  CROUCH, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Milan,  August  8,  1889. 


ROME. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL-GENERAL  WOOD. 
MILLS  AND  LOOMS. 

There  is  only  one  factory  or  establishment  engaged  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  carpets  in  this  province.  The  proper  address  is,  Gr.  Canestrelli, 
carpet  manufacturer,  via  Garibaldi,  Rome,  Italy. 

It  has  twenty-five  hand  looms.    No  power  looms  are  used. 

GRADE   OF   CARPETS. 

It  manufactures  exclusively  Kidderminster  piece  carpets,  of  which  it 
produces  about  218,724  yards  per  year. 

WORKERS  AND  WAGES. 

Sixty  persons  find  wage  employment  in  the  above  mentioned  estab- 
lishment— ten  men  and  fifty  women.  They  are  all  paid  by  the  job  or 
piece.  The  daily  rates  of  wages  earned  are  from  58  to  97  cents  for  men, 
and  from  49  to  58  cents  for  women. 

They  all  work  from  eight  to  ten  hours  per  day  and  lead  a  laborious 
life. 

The  cost  of  living  to  these  persons  is  said  to  nearly,  if  not  entirely, 
absorb  their  wages. 

No  work  is  done  outside  the  factory. 


•306 


CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


DYEING,  WARPING,  AND  WEAVING. 

Dyeing,  warping,  and  weaving  are  united  interests,  all  carried  on  by 
the  same  manufacturer,  and  are  all  done  within  the  establishment.  The 
yarn,  however,  is  all  imported  already  spun. 

HOW  THE  PRODUCT  IS  MARKETED. 

The  product  is  by  the  manufacturer  turned  over  to  the  firm  of  F.  & 
A.  Cagiate,  249  to  254,  via  del  Oorso,  of  this  city.  This  firm  contracts 
to  take  the  entire  product.  No  commission  agents  are  employed. 

WHERE  THE  PRODUCT  FINDS  CONSUMPTION. 

Two-thirds  of  the  product  is  consumed  in  the  province  of  Borne,  and 
the  remainder  in  other  parts  of  Italy.  There  is  no  exportation. 

IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  OF  CARPETS. 

In  connection  with  this  subject  it  may  be  interesting  to  know  the 
foreign  commerce  in  carpets  relating  to  the  province  of  Eome  and  also  to 
the  entire  Kingdom.  The  most  recent  statistics  show  that  this  trade 
in  1886  and  1887  was  as  follows : 


Description. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1886. 

]887. 

1886. 

1887. 
Pound  e. 

Province  of  Rome  : 
Carpets  of  woolen  waste  shoddy  etc 

Pounds. 
762 
126,  571 

44.  320 
856,  422 

Pounds. 
1,025 
136,  795 

63,  063 
898,  317 

Pounds. 

Carpets  and  blankets  of  wool,  etc  
Kingdom  of  Italy  : 
Carpets  of  woolen  waste,  shoddy,  etc  
Carpets  and  blankets  of  wool,  etc  

22,711 
36,  382 

18,  522 

54,  022 

In  explanation  of  the  comparative  unimportance  of  the  carpet  indus- 
try in  Italy,  it  is  well  to  remember  that,  with  the  exception  of  certain 
northern  parts  of  the  Kingdom,  all  houses  are  built  with  flooring  of 
tiles,  stone,  or  mosaic;  and  that  this  flooring,  owing  to  traditions  and 
climatic  reasons,  is  generally  left  uncovered. 

CHARLES  M.  WOOD,  % 

Vice-  Consul-  General. 
CONSULATE-GENERAL  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

Rome,  August  24,  1889. 


S\\TJ/KRL\ND    AND      H'KKKY     IN     ASIA.  307 


SWITZERLAND. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  WASHBURN,  OF  JiERNE. 

In  answer  to  your  circular  of  Juue  10,  1889,  I  have  instituted  careful 
inquiry  into  the  subject  of  carpet  manufacture  in  Switzerland.  The 
result  is  well  expressed  in  a  letter  on  the  subject  from  the  "  Union  Suisse 
du  Commerce  et  de  FIndustrie,"  whose  headquarters  are  at  Zurich,  of 
which  the  following  is  a  free  translation : 

Your  honored  communication  of  the  28th  ultimo  has  led  us  to  make  inquiries  which 
enable  us  to  state  that  carpet  manufacturing  is  not  carried  on  in  Switzerland.  Never- 
theless, some  years  ago  attempts  were  made  in  the  neighborhood  of  St.  Galle  to  in- 
troduce the  industry  of  carpet- weaving,  but  with  no  permanent  result.  In  any  case, 
any  efforts  in  this  direction  which  may  still  exist  are  not  worth  naming. 

JOHN  D.  WASHBURN, 

Consul- Genera  I. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Berne,  July  9,  1889. 


TURKEY  IN  ASIA. 

ASIA  MINOR. 

REPORT  BT  CttXsn.  EMMKT,  OF  SMYRNA. 

Factories. — There  are  no  factories,  mills,  or  distinct  establishments 
properly  so-called  in  the  districts  of  Asia  Minor  where  carpets  are 
woven. 

Looms. — Nearly  every  house  at  Ushak,  Ghiordes,  and  Coula  has  a 
loom ;  some  have  even  two  or  three.  These  belong  to  the  owners  of  the 
houses  themselves.  The  weavers  are  all  women  and  girls.  The  mis- 
tress of  the  house  superintends  the  work  of  her  daughters,  or  hired 
journey  women  and  apprentices.  The  looms  are  of  wood,  roughly  fash- 
ioned. A  vertical  or  slightly  inclined  frame  supports  two  horizontal 
rollers  about  five  feet  apart;  the  warp  divided  into  two  sets  of  strands 
by  leashes  fastened  to  a  horizontal  pole  is  wound  around  the  upper 
roller  and  the  ends  secured  to  the  lower  one,  from  which  the  work  is 
begun,  and  on  which  the  carpet  is  rolled  in  the  process  of  manufacture. 

The  weavers  kneel  or  sit  cross-legged  to  their  work  side  by  side,  each 
taking  about  two  feet  of  carpet  width.  The  tufts  that  form  the  pil? 
and  pattern  are  tied  to  the  warp  in  rows,  and  the  woof  is  passed  ovor 
with  the  hand  after  every  row  without  the  help  of  a  shuttle;  the  pile 
and  woof  being  then  driven  together  or  beaten  down  with  a  heavy 
wooden  comb,  and  the  tufts  clipped  smooth  with  shears  of  native  make. 

Above  the  weavers  are  suspended  the  bobbins  of  colored  yarn  iron 


308     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

which  the  pile  tufts  are  cut.  There  are  now  from  800  to  900  looms  at 
Ushak,  all  worked  by  private  owners  in  the  court-yards  or  main  room 
of  their  houses. 

At  Ghiordes  the  number  of  looms  is  estimated  to  be  about  300;  at 
Coula,  to  be  about  200. 

GRADES   OF   CARPETS  PRODUCED. 

The  proportion  at  Ushak  is  70  per  cent,  fully  of  carpets  to  30  per 
cent,  of  rugs  and  mats.  The  carpets  vary  in  size  from  12  feet  by  9 
feet  to  50  feet  by  25  feet,  and  in  a  few  exceptional  instances  more.  For 
a  very  large  carpet,  exceeding  the  last-mentioned  dimension,  a  special 
loom  would  have  to  be  constructed. 

The  mats  and  rugs  vary  in  size  from  2  feet  9  inches  by  1  foot  6  inches, 
to  11  feet  by  8  feet. 

At  Ghiordes  it  is  estimated  that  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and 
lugs  is  about  the  same  as  at  Ushak,  while  at  Coula  the  proportion  of 
mats  and  rugs  is  much  larger,  and  it  would  not  be  an  overestimate  to 
say  that  80  per  cent,  of  rugs  and  mats  to  20  per  cent,  of  carpets  is  the 
correct  output  of  that  section.  The  bulk  of  the  looms  at  Coula  are  not 
wider  than  5  to  7  feet. 

LABOR  AND  WAGES. 

At  Ushak,  the  number  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and 
rugs,  including  the  dyers,  is  from  5,000  to  6,000.  At  Ghiordes  and 
and  Coula  the  number  varies  from  1,500  to  2,000  hands  each.  Forty- 
four  rows  of  pile  are  considered  an  average  day's  work,  for  which 
an  ordinary  weaver  gets  about  8  to  10  cents  a  day.  Hours  of  labor 
from  seven  to  eight  per  day,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  The 
weavers  live  in  the  most  frugal  manner;  a  meal  consisting  of  bread, 
cheese,  and  a  raw  onion,  is  considered  a  good  one.  The  number  of 
hands  at  work  varies  according  to  the  season,  as  many  work  in  the 
fields  in  summer  and  manufacture  carpets  in  winter. 

CONDITION  OF  THE  INDUSTRY. 

At  Ushak  the  dyeing,  save  in  rare  instances,  is  no  longer  performed 
by  the  weavers  themselves,  as  in  former  times,  but  is  carried  &n  by  a 
separate  class  (of  men).  Spinning  is  carried  on  by  elderly  women  at 
odd  moments,  when  not  occupied  with  their  household  duties.  The 
yarn  is  loosely  spun,  so  as  to  allow  the  fibers  to  mix  slightly  together 
in  the  pattern  and  present  a  blended  appearance.  The  washing  of  the 
wool  is  performed  by  men  in  the  streams  and  combed  and  spun  by 
women. 

The  bulk  of  the  wool  is  spun  in  the  outlying  villages  of  Ushak,  etc. 

At  Ghiordes  the  division  of  labor  is  similar  to  that  of  Ushak,  while 
at  Coula  the  spinning  and  dyeing  is  usually  done  by  the  weavers  them- 


TURKEY    IN    ASIA ASIA    MINOR.  309 

MAKKF/IING   THE   PRODUCTS. 

The  carpet  merchants  in  Smyrna  have  native  agents  at  Ushak,  Ghi- 
ordes,  and  Coula,  who  act  as  intermediaries  between  said  merchants  and 
the  owners  of  the  looms.  These  native  agents  are  paid  a  commission 
varying  from  3  to  4  per  cent.,  and  their  duties  consist  in  superintend- 
ing the  carpets  while  in  process  of  manufacture  and  accepting  and  de- 
livering the  same  when  completed. 

Advances  are  usually  made  to  the  owners  of  the  looms,  but  total  pay- 
ment is  not  effected  until  the  carpet  is  taken  from  the  loom  and  meas- 
ured. The  price  is  fixed  per  Turkish  arsheen  or  pike  of  26§  inches 
square. 

WHERE  THE  PRODUCTS  FIND  CONSUMPTION. 

The  bulk  of  the  carpets  and  rugs  made  in  the  interior  are  for  export 
and  a  very  small  portion  of  the  whole  remain  in  the  country. 

Ushak  turns  out  about  300,000  arsheeus  or  pikes  of  carpets  and  rugs 
per  aiiimin.  Ghiordes  and  Demardjik  about  65,000  pikes;  Goula 
20,000  pikes. 

England  imports  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  product. 

America  ranks  next  in  importance,  then  France  and  Austria,  and 
lastly,  German3T  and  Italy. 

The  Smyrna  carpet  dealers  are  either  the  special  agents  of  the  Eu- 
ropean consuming  firms,  and  as  such  charge  a  commission  varying  from 
3  to  5  per  cent.,  or  else  they  submit  firm  offers  free  onboard  at  Smyrna, 
which  would  include  such  remuneration  as  they  are  able  to  secure  for 
themselves. 

The  prices  are  regulated  per  arsheen  or  pike  of  26f  inches  square- 
about  5  square  feet. 

W.  G.  EMMET, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Smyrna,  November  22,  1889. 


SIVAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JEWETT. 

Owing  to  the  want  of  any  system  of  collecting  statistics  by  the  gov- 
ernment or  otherwise,  it  is  impossible  to  give  any  very  definite  replies 
to  the  questions  asked  as  to  the  number  of  establishments,  looms,  and 
persons  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets. 

The  carpets  and  rugs  manufactured  in  this  are,  of  course,  only  those 
known  as  Turkish.  They  are  entirely  of  wool.  The  industry  is  carried 
on  by  families  in  their  own  houses.  There  are  no  factories.  It  is  im- 
possible to  say  how  many  persons  are  employed.  In  almost  every  vil- 


."HO      CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

lage  there  are  a  number  of  families  who  make  carpets.  Hand-looms 
only  are  used.  Most  of  the  work  is  done  by  women  and  young  girls. 
There  is  no  system  of  rate  of  wages  or  hours  of  labor.  The  manner  of 
living  is  the  same  as  with  all  others  of  the  laboring  classes.  Their  food 
consists  largely  of  rice  and  crushed  wheat  with  meat  (mutton)  at  rarest 
intervals.  Three  to  four  piasters  (14  to  19  cents)  is  considered  a  good 
day's  wages.  Cost  of  living  probably  does  not  exceed  12  cents  per 
day. 

The  dyeing,  spinning,  weaving,  etc.,  are  all  conducted  unitedly,  the 
women  of  each  family  engaged  in  the  business  doing  all  the  work  from 
the  spinning  of  the  yarn  by  hand,  dyeing  it  with  vegetable  dyes,  to  the 
weaving  and  completion  of  the  carpet.  The  carpets  seldom  exceed  8 
by  4  feet  in  size. 

The  product  is  sold  usually  at  home,  being  placed  on  the  market  by 
the  makers  going  from  house  to  house,  or  by  sending  the  carpets  to 
Constantinople  to  be  sold  in  the  bazaars. 

There  has  recently  been  started  in  this  city  by  two  or  three  families 
the  manufacture  of  a  new  style  of  carpet  which  is  quite  remarkable  for 
the  beauty  and  novelty  of  the  patterns  and  the  excellence  of  the  finish. 
The  prices  asked  for  these  are  higher  than  has  been  usual,  and  average 
about  32  cents  per  square  foot. 

It  may  be  observed  here  that  the  common  people  invest  their  savings 
in  carpets  as  the  people  of  other  countries  do  in  savings-banks,  hand- 
ing them  down  from  father  to  son,  and  selling  one  when  hard  pressed 
for  money,  so  that  one  is  often  surprised  to  find  in  the  poorest  of  houses 
a  collection  of  very  valuable  rugs. 

H.  M.  JEWETT, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Siva*,  July  22,  1889. 


SYRIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BISSINGER,  OF  BEIRUT. 

The  carpet  industry  in  Syria  is  still  in  a  most  primitive  stat$ ,  as  will 
be  observed  from  the  following  responses  to  the  several  interrogatories : 

I. — NUMBER   OF  MILLS,  ETC. 

There  are  no  manufactories  or  establishments  in  the  sense  that  these 
words  are  understood  in  industrial  centers.  Carpets  are  exclusively 
made  by  peasant  women  and  girls,  residing  in  villages  located  within 
the  political  subdivisions  known  as  u  Hakkar,"  "  Hossu,"  "  Safita,"  and 
"  Hazzoor,"  in  the  Mutessarrifiate  of  Tripoli,  Syria. 

The  most  important  of  these  villages — about  a  dozen  in  number — is 
doubtless  that  of  Haidamoor,  about  30  miles  east  of  Tripoli,  which 


Tl.'KKEY    IN    ASIA SYRIA.  311 

seems  to  excel  all  others  in  tbe  quality,  durability,  and  design  of  the 
carpets  it  produces. 

There  is  also  a  good  quality  of  rugs  made  in  a  village  called  Fakeh 
or  Fiki,  which  are  marketed  at  from  88  to  $20  per  piece.  Fakeh  is  dis- 
tant about  25  miles  from  Baalbek,  and  politically  belongs  to  the  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name  in  the  Vilayet  of  Syria. 

II. — LOOM^,   ETC. 

Power  looms  do  not  exist  in  Syria,  and,  although  it  has  not  been 
possible  to  ascertain  the  precise  number  of  "hand7'  looms,  it  may  be  ap- 
proximately stated  as  350  in  all.  They  are  of  the  simplest  construc- 
tion, and  are  thus  described  by  eye-witnesses : 

Small  pegs  to  which  yarns  of  desired  colors  are  attached  are  driven 
close  together  into  the  ground.  The  yarn  is  carried  along  the  ground 
the  required  length  and  fastened  to  a  corresponding  row  of  pegs.  Be- 
ginning at  the  left  hand  the  threads  are  separated  with  a  strip  of  board 
of  various  widths,  generally,  however,  about  4  inches,  which  permits 
the  tossing  of  a  ball  of  the  woof;  no  shuttles  are  used,  a  simple  ball  of 
yarn  replacing  them.  This  board  is  then  advanced  about  a  foot  and 
turned  on  its  Hat  side,  the  operator  taking  a  coarse  wooden  comb  to  bring 
the  woof  together,  a  rather  long  and  tedious  process.  One  operator 
^an  scarcely  make  more  than  3  or  4  inches  of  carpet  per  diem  ;  but  if 
exceptionally  skillful,  may  succeed  in  accomplishing  6  inches.  To  make 
the  average-sized  carpet,  for  instance,  of  3  pics  or  2J  yards  long  by  2 
pics,  1J  yards  wide,  would  consume  at  least  six  weeks  of  continuous  or 
uninterrupted  work,  which  is  not  possible,  as  the  operator  is  a  woman 
who  has  domestic  duties  to  perform,  besides  devoting  much  time  to 
field  labor,  such  as  sowing,  reaping,  etc.,  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 

Every  loom  has  a  female  attendant  or  worker,  who  is  sometimes  as. 
sisted  by  a  young  girl,  and  the  carpet  industry  in  Syria  is  exclusively 
in  the  hands  of  women. 

Most  of  the  rugs  are  made  with  a  small  square  of  some  decided  color, 
generally  blue  upon  a  black  ground,  placed  in  a  very  conspicuous  place, 
intended  to  ward  off  the  "evil  eye." 

III.— GRADES  OF  CARPETS. 

All  the  carpets  produced  in  Syria  are  made  of  upure"  wool  of  the 
ordinary  quality  grown  in  the  country. 

IV.— NUMBER  OF  PERSONS  EMPLOYED,  ETC. 

The  number  of  persons  engaged  iu  the  carpet-making  in  the  Tripoli 
district  is  problematical,  but  probably  does  not  exceed  500.  As  there 
are  no  factories,  and  every  woman  works  on  her  own  account,  no  wages 
are  received  or  paid;  the  assistant,  if  more  than  one  person  is  engaged 
upou  a  single  loom,  generally  being  the  child  of  the  operator,  as  has 


312      CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

been  seen  in  Answer  II.  These  women  do  not  and  can  not  devote  their 
entire  time  and  attention  to  the  carpet  industry,  and  they  are  therefore 
not  very  efficient  in  this  handicraft. 

V.— DYEING,   SPINNING,  WEAVING,  ETC. 

Cleaning  the  wool,  dyeing,  spinning,  and  weaving  it  is  the  exclusive 
work  of  women,  conducted  separately  and  by  independent  interests. 

VI. — HOW  THE  PRODUCT  IS  MARKETED. 

Fairs  are  periodically  held  in  uCalaat-el-Hosson,"  i.e.,  "Hosson-el- 
Akrad,"  notably  on  "St.  George's  feast"  (April  23),  on  the  " feast  of 
the  cross"  (September  14),  in  the  convent  of  St.  George,  and  in  the  con- 
vent of  St.  Elijah  at  Safita,  where  merchants  from  Tripoli,  Horns,  and 
Hainath  gather  to  make  purchases.  To  these  fairs  the  husbands, 
brothers,  or  other  relatives  of  the  women  operators  bring  their  rugs, 
where  they  are  readily  disposed  of  at  prices  much  below  those  that  are 
usually  asked  of  brokers,  who  sometimes  travel  to  the  villages  where 
they  are  made  expecting  to  secure  bargains.  As  has  already  been  said, 
the  rngs  that  come  from  the  village  of  Haidamoor  are  superior  to  all 
others,  and  command  much  better  prices,  sometimes  as  much  as  25  per 
cent.  If  carpets  or  rugs  of  a  special  size  are  desired  they  must  be  made 
to  order.  The  square  pic — three-quarters  of  a  yard — is  worth  from 
50  to  60  piasters  ($2.20  to  $2.64)  if  made  at  Haidamoor,  and  40  to  50 
piasters  ($1.76  to  $2.20)  for  those  coming  from  other  villages.  These 
rates,  of  course,  are  subject  to  changes,  according  to  design,  cost,  and 
quantity  of  wool  used,  etc.  This  latter  is  about  9£  rottles,  or  19  okes 
(53^  pounds  j  1  oke  =  2£  pounds)  for  a  carpet  3  pics  (2J  yards)  long 
and  2  pics  (1£  yards)  wide. 

VII. — WHERE   THE  PRODUCTS  FIND   CONSUMPTION. 

Unless  picked  up  by  tourists  in  their  voyages  along  the  coast,  these 
rugs  are  exclusively  marketed  in  Turkey  by  merchants  from  Tripoli, 
Horns,  and  Hamath. 

HISTORY  OF  CARPET-MAKING  IN  SYRIA. 

Early  in  this  century  a  nuuiber  of  people  from  the  vicinity  of  Broussa 
emigrated  to  the  Tripoli  and  Hamath  Mutessarriflates,  in  Syria.  These 
people  were  familiar  with  the  art  of  making  rugs  and  introduced  this 
industry  into  the  various  villages  in  which  they  settled.  The  village 
of  Haidamoor  became  especially  celebrated  for  its  rugs,  and  many 
specimens  remain  to  testify  to  the  beauty  of  design  and  color.  Strange 
as  it  may  appear,  however,  the  present  inhabitants  of  this  village,  who 
are  the  largest  producers  of  carpets  in  that  vicinity,  have  entirely  lost 
the  original  designs  and  coloring  introduced  by  their  Turkish  ances- 
tors. 


TURKEY    IN    ASIA SYRIA. 

The  rugs  made  to-day  are  of  very  inferior  designs  as  compared  with 
the  ancient  ones ;  the  prevailing  colors  are  usually  red  and  black,  varied 
occasionally  crimson  and  black,  with  black  or  dark  brown  figures  at 
both  ends. 

In  one  village,  distant  about  10  miles  from  Haidainocr,  the  colors 
which  predominate  are  red  and  green  with  white  borders,  having  white 
circles  about  2  inches  in  diameter  with  either  red  or  green  centers. 

A  rude  sort  of  carpet  is  the  specialty  of  another  village;  it  is  from 
20  to  30  feet  long  and  4  feet  wide,  made  in  stripes  about  2  inches  wide 
of  brown  color,  alternating  with  a  dingy  yellow,  black,  and  a  dirty 
white,  the  white  and  black  being  the  natural  colors  of  the  wool. 

The  deterioration  in  design  may  perhaps  be  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
rug-makers  use  no  pattern  to  guide  them,  depending  entirely  upon 
memory,  often  treacherous ;  and  being  a  simple,  uneducated  people, 
they  have  gradually  but  irretrievably  lost  the  original  art. 

Until  quite  recently  a  beautiful  rug  of  a  brown  or  velvety  black  was 
manufactured,  but  is  no  longer  to  be  seen  ;  the  color  with  which  to  dye 
the  wool  was  obtained  by  digging  shallow  holes  in  winter  streams.  In 
the  spring  or  summer,  when  the  streams  were  dry,  the  peasants  re- 
moved the  earth  collected  therein,  which,  after  repeated  washings, 
produced  a  beautiful  and  indelible  pigment.  The  custom  has  now 
utterly  fallen  in  disuse,  because  cheap  coloring  matter  can  be  secured 
from  France,  which  has  of  course  greatly  deteriorated  the  quality, 
beauty,  and  durability  of  the  rugs  and  lessened  their  commercial  value 
correspondingly. 

Blue,  green,  red,  old  gold,  orange,  and  other  colors  were  formerly 
extracted  from  roots,  leaves,  and  barks  of  trees  in  the  most  primitive 
manner,  but  the  introduction  of  cheap  foreign  dye-stuffs  have  now  com- 
pletely superseded  them. 

Bugs  vary  in  size  from  2  feet  square  to  3  feet  wide  by  12  feet  long. 

E.  BISSINGER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  September  18,  1889. 


[Inclosure  in  Consul  Bissinger's  Report] 
CARPET    W HAVING   BY   THE   NOMADS. 

Report  prepared  by  Consul  Kissinger  from  material  furnished  by  Commercial  Agent  PocJie, 

of  Aleppo. 

Carpets  are  made  to  some  extent  in  the  valley  of  Amouk  by  the  Ribanlis,  a  semi- 
nomadic  tribe,  a  fraction  of  tbe  great  family  of  Turcomans,  wbo  also  are  engaged 
in  tbe  weaving  of  this  article  in  the  country  surrounding  Marasb,  Behesne,  and 
AdiyriixMi. 

The  carpet  industry  is  not  known  at  all  at  Aleppo,  nor  in  any  of  tbe  towns  of  the 
Aleppo  vilayet. 


514     CAKPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Nowhere  among  these  semi-nomadic  tribes  do  there  exist  any  workshops,  or  any 
regularly  organized  systems  of  carpet  making,  but  it  is  still  performed  in  the  most 
primitive  manner,  and  exclusively  by  women,  who,  after  shearing  the  sheep  belong- 
ing to  their  families,  select  the  quantity  of  wool  which  they  consider  necessary,  and 
after  thoroughly  cleaning,  washing  and  combing  the  same,  spin  it  with  the  distaff, 
and  dye  it  the  various  colors  required. 

The  looms  which  these  women  make  use  of  are  formed  of  two  wooden  cross-bars, 
separated  by  two  smaller  parallel  ones.  It  is  upon  this  rude  scaffolding,  placed  per- 
pendicularly, that  the  warp  is  put,  while  the  operation  of  weaving  is  by  means  of  a 
ball  of  woof  without  the  aid  of  a  shuttle. 

To  give  statistics  respecting  the  quantity  of  carpets  thus  produced  would  be  im- 
possible, as  nothing  can  determine,  with  any  degree  approaching  precision,  a  produc- 
tion which  follows  the  producers  thereof  in  their  wanderings  about  the  country 
looking  after  pastures  for  their  sheep  and  woik  for  their  camels.  This  is  also  the 
reason  why  these  carpets  are  sold  throughout  Asia  Minor,  now  here,  now  there,  by 
persons  who  follow  these  tribes  in  their  peregrinations  and  purchase  their  product 
from  them,  which  is  not  known  to  be  exported. 

ERHARD  BISSINGER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  September  18,  1889. 


PERSIA. 

REPORT  KY  CONSUL-GENERAL  BENJAMIN,  OF  TEHERAN. 

[From  Consular  Reports,  No.  42,  Vol.  13.] 
PERSIAN   CARPETS  AND  RUGS. 

I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  some  remarks  upon  the  carpet 
manufacture  and  trade  of  Persia,  which  forms  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant features  of  its  industries  and  commerce. 

It  is  doubtless  generally  known  that  the  Persian  carpets  and  rugs  are 
not  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  term  manufactured ;  that  is,  they  are 
not  produced  by  any  regular  and  complicated  machinery,  such  as  is 
capable  of  repeating  the  same  design  ad  libitum.  The  weaving  of  these 
fabrics  rather  suggest  large  needlework,  in  which  the  worker,  conscious 
of  his  innate  sense  of  the  beautiful,  allows  a  lively  fancy  to  guide  the 
ready  fingers,  and  is  satisfied  with  irregularities  in  the  detail  sometimes, 
provided  the  general  effect  is  agreeable  and  artistic. 

The  carpets  of  Persia  are  rarely  of  large  size,  and  they  are  woven 
chiefly  by  the  women  and  children  of  the  peasantry  in  the  villages.  A 
countryman  will  thus  have  a  rug  made  in  his  own  house,  and  when  it 
is  done  he  takes  it  to  the  neighboring  city  and  sells  it  for  what  he  can 
get  after  long  bargaining.  The  rooms  of  the  peasantry  are  small,  and 
this  doubtless  has  something  to  do  with  regulating  the  size  of  most  of 
the  rugs  in  the  Persian  market.  But  a  large  house  in  Manchester, 
which  has  several  branch  houses  in  Persia,  has  entered  so  largely  into 


PERSIA. 


315 


the  practice  of  ordering  carpets  for  the  ftneigu  market  that  for  several 
years  the  average  size  of  Persian  carpets  exported  to  Europe  has  been 
larger  than  the  sizes  preferred  by  Persians.  This  firm  has  not  only 
paid  2  or  3  krans  more  than  the  usual  price  a  square  yard,  but  it  has 
established  the  practice  of  making  advances  to  the  workmen.  This 
has  enabled  the  latter  to  erect  special  rooms  of  large  size,  where  car- 
pets can  be  made  especially  suited  for  European  buyers.  The  volume 
of  the  trade  is  doubtless  increased  by  the  course  adopted  by  this  house, 
while  it  may  be  questioned  whether  the  special  qualities  of  design  in- 
stinctively followed  by  the  exquisite  aesthetic  perceptions  of  the  Per- 
sians may  not  lose  a  certain  spontaneity  and  beauty  which  constitutes 
the  most  prominent  features  of  all  Persian  work  of  originality  and 
merit.  Most  of  the  carpets  made  for  this  house  are  made  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Irak,  and  especially  in  the  city  of  SultanabadJ  but  the  carpets 
of  Persia  are  woven  in  almost  every  province  of  the  empire.  At  the 
same  time  there  has  gradually  grown  up  a  system  or  classification  in 
the  making  of  these  fabrics  which  is  quite  remarkable,  when  one  con- 
siders that  they  are  manufactured  without  concerted  action  or  the  aid 
of  capita],  excepting,  of  course,  the  above-mentioned  practice  of  ad- 
vances. 

The  carpet  industry  of  Persia  is  divisible  into  three  leading  classes, 
the  large-sized  and  the  small  carpets  or  rugs  and  the  ghilems,  to  which 
may  be  added  a  fourth,  consisting  of  theumads  or  felt  carpets.  Most 
of  the  carpets  intended  for  covering  floors,  of  whatever  size,  are  pro- 
duced in  the  central  province  of  Irak,  and  chiefly  at  the  city  of  Sultan- 
a bad,  and  in  the  districts  of  Sarraveud  and  Garrouste  and  Malahir. 
These  carpets  go  by  the  generic  term  pharaghan.  They  are  more  solid 
and  massive  than  other  Persian  carpets,  capable  for  long  use  and  fitted 
for  apartments  of  size.  For  ten  years  past  these  pharaghan  fabrics 
have  been  exported  in  large  and  increasing  quantities.  Large  Persian 
carpets  which  deviate  from  the  usual  oblong  shape  are  made  to  order 
and  cost  3  to  4  kraus  a  square  yard  above  the  average  expense.  This 
is  partly  owing  to  the  increased  difficulties  of  weaving  such  dimensions 
with  the  simple  appliances  in  use  and  the  size  of  the  rooms  in  the 
houses  of  the  peasantry. 

Besides  the  pharaghan  carpets,  floors  are  also  carpeted  sometimes 
with  fabrics  from  Kerwaushab,  Hawadan,  and  the  district  of  Lauristan. 
Also  for  this  purpose  the  carpets  of  Mech-Kabad,  in  Khorassen,  are 
available,  although  of  inferior  texture  to  the  pharaghan.  The  carpets 
of  Kerwan  have  also  the  texture  fitted  to  the  rough  usage  required  in 
covering  floors;  but  while  perhaps  of  superior  quality  to  the  pharaghan, 
r.hey  arc  always  small  and  proportionately  more  expensive. 

The  Persian  carpet  par  excellence  is  the  rug.    The  Persians  use  these 

in  preference  to  large  sizes.     First  covering  the  earth  floor  with  a  has- 

seer  or  matting  of  split  reeds,  they  layover  it  numerous  rigs,  which 

completely  conceal    the   mat.      This  arrangement,  when  composed  of 

17A 1 


316     CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

rugs  of  harmonious  designs,  is  very  rich,  while  the  cost  is  actually  less 
than  if  one  large  carpet  were  employed  instead. 

The  varieties  or  distinct  classes  of  Persian  rugs  are  numerous.  In 
some  classes,  like  the  Turkowan,  there  is  general  similarity  of  design, 
although  no  two  rugs  are  altogether  identical.  But  in  other  classes, 
such  as  the  rugs  of  Kerwan,  Dyochegan,  or  Kurdistan,  there  is  endless 
variety  in  design  and  texture. 

A  point  to  be  considered  in  this  connection  is  the*  fact  that  while 
the  small  carpets  of  Persia  go  under  the  general  designation  of  rugs  it 
would  be  a  serious  mistake  to  consider  them  all  as  merely  carpets  of 
small  size  intended  to  be  trod  on  by  heavy  shoes.  In  the  first  place, 
Persians  when  at  home  take  off  their  shoes,  and  thus  a  carpet  of  fine, 
delicate  woof  and  design  will  last  for  ages  and  actually  improve  with 
use  such  as  this.  In  the  second  place,  a  large  proportion  of  the  rugs 
of  Persia,  and  especially  tiie  finer  grades,  are  never  intended  to  be  laid 
on  the  floor,  but  to  cover  divans  or  tables,  or  to  hang  as  tapestries  and 
portieres. 

This  explains  the  extreme  fineness  of  texture  and  velvety  surface 
which  many  of  these  rugs  display,  and  also  accounts  for  the  fringe  at 
the  ends.  Some  of  the  rugs  of  Kerwan  are  almost  as  fine  as  cashmere 
shawls.  The  designs  of  these  rugs  were  formerly  of  a  large  pattern 
with  a  general  ground  of  red,  white,  or  some  other  uniform  tint,  with 
borders  and  details  of  minute  tracery  harmonizing  with  rather  than 
disturbing  the  general  effect.  These  patterns  are  unquestionably  of 
higher  artistic  importance,  exhibiting  a  quality  designated  by  artists  as 
breadth. 

At  present,  while  there  is  apparently  no  difference  in  texture,  there 
is  an  evident  tendency  towards  smaller  designs,  which  lose  much  of  the 
effect  unless  seen  with  close  inspection.  Perhaps  this  is  only  the  result 
of  a  reaction  from  long-established  custom,  and  it  must  be  conceded 
that  the  modern  designs  of  Persian  rugs  are  more  popular  with  the 
average  European  and  American  buyer. 

The  colors  formerly  employed  in  the  rags  of  Persia  were  imperish- 
able. Bugs  one  hundred  years  old  show  no  deterioration  in  tint,  but 
rather  a  softness  such  as  old  paintings  assume.  The  introduction  of 
aniline  dyes  art  one  time  threatened  to  ruin  the  manufacture  of  textile 
fabrics  in  Persia,  but  the  law  against  the  employment  of  aniline  dyes 
enacted  by  the  Persian  Government  is  enforced  with  some  rigor.  The 
Turkoman  rugs,  in  some  respects  unsurpassed  for  texture  and  pecul- 
iar beauty  of  design,  are  unfortunately  not  made  within  the  Shah's 
dominions,  but  over  the  border,  although  they  are  4ucl tided  among  the 
classes  of  Persian  rugs,  because  the  Turkomans  were  until  recently 
subject  to  Persia.  The  Turkoman  carpet  weavers  show  a  serious  dis- 
position to  use  aniline  dyes,  as  the  prevailing  color  of  the  Turkoman 
rugs  is  red.  This  is  especially  to  *be  deplored.  The  fraud,  tor  it  can 
be  hardly  called  by  a  lesser  term  in  connection  with  elegant  fabrics, 


PERSIA.  317 

can  be  detected  when  the  eye  is  iii  doubt  by  the  application  of  a  wet 
cloth  to  the  suspected  tint. 

There  is  one  species  of  rug  which  appears  to  be  peculiar  to  this  region 
in  the  texture,  which  suggests  knitted  rather  than  woven  work.  This 
species  of  rug  is  called  ghileem.  The  pattern  is  identical  on  both  sides, 
allowing  the  use  of  either  side,  which  practically  doubles  the  use.  Many 
of  these  ghileems  are  made  in  the  province  of  Kurdistan.  The  colors 
arc  at  once  tirm  and  brilliant  and  the  designs  often  of  extraordinary 
beauty.  The  lightness  and  flexibility  of  these  carpets  qualify  them  for 
portieres,  table  and  sofa  covers,  and  at  the  same  time  render  them  easy 
for  transportation.  In  consequence  large  quantities  have  been  exported 
and  found  favor  in  Europe.  The  ghileems  of  Shuster  are  preferable  for 
portieres.  Considering  their  beauty  their  cost  is  comparatively  moder- 
ate. The  Garrouste  ghileems  are  well  suited  for  curtain  hangings. 
Those  of  Lauristan  and  Zereud,  near  Teheran,  are  preferable  for  carpet- 
ings,  while  the  ghileeras  of  Kermaushah  excel  perhaps  for  the  originality 
and  beauty  of  their  patterns. 

The  namads  or  felt  carpets  of  Persia,  although  produced  by  a  process 
which  perhaps  excludes  them  from  the  list  of  strictly  textile  fabrics, 
may  yet  properly  be  considered  in  this  report.  The  namad  is  made  by 
forming  a  frame  of  the  thickness  intended  or  excavating  a  place  jn  the 
ground  floor  of  the  size  and  depth  equivalent  to  the  namad  intended. 
The  hair  is  laid  in  this  and  beaten  with  mallets  until  -the  original  dis- 
jointed mass  has  obtained  cohesion  and  is  reduced  to  the  dimensions  of 
the  frame.  A  design  of  colored  threads  is  beaten  into  the  upper  surface, 
sometimes  quite  effective.  The  namad,  however,  is  desirable  less  for  its 
beauty  than  the  complete  sense  of  comfort  which  it  affords.  It  is  much 
thicker  than  other  carpets,  and  the  sensation  to  the  tread  is  luxurious. 
No  carpet  has  ever  been  manufactured  that  is  more  suitable  for  the 
comfort  of  a  sleeping- room  in  winter.  Of  course  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  quality  of  these  namads,  but  the  dearest  are  far  cheaper  than  the 
same  surface  of  carpets  or  rugs  woven  in  the  usual  style.  The  great 
weight  and  clumsiness  of  the  namads  must  unfortunately  prevent  their 
exportation  to  any  extent  until  the  means  of  transport  are  improved. 
The  best  quality  of  namad  is  made  at  Isfahan,  but  the  most  massive  are 
produced  at  Yezd.  One  would  imagine  that  the  size  of  the  uamad  must 
necessarily  be  limited.  But  on  the  contrary  the  regular  Persian  carpets 
rarely  equal  and  never  exceed  the  dimensions  of  some  namads.  The 
namad  is  more  often  than  the  carpets  intended  to  cover  an  entire  floor, 
elegant  rugs  being  laid  over  it  in  places.  I  have  seen  a  namad  75  feet 
long  by  nearly  40  feet  wide  in  one  piece. 

There  is  one  species  of  rug  special  to  Persia  often  spoken  of  but  rarely 
seen.  I  refer  to  the  rugs  made  of  silk.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  rugs 
of  the  finer  types  with  silken  fringes  and  sometimes  with  a  woof  of  silk 
in  the  body  of  the  rug.  But  all  silk  rugs  are  rare,  and  rarer  now  than 
formerly.  They  are  generally  small  and  intended  for  luxury  rathei  than 


318  CAKPET    MANUFACTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

use.  The  price  is  necessarily  very  high.  The  chief  of  the  merchants 
of  Teheran  told  me  of  one  he  had  seen  over  a  tombj  it  was  barely  two 
square  yards  in  size  5  but  he  said  that  200  tomans  or  $360  would  be  a 
low  price  for  it. 

Regarding  the  ruling  prices  of  Persian  carpets  it  is  impossible  to  give 
more  than  approximate  estimates.  Such  matters  as  standard  values 
hardly  exist  in  Persia.  The  individuality  of  each  rug  adds  to  the  diffi- 
culty. Goods  are  sold  for  what  they  will  bring.  One  day  a  merchant 
sells  an  article  at  a  loss;  the  next  day,  perhaps,  a  lucky  customer  will 
give  him  a  handsome  profit  for  a  similar  article.  He  averages  the  profit 
and  loss,  and,  if  shrewd,  by  the  end  of  the  year  manages  to  have  the 
balance  in  his  favor.  But  small  profits  are  the  rule,  and  such  a  thing 
as  a  fixed  price  is  utterly  unheard  of. 

Members  of  old  or  prominent  families  are  often  obliged  to  realize  on 
carpets  or  embroideries  or  other  articles,  which  are  both  rare  and  costly. 
They  intrust  these  articles  to  a  dellab  or  peddler  to  sell  on  commission. 
In  such  cases  articles  worth  100  tomans  are  often  sold  for  30  to  40  tomans. 
As  a  large  part  of  the  trade  in  the  cities  is  doue  by  the  dellas  this  natur- 
ally has  a  tendency  to  keep  down  prices. 

The  carpets  ordered  and  sold  by  the  Ziegler  Company  follow  more 
uniform  rates;  but  in  all  other  cases  it  is  impossible  to  affirm  that  one 
can  ascertain  more  than  the  probable  market  value  of  Persian  carpets 
and  rugs  in  Persia.  It  may  be  stated,  however,  that  a  buyer  experienced 
in  Oriental  ways  can  purchase  good  rugs  in  Persia  at  such  rates  as  to 
leave  a  fair  margin  for  good  profits  in  America  over  and  above  the  cost, 
transportation  and  duties  included. 

The  European  demand  for  old  Persian  carpets  has  so  far  fallen  off  as 
to  leave  but  a  poor  market  for  those  which  are  much  worn  or  decayed. 
But  there  seems  to  be  an  increasing  demand  on  the  part  of  connoisseurs 
and  amateurs  for  the  better  grades  of  well  preserved  antique  rugs  of 
Persia.  Their  artistic  qualities  are  so  undeniable  that  they  must  al- 
ways be  in  fashion  for  almost  every  class  of  household  decoration,  while 
their  texture  and  durability  well  suits  them  to  impart  an  air  of  comfort 
to  interiors. 

S.  G.  W»  BENJAMIN, 

Consul-  General, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE:GENEBAL, 

Teheran,  A.pril  29,  1884. 


EGYPT    AM)    BRITISH    INDIA.  319 


EGYPT. 

REPORT  />')-  VONSUL-ffENERAJt  SOHUYLER,  OF  CAIRO. 

There  is  little  to  be  said  about  the  carpet  trade  of  Egypt.  In  certain 
parts  of  the  country  a  few  carpets  of  coarse  quality  are  still  made  in 
private  houses.  A  few  years  ago  there  existed  a  manufactory  in  Boulak, 
one  of  the  suburbs  of  Cairo,  but  this  has  been  closed. 

Cairo  is  still  one  of  the  headquarters  for  the  sale  of  carpets,  Eastern 
make,  whether  imported  here  for  the  purpose  of  catching  the  eye  of 
the  traveler,  or  whether  coming  from  stores  already  accumulated,  or 
the  possessions  of  rich  houses. 

In  the  year  1888  there  were  imported  into  Egypt  24,546  carpets  and 
rugs,  worth  $110,485,  of  which  21,802,  worth  $107,055,  came  from  Alge- 
ria, Morocco,  India.  Persia,  and  Turkey;  the  small  remainder  from 
Europe.  In  1888  there  were  also  imported  186,5sO  yards  of  carpeting, 
worth  $76,685,  chiefly  from  England. 

In  the  same  year  there  were  exported  from  Egypt  1,020  carpets  and 
rugs,  worth  $8,065,  and  there  were  re-exported  6,377  rugs  and  carpets, 
worth  $25,600. 

EUGENE  SCHUYLER, 

Consul-  General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Cairo,  October  19,  1889. 


BRITISH  INDIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  BONHAM,  OF  CALCUTTA. 

There  are  no  mills  or  factories  proper  in  British  India  where  carpets 
are  manufactured  as  in  Europe,  and  the  only  industry  of  that  kind  in 
this  country  is  carried  on  by  the  natives  with  the  aid  of  very  rude  and 
primitive  hand  looms,  which  have  been  in  vogue  from  time  immemorial. 

Some  very  fine  rugs  and  center  pieces  are  manufactured  in  this  way 
in  different  parts  of  India,  some  small  consignments  of  which  are  occa- 
sionally shipped  to  the  United  States. 

It  is  really  wonderful  that  such  fine  work  can  be  produced  with  such 
simple  appliances ;  but  the  modus  operandi  is  more  like  knitting  or 
crochet  work  than  weaving,  and  serves  to  illustrate  the  patience  and 
artistic  skill  of  these  peculiar  people. 

B.  F.  BONHAM, 

Consul-  General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Calcutta,  July  26, 1889. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Apprentices  and  piece-work  in  France . 277 

Employe's,  statistics  relating  to,  in — 

Austria-Hungary 272 

France 270 

St.  Etienne 280 

Germany : 

AixlaCbapelle 281 

Barmen 284 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds 289 

Holland 301 

Italy: 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 305 

Rome 305 

Turkey  in  Asia: 

Asia  Minor 308 

Sivas 310 

Syria 311 

Feltings,  manufacture  of,  in  Leeds 293-297 

Hours  of  labor  in— 

Austria-Hungary 272 

F^ince 277 

St.  Etienne 28i 

Germany : 

AixlaChapelle 281 

Gera !...  287 

Great  Britain  : 

Leeds ^ 291 

Holland 301 

'    Italy: 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 305 

Rome 305 

Turkey  in  Asia : 

Asia  Minor 308 

Sivas 310 

How  the  industry  is  conducted  in — 

Austria-Hungary 273 

France  (cheapening  labor) 279 

St.  Etienne 280 


322  INDEX. 

How  the  industry  is  conducted  iu— Continued. 

Germany :  Page. 

AixlaChapelle.... 282 

Barmen .* 284 

Gera-..- 288 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds 291 

Holland 302 

Italy : 

Florence 304 

Lombardy *. 305 

Rome 306 

Turkey  in  Asia : 

Asia  Minor 308 

Sivas 310 

Syria 312 

How  the  work-people  live  iu — 

Austria-Hungary ^ 273 

France : 278 

St.  Etienne _ 280 

Germany : 

AixlaChapelle 282 

Gera.. 288 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds 291 

Holland 302 

Italy  : 

Florence 304 

Rome t 305 

Turkey  in  Asia : 

Asia  Minor 308 

Sivas 310 

Syria 312 

Grades  of  carpet  manufactured  in — 

Austria-Hungary 271 

France f   27G 

St.  Etienne 280 

Germany  : 

AixlaChapelle 281 

Barmen 283 

Gera - 280 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds , 289-291 

Holland ^.301,303 

Italy: 

Florence 304 

Lombardy - 304 

Rome 305 

Turkey  in  Asia : 

Asia  Minor ...T 308 

Sivas 309 

Syria 311 

Imports  and  exports  of  carpet  into  and  from  Italy 30d 

Looms,  number  and  kinds,  in — 

Austria- 11  ungnry 271 


INDEX.  323 

Looms,  number  and  kinds,  in—  Continued.  Page. 

France „ 276 

St.  Etienne 280 

Germany : 

Aix  la  Chapelle 281 

Barmen 283 

Gera 284 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds 289 

Holland 301,302 

Italy : 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 304 

Rome 305 

Turkey  in  Asia : 

AsiaMinor 307 

Sivaa 310 

Syria 311 

Marketing  the  product  in — 

Austria-Hungary * 273 

France 279 

St.  Etienne 280 

Germany : 

Aix  la  Chapelle 282 

Barmen 284 

Gera 288 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds 291 

Holland 302 

Italy : 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 305 

Rome 306 

Turkey  in  Asia : 

Asia  Minor 309 

Sivas 310 

Syria 312 

Mill  machinery  in  Germany 287 

Mills  and  establishments  in — 

Austria-Hungary 261 

France 276 

St.  Etienne fc 280 

Germany : 

Aix  la  Chapelle « 281 

Barmen 283 

Gera » 285 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds 289 

Leith 297 

Holland 301,303 

Italy : 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 304 

Rome 305 

17A 5 


324  INDEX 

Millc  and  establishments  in— 

Turkey  in  Asia  :  Page.- 

Asia  Minor 307 

Sivas 309 

Syria 310 

Price-lists,  Huddersfield 292 

Syria,  history  of  carpet-making  in 312 

carpet-weaving  by  the  Nomads 313 

Wages  in — 

Austria-Hungary 272 

France 276 

St.  Etienne 280' 

Germany : 

Aixla  Chapelle 281 

Barmen  284 

Gera 287 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds 290 

Holland 301 

Italy: 

Florence". 304 

Lombardy 305 

Rome 305- 

Turkey  in  Asia : 

Asia  Minor 308 

Sivas 31fr 

Where  the  product  finds  consumption — 

Austro-Hungarian 274 

British : 

Leeds 291 

Dutch 301 

French 279- 

St.  Etienne 280 

German : 

Aix  laChapelle 282 

Barmen  284 

Gera 288 

Italian : 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 305 

Rome 306 

Turkish : 

Asia  Minor 309 

Sivas 310 

,,, *  312 


SPECIAL  CONSULAR   REPORTS. 


MALT   AND   BEER 


SPANISH  AMERICA. 


REPORTS  FROM  THE  CONSULS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  ON  THE  TRADE 

IN  MALT  AND  BEER  IN  THEIR   SEVERAL   DISTRICTS,  IN  ANSWER 

TO   A   CIRCULAR    FROM    THE    DEPARTMENT   OF   STATE. 


ISSUED  FROM  THE  BUREAU  OF  STATISTICS,  DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE. 


ALL  BEQUESTS  FOR  THESE  REPORTS  SHOULD  BE  ADDRESSED 
TO  THE  SECRETARY  OF  STATE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1890. 


MALT  AND  BEER  CIRCULAR. 


DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE, 

Washington,  December  15, 1889. 
To  the  Consular  Officers  of  the  United  States  in  Mexico, 

Central  and  South  America,  and  the  West  Indies  : 
GENTLEMEN:  Some  of  the  leading  maltsters  and  brewers  of  the 
United  States  have  requested  the  Department  to  procure  information 
relative  to  the  malt  and  beer  trade  in  your  respective  districts. 
The  information  desired  covers  such  points  as  the  following : 

1.  The  imports  of  malt,  and  whence  imported ;   duties  charged  thereon ;  cost  of 
same  per  bushel,  whether  imported  or  locally  prepared,  etc. 

2.  The  imports  of  beer,  and  whence  imported ;  in  bottles  or  wood,  and  duties  charged 
thereon  ;  kinds  of  beer  most  suitable  for  local  consumption  ;  details  concerning  prices, 
wholesale  and  retail,  of  foreign  and  domestic  beer,  etc. 

3.  How  imported  malt  and  beer  are  placed  upon  the  market,  etc. 

The  motive  of  this  circular  being  the  enlargement  of  American  trade 
you  will  not  confine  yourselves  to  the  above  interrogatories,  which  are 
to  a  large  degree  suggestive  only,  but  will  give  as  much  information  as 
possible  concerning  every  phase  of  the  malt  and  beer  business,  so  that 
the  maltsters  and  brewers  of  the  United  States  may  fully  understand 
the  requirements  necessary  to  successful  trade  in  each  district. 

All  foreign  weights,  measures,  and  money  should  be  stated  in  Ameri- 
can equivalents. 

I  am,  gentlemen,  your  obedient  servant, 

WILLIAM  F.  WHARTON, 

Assistant  Secretary. 
327 


MALT  AND  BEER  IN  SPANISH  AMERICA. 


MEXICO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GENERAL  BUTTON  OF  NUEVO  LAREDO. 
MAT/1% 

The  imports  of  malt  into  Mexico  are  small  and  unimportant ;  nor  is 
it  likely  that  they  can  be  greatly  increased  under  present  conditions. 
I  have  only  been  able  to  identify  small  importations  at  Matamoros  and 
here.  They  are  so  small  and  unimportant  that  they  are  not  specially 
quoted  in  the  Mexican  tariff,  and  it  is  not  certain  that  the  article  called 
malt  is  the  same  at  different  custo  m-houses.  At  Matamoros  the  so- 
called  import  of  malt  is  stated  at  about  500  bushels  per  annum,  used 
only  by  bakers  and  druggists,  and  paying  duty  at  the  rate  of  5  cents 
per  kilogram.  At  this  port  what  is  called  malt,  that  is,  barley  prepared 
for  making  beer,  is  classed  under  fecula,  and  dutiable  at  10  cents  per 
kilogram.  The  imports  of  fecula  of  all  materials  for  the  six  months 
ending  December  31,  1884,  the  last  date  published  where  this  article  is 
stated  separately,  amounted  to  4,307  kilograms;  United  States  gold, 
invoice  values,  $656  j  Mexican  plaza  value  in  Mexican  silver  dollars, 
$1,369;  on  which  $517  duties  were  paid  in  Mexican  coin. 

The  special  reason  why  there  is  not  likely  to  be  any  increase  in  the 
import  of  malt  is  because  barley  is  extensively  grown,  comparatively 
speaking,  in  most  parts  of  Mexico.  As  the  local  cost  of  this  grain  is 
usually  low,  it  will  be  cheaper  to  use  the  home  product  than  to  import. 
One  or  two  importations  of  malt  made  through  here  sometime  since 
were  understood  to  be  for  making  high-priced  English  beer  in  the  City 
of  Mexico.  As  I  have  been  unable  to  find  any  recent  shipments  it  was 
probably  not  a  profitable  business. 

329 


330  MALT   AND    BEER    IN   SPANISH    AMERICA. 

BEER. 

The  total  imports  of  beer  and  cider  in  bottles  for  the  half  year  end- 
ing December  31, 1884,  were  as  follows: 


Quantity. 

Invoice 
value.* 

Plaza 
values,  t 

Duties 
paid.t 

All  countries: 
lu  bottles    

Kilos. 
292  701 

$89  732 

$175  192 

$58  540 

In  barrels  ........        .        .        .... 

37  863 

6,164 

11,  799 

3  786 

Total  

330  564 

95  896 

186  991 

62  326 

From  the  United  States  : 
In  bottles 

143  201 

45  443 

87  723 

28  640 

In  barrels 

36  738 

5  914 

11  362 

3  674 

Total 

179  939 

51  362 

99  085 

32  314 

From  Germany  : 
In  bottles  

84  650 

26  361 

51  199 

16  930 

In  barrels  

1,125 

250 

438 

113 

Total  

85,  775 

26,  611 

51,  637 

17,  043 

Great  Britain  : 
In  bottles 

50  956 

14  688 

29  214 

10  119 

*  In  United  States  money,    t  In  Mexican  money. 

These  are  the  latest  dates  given  in  Mexican  statistics,  by  which  the 
details  of  imports  as  above  can  be  stated.  It  will  be  seen  that  even  as 
far  back  as  that  date  we  sent  more  than  50  per  cent,  of  all  the  beer,  and 
our  volume  and  proportion  have  steadily  increased  each  year  since. 

For  the  year  ending  June  30,  1888,  the  imports  from  the  United 
States  are  stated  at — 


Quantity. 

Value. 

Bottles... 

KUoa. 
1  068  266 

$232  860 

Barrels  

160,  791 

21,  191 

Total  

1,  229,  057 

254,051 

For  this  last  date  I  am  not  able  to  give  imports  from  any  other  coun- 
try nor  am  I  able  to  say  certainly  whether  the  money  stated  is  in 
United  States  gold  invoice  values  or  Mexican  plaza  values. 

The  import  duties  on  beer  are  as  follows :  ^ 

Beer  or  cider :  Ccntx- 

In  bottles  (net  weight) kilo..     20 

In  barrels  (net  weight) do..     10 

No  allowance  for  breakage  or  leakage. 

Additional:  Liquor  tax,  8  per  cent,  on  import  duty,  and  2  per  cent,  tax  additional 
on  gross  for  harbor  improvements,  and  2  per  cent,  on  gross  for  stamps. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  the  import  duties  on  beer  in  bottles  are 
very  high,  about  75  per  cent,  of  the  frontier  price,  and  as  a  result  the 
importation  is  not  large.  In  the  United  States  and  in  Europe  the 
larger  part  of  the  consumption  of  beer  is  by  the  poor  or  moderately 


MALT   AND    BEER    Itf   SPANISH   AMERICA.  831 

well-to-do  classes.  In  Mexico  the  contrary  is  true  so  far  as  regards 
foreign  beers.  Good  beer  may  not  cost  quite  as  much  here  as  champagne, 
but  it  is  nevertheless  an  aristocratic  drink.  It  will  be  noted  that  the 
great  bulk  of  importation  is  in  bottles.  As  the  import  duty  on  beer 
imported  in  bottles  is  twice  that  of  beer  in  barrels,  it  would  seem  at 
first  sight  as  though  the  greater  imports  would  be  at  the  lesser  rate. 
The  contrary,  however,  is  the  case,  and  the  reasons  are  more  or  less  as 
follows : 

Beer  is  not  generally  used  in  Mexico.  There  are  several  breweries 
in  principal  cities,  but  only  one  or  two  of  these  produce  what  judges 
call  a  good  article.  As  the  various  beverages  made  from  the  maguey 
(agua  miel,  pulque,  mescal,  etc.,)  are  so  cheap  and  well  liked  by  *the 
great  mass  of  the  people  but  little  native  beer  is  used,  except  in  a  few 
cities.  The  Europeans  resident  in  the  country,  as  also  our  own  coun- 
trymen, and  such  Mexicans  as  prefer  beer,  demand  a  better  article  than 
the  native  beers.  They  may  use  less  because  of  the  expense,  but  insist 
on  a  good  quality.  Many  of  these  beer-drinkers  use  it  at  meals  and  on 
the  road  and  prefer  it  in  bottles.  It  is  more  difficult  to  sell  a  glass  of 
beer  for  15  cents  than  to  sell  a  pint  bottle  for  31  cents.  This  latter  is 
the  lowest  rate  a  decent  beer  can  be  retailed  at  in  the  interior,  and  any- 
thing above  this  quality  sells  for  37J  cents  for  a  pint  bottle. 

In  bottles,  especially  pints,  it  can  be  more  handily  carried  on  journeys 
and  kept  fresh  for  use  as  needed.  So  far  as  I  am  aware  there  are  only 
a  few  places  in  all  Mexico  where  beer  is  kept  on  draught.  I  have  stated 
that  it  might  be  sold  in  the  interior  atfrom  31  cents  to  37J  cents  in  Mex- 
ican money  for  pint  bottles.  To  show  the  expenses  which  bring  the 
cost  to  this  amount  I  give  the  items : 

One  barrel  of  10  dozen  pints  will  cost  from  $8  to  $8.50  in  St.  Louis, 
Chicago,  or  Milwaukee.  Freight  to  the  border  is  about  $2  more,  or,  say, 
$10  United  States  coin  at  the  frontier.  There  are  small  costs  for  brok- 
erage, permits,  etc.,  from  5  cents  to  10  cents  per  barrel,  according  to 
amount  of  shipment.  Ten  dollars  United  States  coin  may  be  stated  at 
$13  Mexican  coin.  -On  this  barrel  the  duties  are  20  cents  per  kilogram 
net,  without  allowance  for  breakage  and  by  custom-house  weights  this 
barrel  is  held  to  weigh  net,  44  to  45  kilograms,  causing  a  duty  of,  say. 
$9.  Add  to  this  8  per  cent,  on  the  duty  as  a  liqnor  tax  and  two  addi- 
tional duties  of  2  per  cent.,  and  the  total  duties  are  brought  up  to  about 
80.75.  The  freight  from  here  to  San  Luis  Potosi  is  about  $1.70  per  bar- 
rel, so  that  the  total  cost  there  would  be,  in  round  numbers,  nearly  $25 
Mexican  coin.  One  hundred  and  twenty  pint  bottles  for  $25  would  be 
about  21  cents  each.  The  small  loss  by  breakage,  with  unenumerated 
incidental  charges,  may  fairly  run  the  price  up  to  23  cents  per  pint. 
Some  beer  costs  more  than  the  $8,  and  prices  and  expenses  vary  so  that, 
speaking  generally,  the  retail  price  is  from  25  cents  to  37  J  cents  for  good 
beer.  The  figures  I  have  given  above  are  generally  for  car-load  lots. 
Lesser  shipments  would  usually  cost  considerably  more. 


332  MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

The  United  States  allows  a  rebate  of  37  cents  a  barrel  on  beer  ex- 
ported in  bond,  which,  while  not  a  great  deal,  is  still  a  slight  advantage. 
It  tends  to  encourage  purchases  from  the  United  States,  and  if  the  im- 
port duty  were  lower,  would  be  still  more  of  an  encouragement  than 
now. 

The  consumption  of  beer  is  greatest  along  the  United  States  frontier 
and  in  the  principal  cities.  As  I  have  before  stated,  the  national  drinks 
of  pulque  and  mescal  are  so  cheap  and  so  well  liked  that  while  the  duty 
on  beer  is  so  high  the  latter  loses  its  standing  as  a  universal  and  be- 
comes an  aristocratic  beverage.  If  the  duties  were  reduced  one-half, 
we  could  easily  send  in  a  million  dollars7  worth  of  our  beers  each  year. 
Even  as  it  is  we  are  gaining  steadily,  although  slowly,  and  in  doing  so 
not  only  serve  an  increasing  demand  from  new  disciples  of  Gambrinus, 
but  also  displace  a  limited  amount  of  the  abominably  cheap  wines  im- 
ported from  Europe. 

The  kinds  most  suited  for  sale  here  are  those  made  by  the  Schlitz  and 
Anheuser  Busch  companies  of  Milwaukee  and  St.  Louis,  although  there 
are  many  other  kinds  which  have  very  good  acceptation.  In  some 
places  the  Pilsener  is  well  liked. 

The  large  German  population  in  Mexico,  of  course,  prefer  the  beers 
of  their  own  country,  such  as  Werner,  Miinchener,  Hof brau,  etc.,  while 
considerable  quantities  of  the  cheaper  grades,  Elbschloss,  Loewendran, 
and  Stettin,  have  been  imported.  Alsop's  and  Bass'  ale  are  the  favor- 
ite drinks  in  this  line  of  the  English-speaking  Europeans  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  this,  a  fine  and  cheap,  but  rather  thin,  Swedish  beer  is  much 
liked  by  some. 

The  cheaper  grades  of  European  beers  are  losing  ground  here,  and 
we  are  gaining  in  all  except  the  highest  grades. 

While  the  import  duty  is  nearly  or  quite  90  per  cent,  of  the  invoice 
cost  we  can  not  hope  to  rapidly  increase  our  trade.  Our  dealers  might 
perhaps  secure  the  privilege,  by  concessions,  of  holding  beer  in  kegs  in 
bonded  cold  storage,  but  the  limited  sales,  cost  of  ice  and  freight  trans- 
port in  refrigerator  cars  would,  at  present  at  least,  rather  overbalance 
the  saving  in  duties. 

WARNER  P.  SUTTON, 

Consul- General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Nuevo  Laredo,  February  6,  1890. 


MALT   AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  333 

LA  PAZ. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  VIOSGA. 
MALT. 

There  being  no  breweries  in  this  district,  there  are  consequently  no 
importations  of  malt  made,  nor  is  there  any  locally  prepared.  The  im- 
port duties  on  same  are  10  cents  per  kilogram,  or  5  cents  per  pound  net 
weight. 

BEER. 

Beer  is  imported  in  this  district  entirely  in  pint  or  quart  bottles,  the 
weather  being  too  warm  to  admit  of  its  being  kept  in  barrels.  Gener- 
ally light  beer  imported  from  the  United  States  has  the  most  accept- 
ance, principally  from  St.  Louis  and  California,  although  English  ale 
and  German  beer  are  also  imported  in  small  quantities.  Black  beer,  or 
porter,  has  no  demand  whatever,  and  all  attempts  to  introduce  it  in 
this  market  h.ave  failed. 

The  yearly  importations  amount  to  about  2,500  barrels  or  more  of 
bottled  beer,  containing  each  ten  dozen  pint  or  five  dozen  quart  bottles, 
and  it  would  be  safe  to  state  that  four-fifths  of  this  amount  is  Ameri- 
can beer.  Milwaukee  beer  is  also  imported,  but  at  a  little  higher  ex- 
pense. 

The  import  duties  on  bottled  beer  are  20  cents  per  kilogram,  or  10 
cents  per  pound  net  weight — that  is  the  liquid  only;  but  no  allowance 
is  made  for  breakage. 

The  following  will  show  the  relative  cost  per  barrel,  say  of  St.  Louis, 
Mo.,  beer  in  bottles : 


Description. 

Mexican 
coin. 

United 
States 
coin. 

Cost  per  wholesale  for  one  barrel       ....     ..............            .                       .. 

$10  82 

$19  74 

67 

51 

Freight  from  San  Frtw-iwo  ppr  «twwipr 

''  64 

2  00 

Lighterage  and  drayage  ..\-  ...........  

19 

Duties 

9  37 

7  09 

Total 

29  75 

22  53 

The  wholesale  prices  for  which  it  sells  here  range  from  $34  to  $33  per 
barrel  of  ten  dozen  pints  or  five  dozen  quart -bottles  in  Mexican  coin, 
its  equivalent  being  at  present  74  cents  in  American  coin.  The  retail 
price  is  $7.50  in  Mexican  coin  per  dozen  quarts  and  75  cents  for  single 
quarts. 

Inferior  or  false  German  brands  from  different  parts  sell  for  about  20 
per  cent,  less  than  any  of  the  genuine  brands. 

There  are  at  present  no  agencies  for  breweries  in  this  country,  and 
perhaps  such  means  at  the  command  of  consumers  would  naturally 
favor  the  American  trade. 

JAS.  VIOSOA, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

La  Pa?,  March  18,  1890. 


334  MALT   AND   BEER   TN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

MATAMOROS. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  VALLS. 
MALT. 

The  imports  of  malt  in  this  consular  district  are  insignificant, 
scarcely  averaging  five  hundred  bushels  annually.  It  is  imported  from 
New  Orleans  and  Galveston.  Its  use  here  is  confined  to  bakers  and 
druggists. 

The  Mexican  duty  on  malt  is  5  cents  per  kilogram.  The  cost  of  im- 
ported malt  in  this  market  is  now  $1.35,  United  States  currency,  per 
bushel. 


The  imports  of  beer  in  this  district  amount  yearly  to  1,400  barrels  (of 
ten  dozen  pints  each)  ;  of  this  amount  1,200  barrels  come  from  Milwau- 
kee and  200  from  St.  Louis.  Beer  is  imported  here  solely  in  pint  bot 
ties,  and  the  kind  most  suited  for  local  consumption  is  the  lager  beer, 
known  as  Pilsener.  Shipments  are  always  made  in  car-load  lots,  and 
in  bond  to  obtain  the  drawback  of  37  cents  per  barrel  conceded  by  the 
United  States  Government. 

The  following  are  the  details  concerning  prices,  duties,  expenses,  and 
cost: 

Cost  in  Milwaukee  of  1  barrel  beer  (10  dozen  pints)  $8  to  $8.50  ..............     $8.  50 

Freight  by  rail  from  Milwaukee  to  New  Orleans  (car-load  rates)  ..............  86 

Freight  per  Morgan  Steam-ship  Line  from  New  Orleans  to  Brownsville,  Tex..       1.  28 
Drayage  and  ferriage  from  Brownsville  to  Matamoros,  Mexico  ...............  08 

Custom-house  entries  and  broker,  Brownsville  and  Matamoros  ...............         .09 

(The  Mexican  Custom-house  considers  the  net  weight  of  one  barrel  beer  — 
10  dozen  pints  —  as  44  kilograms  ;  duties,  20  cents  per  kilogram,  $8.80.)* 
The  Zona  libre  duty  is  3  per  centum  on  $8.80  .........................  $0.  2640 

The  stamp  duty  is  8  per  centum  on  $8.80  ..............................  7040 

0.  9680 


Nine  thousand  six  hundred  and  eighty  ten-thousandths  Mexican  coin  at  75 
cents 73 

Cost  of  one  barrel  beer  in  Matamoros  (United  States  currency) 11. 54 

The  American  beers  have  entirely  superseded  the  foreign  article. 
During  the  past  eight  years  not  a  bottle  of  foreign  beer  has  been  sold 
in  this  market. 

Beer  is  now  sold  at  $16.50,  Mexican  coin,  per  barrel ;  equivalent  to 
$12.38,  United  States  currency. 

JOHN  F.  VALLS, 

Vice-  Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Matamoros,  January  24,  1890. 

*  Matamoros  is  in  the  Zona  libre,  consequently  the  beer  imported  thereinto  does  not 
pay  this  $8.80  per  barrel  duty.  —  Noie  by  Department. 


MALT   AND    BEER   IN    SPANISH   AMERICA.  335 

PASO  DEL  NORTE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SAMPSON. 

MALT. 

There  is  very  little  malt  imported  into  this  district,  and  but  little 
prepared  locally. 

BEER. 

The  imports  of  beer  are  from  St.  Louis  and  Milwaukee,  about  75  per 
cent.,  and  German  beer  about  25  per  cent.  It  is  imported  mostly  in 
bottles,  barrels,  or  boxes,  a  small  per  cent,  in  kegs. 

Duties  charged  :  $11.62  (United  States  currency)  per  case  of  six  dozen 
quarts;  $9.77  on  ten  dozen  pints;  $3*.25  per  quarter  barrel.    Prices 
wholesale,  $13  per  cask  of  six  dozen  bottles.    Retail  price,  25  cents  a 
bottle. 
No  domestic;  all  foreign  (United  States  or  German). 

A.  J.  SAMPSON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Paso  del  Norte,  February  20,  1890. 


PIEDRAS    NEGRAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FEOHET. 

MALT. 

No  malt  is  imported  in  this  consular  district,  and  none  locally  pre- 
pared, and  consequently  there  is  no  data  to  determine  the  cost  of  malt 
per  bushel. 

BEER. 

Beer  is  largely  imported  from  the  United  States  and  Germany.  Beer 
from  the  United  States  is  shipped  in  kegs  and  in  bottles,  quarts  and 
pints,  packed  in  barrels. 

German  beer  is  packed  in  cases  or  boxes  containing  two  dozen  quart 
bottles. 

Import  duties  are  as  follows :  "  In  bottles,  without  allowance  for 
breakage  or  leakage,  net  weight,  30  cents  per  kilogram.  In  barrels 
(kegs),  without  allowance  for  leakage,  20  cents  per  kilogram."  A  light 
beer  is  best  suited  for  local  consumption. 

There  are  no  domestic  breweries  in  this  consular  district. 

United  States  and  German  beers  retail  at  same  price ;  quart  and 
pint  bottles  retail  at  50  cents  and  25  cents,  Mexican  silver.  Keg  beer 
is  sold  at  10  cents  per  glass. 


336  MALT   AND   BEER    IN    SPANISH   AMERICA. 

German  beers  are  placed  upon  this  market  by  direct  orders  from 
Mexican  commercial  houses  (generally  German). 

American  beers  shipped  in  bottles  follow  same  course. 

In  shipping  keg  beer,  refrigerator  cars  for  transporting  the  beer, 
and  storage  rooms  or  beer  warehouses  at  convenient  distributing  points 
are  required.  At  Eagle  Pass,  several  beer  warehouses  have  been  es- 
tablished by  United  States  I  reweries  from  the  East;  these  warehouses 
are  supplied  with  ice  for  cold  storage  from  the  local  ice  factory. 

St.  Louis,  Chicago,  and  Milwaukee  ship  beer  to  this  market. 

The  total  value  of  beer  of  United  States  origin  arriving  at  this  port, 
in  bond,  for  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1889,  is  $27,928.40,  United 
States  currency. 

The  consumption  of  beer  is  largely  increasing  in  Mexico,  and  mark- 
edly so  in  the  northern  States  of  the  Eepublic. 

In  the  southern  portions  of  Mexico  pulque  is  a  universal  beverage, 
and  its  cheapness  will  prevent  its  replacement  by  beer  as  the  drink  of 
the  poorer  classes. 

In  the  northern  States  there  is  no  pulque,  and  the  only  native  or  local 
drink  is  the  fiery  mescal.  Foreign  beers,  in  the  absence  of  pulque,  sup- 
ply the  need  for  a  mild  drink  or  beverage. 

The  Mexican  people  quickly  acquire  the  beer-drinking  habit.  The 
only  bar  to  consumption  is  the  cost;  beer,  to  be  consumed  in  large  quan- 
tities, should  be  cheap. 

The  import  duties  of  from  20  cents  to  30  cents  per  kilogram  are  very 
high. 

EUGENE  O.  FECHET, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Piedras  Negras,  January  30, 1890. 


SALTILLO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WOESSNER. 
BEER. 

Complying  with  the  instructions  in  the  Department's  circular  of 
December  15, 1889, 1  have  endeavored  to  give  such  facts  as  I  hope  may 
be  found  useful  to  the  business  men  of  our  country  who  are  seek- 
ing to  extend  their  trade  with  a  people  whom,  I  believe,  are  ready  to 
meet  them  at  least  half  way.  The  beer  imported  into  my  district  is  of 
American  make,  and  comes  from  Milwaukee,  St.  Louis,  New  York,  New 
Orleans,  and  San  Antonio,  and  is  of  a  good  quality.  It  comes  in  pint 
bottles,  ten  dozen  in  a  cask,  and  usually  sells  at  $28  to  $30  per  cask, 
Mexican  money  (American  exchange,  is  wortli  at  present  about  32  per- 
cent, premium).  The  pint  bottles  formerly  retailed  at  37J  cents  each, 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  337 

but,  on  account  of  competition,  have  been  reduced  to  31  cents  each,  the 
present  price.  There  is  but  little  beer  manufactured  here,  and  this  sells 
;it  1-  cents  per  pint  bottle,  but  it  can  not  in  any  way  compare  or  com- 
pete with  the  American  beer,  which  is  of  a  superior  quality.  There  is 
imt  much  beer  consumed  at  present  in  Saltillo,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  if  it  could  be  sold  cheaper  a  much  larger  quantity  would  be  con- 
sumed. To  secure  this  result,  of  course,  the  import  duties  must  be 
largely  reduced,  also  the  freight  rate  from  Laredo,  Tex.,  on  the  line  of 
the  Mexican  National  Railway. 

The  import  duty  on  beer  in  bottles,  without  allowance  for  breakage, 
or  leakage,  net  weight  is  20  cents  per  kilogram  (about  2£  pounds.)  In 
barrels  10  cents  per  kilogram  payable  at  the  port  on  the  frontier  where 
the  goods  enter  this  country  and  on  entering  this  city  there  is  an  ad- 
ditional 7£  per  cent,  to  pay  on  the  amount  of  this  duty  as  an  introduc- 
tion tax,  which  is  figured  in  this  way : 

Supposing  amount  of  duties  on  a  lot  of  beer  to  be $'200 

5  per  cent,  to  the  city  on  $200 $10 

-20  per  cent,  school,  on  $10 2 

25  per  cent,  federal,  on  $12 3 

Total $15 

• 

seven  and  one-half  per  cent,  on  amount  of  import  duties.  Beer  is  gen- 
erally sold  here  by  wholesale  through  the  agency  of  established  houses 
and  retailed  in  "cantinas"  (saloons),  hotels,  and  grocery  stores. 

JOHN  WOESSNEE, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Saltillo,  Mexico,  February  12,  1890. 


SONORA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SMITH,  OF  NOGA.LES. 

MALT. 

I  have  the  honor  to  inclose  herewith  a  statement  of  beer  imported 
into  Mexico  from  the  United  States  through  this  port  during  the  year 
1889,  and  to  state  that  neither  this  consulate  nor  the  Mexican  consul- 
ate at  Nogales,  A.  T.,  show  any  importations  of  malt,  and  I  am  informed 
that  there  is  no  beer  manufactured  in  Sonora. 

BEEE. 

The  kind  of  beer  most  suitable  for  local  consumption  seems  to  be 
bottled  beer  manufactured  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.  The  retail  prices  are, 
quarts,  50  cents  per  bottle,  or  three  bottles  for  $1,  and  12J  cents  per 
glass.  The  wholesale  price  per  barrel  of  six  dozen  quarts  ranges  from 


338 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


$18  to  $20  per  barrel.    These  selling  prices  are  iu  Mexican  dollars ;  one 
dollar  equals  73T9^  cents  American. 

Imported  beer  is  placed  upon  the  market  in  Sonora  through  actual 
purchase. 

Statement  showing  the  quantities,  value,  etc.,  of  malt  and  beer  imported  from  the  United 
States  into  Nogales  during  the  year  1889. 


Whence. 

Bottled  beer. 

United 
States 
value. 

Per 
kilo.* 

Remarks. 

Milwaukee            

Gases. 
275 
2,450 

2,725 

Barrels. 
232 
130 

362 

Casks. 
82 
596 

$3,  703.  45 
20,  446.  85 

Cents. 
20 
20 

In  bottles,  net  weight. 
.Do. 

St.  Louis  

Total 

678 

24,  150.  30 

*  1  kilo  equals  2$  pounds. 
No  malt  imported  into  Sonora,  Mexico,  in  1889. 

DELOS  H.  SMITH, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Nogales,  February  3,  1890. 


TUXPAN. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  LRAYTON. 
MALT. 

I  am  unable  to  give  any  information  respecting  malt,  as  the  article  is 
not  used  in  this  country,  that  is  to  say  in  my  consular  district.  There 
are  no  breweries  at  this  place. 

BEER. 

Beer  is  imported  from  the  United  States  only,  and  as  we  are  in  com- 
munication with  New  York  and  New  Orleans,  these  ports  supply  the 
market.  The  duties  on  beer  in  bottles  of  any  size,  are  20  cents  per 
kilogram  net  weight,  and  for  beer  in  kegs  10  cents  per  kilogram 
net  weight.  The  duties  are  charged  on  invoiced  quantities,  no  reduc- 
tion being  made  for  leakage  or  breakage.  No  beer  in  kegs  is  imported, 
as  it  will  not  keep  in  this  climate,  and  there  being  no  ice,  such  trials  as 
have  been  made  to  bring  it  in  the  above  packages  have  proven  failures 
and  abandoned.  With  very  few  exceptions  the  Anheuser-Busch  Brew- 
ing Company  supply  this  market.  The  importation  amounts  yearly 
to  about  500  barrels  of  bottled  beer  in  pints,  or  5,000  dozen,  as  each 
package  contains  10  dozen  pints.  Wholesale  price  in  this  market  is  $20 
per  barrel,  and  retail  per  pint  bottle,  25  cents,  both  being  in  American 

money. 

JOHN  DRAYTON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Tuxpan,  February  7,  1890. 


MALT   AND    BEER   IN    SPANISH   AMERICA.  339 


CENTRAL  AMERICA. 
COSTA    RICA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MACKAY,  OF  SAN  JOSE. 
MALT. 

During  the  year  1888  the  value  of  malt  imported  into  Costa  Eica  was 
$1,088.06  United  States  currency.  A  small  proportion  of  this  amount 
was  imported  from  Europe,  but  the  larger  part  was  brought  from  the 
United  States,  principally  from  San  Francisco. 

The  duty  charged  upon  malt  is  2  cents  per  kilogram  in  Costa  Rica 
currency,  which  is  usually  at  a  discount  of  .50  on  United  States  gold. 

This  malt  is  usually  imported  already  prepared  for  use. 

Malt  can  be  placed  here,  duties,  freight,  etc.,  paid  for  $1.65  United, 
States  currency,  per  bushel. 

BEER. 

The  value  of  beer  imported  into  Costa  Eica  in  1888  was  $51,031.33 
United  States  currency,  the  greater  part  of  which  came  from  Germany, 
although  a  fair  proportion  of  beer  is  introduced  from  the  United  States. 

All  beer  is  imported  jn  bottles.  The  duty  on  beer  in  bottles  or  kegs 
is  7  cents  per  kilogram,  Costa  Eican  currency.  The  darker  and  sweeter 
beers  are,  I  believe,  preferred. 

Beer  is  imported  in  pint  bottles,  that  being  found  the  most  salable 
form.  Foreign  beer  is  sold  here  at  from  40  cents  to  50  cents  per  pint 
coin  of  the  country),  and  native  beer  is  sold  at  10  cents  per  pint. 

I  am  informed  by  an  importer  that  the  expense  of  importing  beer — 
duties,  freights,  commissions,  exchange,  etc., — amounts  to  300  per  cent 
of  the  original  cost. 

Beer  is  imported  here  by  wholesale  dealers,  who  sell  to  the  retailers, 
by  whom  it  is  placed  on  the  market. 

Malt  is  imported  almost  wholly  by  the  three  breweries  of  the  country, 
two  of  which  are  here,  and  the  other  in  Cartago. 

The  consumption  of  foreign  beer  is  entirely  confined  to  the  wealthier 
classes. 

BECKFORD  MACKEY, 
Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

San  Jost,  Costa  Rica,  March  3, 1890. 


340  MALT   AND   BEER   IN    SPANISH   AMERICA. 

HONDURAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  SEYMOUR,  OF  PUERTO  OORTEZ. 
MALT. 

There  is  no  inalt  manufactured  or  imported  into  this  country,  as  there 
are  no  breweries  to  consume  same ;  the  duties  chargeable  on  same,  how- 
ever, according  to  the  custom-house  regulations,  is  $3.24  per  100  pounds. 

BEER. 

The  beer  imported  into  this  district,  i.  e.,  through  Puerto  Cortez,  dur- 
ing the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1889,  amounted  to  about  5,000  dozen 
pints.  There  is  no  beer  imported  into  this  country  in  the  wood. 

The  duty  on  one  dozen  pints  of  beer  in  bottles  amounts  to  60  cents, 
American  money. 

Beer  by  the  barrel,  i.  e.,  of  ten  dozen  pints,  wholesales  in  this  port  for 
from  $15  to  $17,  United  States  coin. 

The  importation  is  increasing  yearly,  the  United  States  furnishing 
about  one-half,  Germany  one-third,  and  English  stout  and  ale  perhaps 
covering  the  other  one-sixth. 

German  beer  by  my  own  personal  observation  as  a  merchant  will  keep 
better  in  this  climate  than  any  of  our  American  brands,  being  better 
corked  and  Vith  a  heavier  tin-foil  cover  over  the  cork,  which,  besides 
being  attractive,  seems  to  keep  ants  and  wood  lice  from  eating  out  the 
cork,  of  which  they  are  very  fond,  and  thereby  destroying  the  contents. 

The  German  salso  pack  their  goods  in  cases,  which  are  more  easily 
handled,  and  the  breakage  thereby  is  nil. 

The  American  exporters  could  improve  even  on  the  Germans  by  pack- 
ing their  products  in  cases  of  100  pounds  each. 

Goods  intended  for  the  interior  of  this  country  have  to  be  transported 
from  the  coast  on  mule-back,  and  as  200  pounds  is  considered  a  cargo, 
it  is  manifest  that  two  boxes  of  100  pounds  each  would  be  taken  in 
preference  of  one  of  double  its  weight  or  a  barrel  of  250  pounds,  which 
must  be  repacked  here  into  smaller  cases. 

The  subject  of  the  packing  of  goods  for  export  from  the  United  States 
to  this  country  is  pertinent  to  all  branches  of  business,  and  one1  of  the 
greatest  complaints  about  American  manufactured  goods  is  that  "they 
are  not  packed  to  suit." 

HENRY  SEYMOUR, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Puerto  Cortez,  February  25, 1890. 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.    .  341 

NICARAGUA. 

MANAGUA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WILLS. 

I  have  to  make  the  following  estimated  statement,  derived  from  the 
most  reliable  sources,  in  the  absence  of  statistics,  of  which  there  are  none 
kept.  Each  merchant  is  charged  with  his  gross  weight  of  duties.  Much 
expense  and  time  would  be  required  to  overlook  each  merchant's  ac- 
count at  the  custom-houses,  to  ascertain  correctly  the  quantity  of  beer 
each  imported.  All  the  merchants  are  importers  of  beer. 

MALT. 

There  is  not  a  brewery  in  Nicaragua,  consequently  malt  is  not  im- 
ported or  locally  prepared. 

BEER. 

Beer  is  imported  from  the  United  States  and  Germany  only.  The 
imports  from  the  United  States  are  estimated  at  1,200  barrels  of  ten 
dozen  half  bottles  each,  costing  from  90  cents  to  $1.10  a  dozen.  The  gross 
weight  per  barrel  is  240  pounds ;  duty,  2  cents  per  gross  pound;  mak- 
ing $4.80  per  barrel  (gold  $3.40) ;  per  dozen,  48  cents,  (gold  34£  cents). 
The  imports  from  Germany  are  estimated  at  5,000  cases  of  six  dozen  half 
bottles  each,  costing  from  75  cents  to  $1.10  a  dozen.  The  gross  weight 
per  case  is  160  pounds ;  duty,  2  cents,  making  $3.20  per  case  (gold  $2.30) ; 
per  dozen  53  cents  (gold  38  cents). 

American  beer  is  proportionately  lighter  in  barrels  than  the  German 
in  cases,  consequently  the  duty  is  less.  Freights  are  less  from  Ger- 
many than  the  United  States,  and  the  advantage  of  exchange  is  in  favor 
of  Germany ;  exchange  on  Hamburg  at  sight  is  35  J  per  cent;  on  3Tew 
York  and  San  Francisco  is  42  per  cent.  The  prices  of  beer  range  about 
the  same  in  both  countries — from  75  cents  to  $1.10  per  dozen  for  export 
beer,  which  is  the  only  kind  imported,  and  only  in  bottles.  American 
beer  is  sold  by  the  barrel  at  $27  to  $30  (gold  $19.28  to  $21.42) ;  by 
the  bottle  at  cantinas  (bars)  40  cents  (gold  28  cents).  German  beer  is 
sold  by  the  case  at  $16  to  $18  (gold  $11.42  to  $12.57),  and  by  the 
bottle  the  same  as  American  beer.  It  is  generally  preferred  in  the 
smaller  quantities  by  families ;  therefore  the  German  has  it  in  that 
respect. 

1  have  known  some  lots  of  poor  beer  sent  from  San  Francisco,  which 
gave  the  American  beer  a  set  back. 

CHAS.  H.  WILLS, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Managua,  February  21,  1890. 
H6A 2 


342  MALT   AND    BEER   IN   SPANISH   AMERICA, 

SALVADOR. 

REPORT  BY  GONSVL  TUNSTALL,    OF  SAN  SALVADOR. 

In  volume  Ko.  107,  August,  1889,  of  "  Beports  of  the  consuls  of  the 
United  States,"  in  which  is  published  my  annual  report  of  the  com- 
merce and  industries  of  Salvador,  the  fact  is  stated,  under  the  head 
44  Industrial,"  there  are  no  breweries,  and  I  have  simply  to  reiterate 
the  statement,  as  none  have  been  established  since  the  date  of  that  re- 
port, and  there  has  been  no  importation  or  local  preparation  of  malt  in 
this  district. 

The  department  of  this  Government  whose  province  is  the  prepara- 
tion and  publication  of  an  annual  statement  of  the  imports  and  exports 
has  not  yet  issued  its  report  for  the  year  1889. 

I  therefore  avail  myself  of  the  annual  report  of  the  preceding  year  to 
submit  the  following  tables  in  reference  to  the  beer  trade  of  Salvador ; 
and  additional  information  derived  from  other  reliable  sources  enables 
me  to  present  further  interesting  details  on  the  subject. 

In  the  year  1888  were  imported  from — 

Pesos. 

Germany,  2,779  boxes,  6  dozen  in  each 15, 737. 18 

United  States,  1,495  barrels,  10  dozen  in  each 10,271.23 

England,  1,031  packages  (contents  unknown) 5,071.52 


Total  value 31,079.93 

By  *a  discount  of  30  per  cent,  we  arrive  at  the  real  valuation  of  these 
importations  in  American  gold,  leaving  the  net  sum  of  $21,755.96. 
The  foregoing  figures  demonstrate  the  fact  that  Germany  does  about 
50  per  cent,  of  the  beer  trade,  and  in  the  future  is  likely  to  control  a 
larger  percentage  of  it,  as  the  importation  of  English  and  American 
beers  are  sensibly  on  the  decrease,  while  German  beers  are  growing 
into  favor  from  day  to  day.  All  these  beers  are  imported  in  pint  bot- 
tles packed  in  barrels  and  boxes  and  not  in  bulk. 

The  tariff  is  5  cents  per  kilogram  on  the  gross  weight  of  the  package, 
and  there  is  a  local  or  municipal  duty  of  4J  cents  per  kilogram,  making 
in  the  aggregate  9J  cents  in  Central  American  currency  and  a  duty  of 
about  6J  cents  in  our  coin  on  every  bottle  of  beer  consumed  in  this 
country.  The  German  beer  is  branded  u  Spaten  bier,  Hamburg;" 
wholesaled  at  $4  per  dozen  and  retailed  at  50  cents  per  bottle.  There- 
are  several  brands  of  American  beer  imported,  as  follows  :  Anheuser- 
Busch  Brewing  Company,  St.  Louis,  sold  at  $4  per  dozen,  retailed  at 
50  cents  per  bottle ;  Fredericksburg  Brewing  Company,  San  Jose",  Cal., 
sold  at  $3.50  per  dozen,  retailed  at  37£  cents  per  bottle ;  Boca  Brewing 
Company,  San  Francisco,  Cal.,  sold  at  $3.50  per  dozen,  retailed  at  37J 
cents  per  bottle.  A  discount  of  30  per  cent,  must  be  applied  to  these 
prices  to  reduce  them  to  the  American  standard. 

foregoing  facts  and  particulars  of  the  beer  trade  of  Salvador, 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  343 

ascertained  after  diligent  inquiry  and  patient  investigation,  I  respect- 
fully submit  to  the  Department,  believing  they  convey  the  information 
sought  for  by  its  circular  of  December  15,  1889. 

T.  T.  TUNSTALL, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

San  Salvador,  February  22,  1890. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 

ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BAKER,  OF  BUENOS  ATRES. 

I  am  in  receipt  of  the  circular  of  the  Department  of  State,  requesting 
information  in  reference  to  the  malt  and  beer  business  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  with  a  view  to  its  bearing  upon  the  American  trade. 

THE  ARGENTINES  NOT   ORIGINALLY  BEER-DRINKERS. 

In  reply,  I  may  premise  that  the  Argentines,  like  the  people  of  the 
United  States,  were  not  primitively  drinkers  of  beer,  but  have  acquired 
the  beer  habit  rather  through  their  associations  with  the  people  of  the 
Old  World.  Indeed,  until  within  comparatively  recent  years,  they  have 
been  noted  for  their  proclivities  in  favor  of  wine;  and,  aside  from  what 
the  country  produced,  the  quantities,  especially  of  the  light  table  wines, 
yearly  imported  from  France,  Spain,  and  Italy  have  been  one  of  the 
marvels  of  the  Buenos  Ayres  custom-house. 

RECENT  CHANGE  IN   THE  DRINKING  CUSTOMS. 

With  the  advent,  however,  of  European  and  especially  German  im- 
migrants, a  change  in  the  drinking  habits  of  the  people  has  been  grad- 
ually effected,  and  Argentines  now-a-days  call  for  their  "schoppe"  and 
drink  it  with  genuine  Teutonic  gusto.  Whereas  ten  or  fifteen  years  ago 
the  importations  of  malt  liquors  were  so  insignificant  as  to  attract  no 
attention,  now  they  figure  for  quite  an  item  in  the  custom-house  returns. 
As  for  manufacturing  malts  or  beers  in  any  systematic  or  scientific 
way,  until  recently  they  possessed  neither  the  requisite  knowledge  nor 
produced  the  necessary  materials.  Now,  however,  breweries  of  large 
capacity  and  the  most  approved  appliances  are  to  be  found  in  different 
parts  of  the  country. 

PRIMITIVE  BEERS   OF  THE  COUNTRY. 

I  do  not  mean,  of  course,  that  heretofore  no  fermented  liquors  were 
made  in  this  country,  nor  that  the  natives  confined  tbeir  potations 
exclusively  to  wines.  Beer-drinking  and  beer-making,  such  indeed  as 


o44  MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

it  was,  in  the  Argentine  Eepublic  has  a  history  which  dates  back  before 
the  Spanish  conquest. 

"  CH10HA  "  AND  "  ALOJA." 

From  time  immemorial,  long  before  the  landing  of  the  Spaniards  in 
South  America,  the  native  Indians  fermented  and  brewed  a  beer  from 
maize  or  Indian  corn,  which  in  some  parts  of  the  country  was  called 
chicha  and  in  others  aloja.  In  the  western  portions  of  Bolivia,  and  in 
the  provinces  of  Salta,  Jujuy,  and  Santiago  del  Estero,  this  beer  is 
still  manufactured,  and  has  a  grand  reputation  with  the  natives  and 
half-breeds,  however  repugnant  may  be  its  mode  of  preparation,  since 
spittle  or  saliva  is  one  of  the  most  important  ingredients.  The  maize, 
after  having  been  coarsely  masticated  or  chewed,  is  spit  out  into  a 
large  kettle  or  boiler,  which  is  filled  with  water  and  placed  on  the  fire. 
A  thick  skum  rises  to  the  top ;  then,  after  several  hours  of  boiling,  it 
is  taken  off  and  left  to  ferment.  In  about  torty-eight  hours  the  liquor 
is  decanted  and  placed  in  a  jar,  where  it  continues  to  ferment  lightly. 
In  this  state  it  is  somewhat  thick  and  cloudy,  and  a  sort  of  yellow  oil 
floats  on  the  top ;  but  at  the  end  of  another  two  days  the  chicha  is 
ready  for  use.  Its  taste  is  rather  winey,  a  little  sweet,  and  on  the  whole 
not  disagreeable.  It  will  intoxicate  if  too  freely  taken.  Another 
method  consists,  where  they  have  the  facilities,  of  breaking  the  corn  in 
a  mortar  and  then  placing  it  in  a  kettle,  completing  the  operation  as  in 
the  former  case.  While  this  method  is  decidedly  more  cleanly,  the  prod- 
uct is  much  more  unpleasant  to  the  taste,  and  the  other  is  greatly  pre- 
ferred by  amateurs.  In  the  province  of  Tucuman  they  put  the  maize 
in  the  bottom  of  a  jar,  pour  boiling  water  over  it,  and  then  leave  it  to 
ferment.  It  is  called  aloja,  and  is  very  refreshing. 

u  ALGORROBA  "  BEER. 

In  the  provinces  of  Rioja,  Santiago  del  Estero,  Cordoba,  and  Tucu- 
man, beer  is  likewise  made  from  the  fruits  of  the  Algorrciba,  the  Molle, 
and  the  Chanar  trees.  It  is  prepared  by  infusing  the  fruits,  sometimes 
in  cold  but  more  frequently  in  boiling  water,  and  waiting  until  the  al- 
coholic principle  begins  to  develop  itself.  The  beer  thus  fabricated  is 
of  moderate  strength  ;  but  its  taste,  though  very  satisfactory  to  those 
who  live  in  the  far  interior,  is  sufficiently  repugnant  to  a  traveler.  All 
these  chichas  are  very  much  used  by  the  natives  of  the  country  during 
the  fruit  season,  constituting  in  those  remote  regions,  in  many  cases,  the 
principal  beverage  on  festival  occasions. 

IMPORTATIONS  OF  BARLEY  AND  MALT.  . 

In  regard  to  the  ordinary  malt  beers  of  commerce,  it  is  now  some 
years  since  establishments  for  their  preparation  first  began  to  be  oper- 
ated in  this  city.  They  are  now  also  to  be  found  in  Montevideo,  Ro- 


MALT   AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  345 

sario,  Cordoba,  Gualaguichu  and  other  centers  of  population  in  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic.  In  former  years  these  breweries  had  to  depend  al- 
most entirely  upon  foreign  countries  for  the  barley  they  required;  but, 
with  the  progress  of  agriculture,  no  inconsiderable  amount  of  that  in- 
dispensable grain  is  now  raised  here  at  home.  It  is  evident,  however, 
that  not  enough  is  yet  produced  to  meet  the  demand,  as  the  custom- 
house returns  still  show  large  importations,  both  of  barley  and  barlt\v- 
malt.  The  following  table  gives  the  importations  of  barley  for  1887 : 

Imports  of  barley  for  1887. 


Where  from. 

Amount, 

Value. 

Germany  

Kilograms. 
54  250 

$1  935 

France  ... 

80  790 

4  574 

Italy  

9  608 

3  384 

Great  Britain  

29  044 

3  459 

Uruguay  

211  450 

6  343 

Other  countries  

50  500 

1  505 

Total  

435  806 

21  *>05 

The  importations  of  barley  for  the  year  1888  were  as  follows  : 

Imports  of  barley  for  1888. 


Where  from. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Germany  .. 

Kilograms. 
11  240 

$1  124 

France  

349  579 

10  801 

Great  Britain  

36,  127 

3  281 

Uruguay  

1  021  180 

30  638 

Total  

1  418  126 

45  844 

IMPORTS  OF  MAL.T. 

The  importations  of  malt  in  1886  were  1,517,290  kilograms,  valued  at 
$185,657.  In  1887  they  were  1,703,421  kilograms,  valued  at  $204,410; 
and  in  1888  they  were  2,840,315  kilograms,  valued  at  $284,032,  about 
two-thirds  of  which  is  imported  through  the  house  of  Aischmann  & 
Co.  Except  a  very  small  proportion,  which  is  credited  to  Belgium, 
France,  and  Great  Britain,  all  the  malt  brought  to  the  Argentine  Re- 
public comes  from  Germany  or  Austria. 

The  customs  house  returns  for  1889  have  not  yet  been  published,  so 
that  for  the  last  year  I  am  not  able  to  give  the  importations  either  of 
malt  or  barley,  but  they  are  in  excess  of  those  of  previous  years. 

NO  HOPS  IN  THE   COUNTRY — THEIR  IMPORTATION. 

While  barley  has  now  become  one  of  the  regular  crops  of  the  coun- 
try, and  the  breadth  of  land  put  down  in  this  cereal  is  every  year  be- 
coming larger,  nothing  as  yet  has  been  done  towa*?ds  the  cultivation  of 


346  MALT   AND    BEER    IN   SPANISH    AMERICA. 

hops,  which  are  so  essential  in  the  preparation  of  the  beers  of  commerce. 
In  the  valleys  of  the  province  of  Rioja,  where  the  temperature  is  almost 
subtropical,  there  is  found  a  native  variety  of  hops,  which  has  lately  at- 
tracted some  attention  ;  and  it  is  thought  that  good  hops  could  be  cul- 
tivated in  this  part  of  the  Argentine  Kepublic,  since  great  heat,  at 
least  iii  the  United  States  and  Europe,  is  not  essential  to  their  proper 
development.  If  this  should  prove  to  be  the  case,  there  would  be 
nothing  lacking  in  the  country  to  make  the  brewing  of  beers  and  ales 
an  industry  which  would  give  most  satisfactory  results.  As  it  is  at 
present,  however,  all  the  hops  used  in  the  manufacture  are  imported 
from  Europe,  and  the  demand,  of  course,  is  every  year  increasing.  The 
amount  imported  in  1889  was  70.000  kilograms — the  greater  part  of 
which  was  raised  in  Bavaria  and  about  three-quarters  of  which  came 
through  the  house  of  L.  Aischmann  &  Co.,  of  this  city.  The  duty  on 
barley  is  30  per  cent.,  and  on  malt  and  hops  25  per  cent. 

NUMBER  AND  CAPACITY  OF  ARGENTINE  BREWERIES. 

With  these  drawbacks,  however,  brewing  on  scientific  principles  is 
making  very  commendable  progress  in  the  Argentine  Republic.  At 
the  present  time  there  are  in  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  no  less  than 
eight  well  appointed  brewing  establishments,  with  a  total  capacity  of 
128,000  liters  daily ;  in  the  city  of  Rosario  there  are  four  breweries  with 
a  capacity  of  about  25,000  liters  daily ;  and  in  all  the  other  important 
towns  of  the  Republic  one  or  two  breweries  are  now  to  be  found,  most 
of  them,  of  course,  with  small  plants,  though  that  on  the  Rio  Segundo, 
near  the  city  of  Cordoba,  called  the  "  Anglo-Argentine  Brewery  "  (Cer- 
veceria  Anglo- Argentina)  is  famous  not  only  for  its  perfect  equipments, 
but  for  the  excellence  of  its  product. 

ESTABLISHMENTS  IN  BUENOS  AYRES. 

Here  in  Buenos  Ayres  the  breweries  are  all  in  the  hands  of  persons 
who  have  learned  the  business  in  Europe ;  and  in  respect  to  their  beers, 
while  all  will  quite  favorably  compare  with  the  ordinary  lager  of  the 
United  States,  some  brands  are  noted  for  their  excellence.  Among 
these  breweries  there  is  one  establishment  which,  for  its  size,  for  the 
extent  and  solidity  of  its  cellars  and  buildings,  for  the  amoutit  and 
completeness  of  its  machinery,  for  the  quantity  and  quality  of  its  prod- 
ucts and  for  its  internal  organization,  does  exceedingly  great  credit  to 
the  Argentine  Republic,  and  compares  favorably  with  the  largest  and 
best  appointed  in  the  United  States.  It  is  called  "  Beickert's  Brewery  " 
(Cerveceria  de  Beickert),  that  being  the  name  of  the  founder,  a  German, 
who  has  devoted  his  whole  life  to  the  business.  Last  year  it  was  pur- 
chased for  account  of  an  English  syndicate  for  $5,000,000,  but  without 
any  change  in  the  name. 


MALT   AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


347 


TARIFF  ON  IMPORTED  BEERS. 

In  order  to  better  protect  the  brewing  industry  of  the  country,  the 
Argentine  tariff  on  imported  beers  has  of  late  years  been  considerably 
increased.  Whereas  formerly  beer  in  bottles  paid  a  duty  of  20  per  cent, 
on  a  valuation  of  $2.25  per  dozen,  and  in  casks  a  duty  of  20  per  cent, 
on  A  valuation  of  15  cents  per  liter,  now  the  duty  on  such  beer  is  15  cents 
per  liter  when  it  conies  in  casks,  and  15  cents  per  bottle  when  it  comes 
in  bottles.  This  decided  tariff  has  had  the  effect  of  greatly  stimulating 
the  production  and  the  consumption  of  native  fermented  liquors. 

IMPORTS  OF  FOREIGN  BEERS  AND  ALES. 

Notwithstanding  the  increased  duty,  however,  and  the  very  consider- 
able quantities  of  beer  now  produced  here,  there  is  still  a  large  and 
continuing  demand  for  foreign  beers  and  ales.  The  following  table 
shows  the  imports  in  casks  for  the  years  1887  and  1888: 

Imports  in  wooden  casks. 


188' 

r. 

188) 

J. 

Liters. 

Value. 

Liters. 

Value. 

33,  811 

$5,748 

156,631 

$26,  627 

United  States                                                                 •          .'......... 

80 

!4 

12,906 

2,  l'j:; 

4,916 

836 

26,496 

5,404 

Great  Britain                                                                                     ..... 

4,736 

805 

186,  131 

31,642 

5,495 

934 

12,960 

3,  200 

3,774 

641 

129,  674 

22,  045 

Total               

52,812 

8,978 

524,792 

90,  213 

For  the  same  years  the  amount  imported  in  bottles  was  as  follows: 

Imports  in  bottles. 


181 

87. 

18 

8& 

Country. 

Dozens. 

Value. 

Dozens. 

Value. 

99,  702 

$232,  177 

76,  066 

$177,  234 

38,  823 

90,453 

81,062 

188,  064 

Brazil                                                         

10 

23 

73 

170 

103 

240 

1,  222 

2,847 

Uiiit^d  States 

4  071 

9,485 

1,263 

2,943 

2,  436 

5,816 

3,096 

7,'JU 

Italy 

363 

846 

Holland                                                       

4,312 

10.  047 

1,431 

3,334 

68,  273 

159,  076 

51,  152 

119,  185 

15,278 

35,  598 

6,993 

16,293 

4fi,  621 

110,  957 

23,  901 

55,689 

Total                               

280,  997 

654,723 

249,  701 

581,  793 

The  official  returns  of  beer  imports  for  1889  have  not  yet  been  pub- 
lished by  the  statistical  office,  but  I  think  they  will  be  found  to  be 
larger  than  for  any  previous  year. 


348  MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

THE  KINDS   ON  THE   MARKET. 

From  these  tables  it  will  be  seen  that  foreign  beers,  amounting  in 
value  in  1887  to  $590,771  and  in  1888  to  $744.930,  form  no  small  item  of 
Argentine  imports.  As  will  be  further  seen,  the  great  bulk  of  the  re- 
ceipts are  from  Germany  and.  Great  Britain.  Indeed  the  United  States 
scarcely  figures  in  them  at  all. 

You  may  say  of  the  imports  of  beer  to  this  country  just  about  what 
may  be  said  of  similar  imports  to  the  United  States — that  nearly  all 
varieties  known  to  commerce  find,  to  a  more  or  less  extent,  a  market 
and  have  a  foothold  here.  The  kinds  generally  received  from  Great 
Britain  and  Germany,  however,  owing  probably  to  the  fact  that  they 
have  to  make  a  long  sea  voyage  through  and  across  the  tropics  are 
fortified  a  little  heavier  with  alcohol  than  the  ordinary  lager  beer  man- 
ufactured either  here  or  in  the  United  States,  and  I  think  this  addi- 
tional alcohol  is  found  to  be  necessary  to  their  proper  preservation. 
England  sends  pale  ales,  porter,  and  stout,  while  Germany  sends  Im- 
perial, Mainz,  Culmbacher,  Pilsener,  etc. 

The  only  varieties  of  beer  I  have  thus  far  seen  here  from  the  United 
States  were  the  "export  lager"  of  the  Anheuser-Busch  Company  of 
St.  Louis,  and  a  brand  which  I  do  not  now  remember  from  New  York. 
I  can  say  this,  however,  that  they  are  both  well  received  here,  though 
they  are  perhaps  when  duties  are  added  too  high-priced  to  compete 
successfully,  even  though  they  may  be  of  a  better  quality,  with  the  high- 
class  lager  which  is  now  turned  out  from  some  of  the  breweries  of  this 
city.  If  the  United  States  brewers  are  prepared  to  send  here  such 
heavier  brands  of  ales,  porters,  and  stouts  as  England  and  Ireland 
furnish,  there  might  be  an  opportunity  for  gaining  a  foothold,  but  the 
latter  are  too  well  known  to  commerce  to  be  readily  displaced ;  while  of 
the  light  beers  the  local  breweries  here,  owing  to  the  high  tariff  which 
protects  them,  must  continue  to  have  pretty  much  the  monopoly  of  the 
trade. 

HOW  PLACED  HERE. 

The  manner  in  which  foreign  beers  and  ales  are  placed  on  the  market 
here  is  for  the  most  part  through  local  agencies.  Each  class  or  brand, 
whether  of  English  or  German  make,  has  a  special  arrangement  with 
some  well  known  general  importing  house  in  Buenos  Ayres  or  iu  Rosario, 
which  advertises  itself  as  u  special"  or  "  sole  agent"  for  the  European 
exporters.  The  labels  or  trade-marks  on  the  bottles  likewise  in  all  cases 
have  the  name  of  the  house  through  which  they  are  imported,  so  that 
it  is  known  where  each  and  every  variety  can  be  obtained,  and  as  far 
as  possible  to  prevent  frauds  these  marks  are  duly  "  registered"  in  the 
national  patent  office,  the  law  exacting  a  penalty  from  those  who  at- 
tempt to  infringe  upon  them. 


MALT   AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  349 

IMITATIONS  OF  FOREIGN  BEER. 

In  spite  of  these  precautions,  however,  it  is  known  that  from  the 
many  local  liquor  manufacturers  (licoristas)  there  are  surreptitiously 
put  upon  the  market  no  inconsiderable  quantities  of  bottled  ales,  ex- 
port beers  and  porters,  which  are  not  genuine — most  of  them,  indeed, 
being  mere  imitations;  though  it  may  be  that,  in  many  cases  they  me 
put  up  in  legitimate  bottles.  That  is  to  say,  the  purchase  pf  beer 
and  other  bottles  by  parties  parading  the  streets  and  calling  out 
for  "empty  bottles"  (botellas  vacias),i8  now  a  large  and  well  recogni/ed 
branch  of  business.  With  the  trade-mark  still  upon  them  or  a  good 
imitation  put  in  its  place,  these  bottles  are  refilled  with  a  spurious 
article,  which  thus  readily  deceives  those  who  are  not  careful  where 
or  from  whom  they  purchase. 

ADULTERATION  OF  FERMENTED  LIQUORS. 

Deceptions,  however,  are  not  confined  to  imported  beers.  Although 
the  brewing  industry  here  is  scarely  yet  out  of  its  teens  it  is  intimated 
to  me  that  even  in  some  well  accredited  establishments  various  expe- 
dients are  not  infrequently  resorted  to  to  produce  taste,  strength,  or 
color  in  the  product,  and  the  chemical  knowledge  which  now  exists 
in  regard  to  the  artificial  production  of  liquors  makes  the  intimation 
very  plausible.  Of  course,  however,  the  extent  of  those  adulterations 
is  the  secret  of  the  manufacturers  and  can  only  be  guessed  at  by  out- 
siders or  consumers.  And  here  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  where  every 
hop  used  in  the  mash  must  at  great  expense  be  imported  from  abroad, 
there  must  be  ample  occasion  for  using  substitutes.  While  the  impor- 
tations of  hops  are  given  at  about  70  tons  per  annum,  the  custom -house 
returns  for  1888  show  that  the  imports  of  quassia,  gentian,  and  worm- 
wood bitter  amounted  to  649,565  liters.  Whether  this  was  made  use 
of  as  a  substitute  for  hops  of  course  I  am  not  able  to  affirm,  nor 
would  I  intimate  that  ginger  and  carraway  are  resorted  to  to  impart 
pungency ;  or  alum  and  blue  vitrol  to  enable  the  beer  to  keep  a  frothy 
head  ;  or  coculus  indicus,  nux  vomica,  and  tobacco  to  increase  its  intoxi- 
cating power.  But  even  with  these  possible  ingredients  in  its  produc- 
tion, the  criticism  of  the  old  toper  in  regard  to  whisky,  that  "it  wasa/J 
good,"  seems  to  be  much  more  the  general  decision  here  in  regard  to 
malt  liquors. 

PRICES,  ETC. 

Indeed,  beer  is  becoming  more  and  more  the  popular  drink  of  the  Ar- 
gentine Republic,  and  every  year  sees  the  establishment  of  new  plants 
in  the  different  provinces  and  the  enlargement  of  old  ones. 

As  I  have  already  indicated,  the  variety  in  general  request  is  the  or- 
dinary lager,  sold  for  family  use  in  bottles  and  to  drinking  establish- 
ments in  kegs.  The  price  of  this  beer  is  $2.40  per  dozen  bottles  and  15 
cents  per  liter  in  kegs,  in  the  paper  money  of  the  country,  which  is  equal 


350  MALT   AND   BEER    IN   SPANISH   AMERICA. 

to  about  40  cents  to  the  dollar  in  United  States  gold  coin.  For  the  bock 
beer  the  price  is  $3  per  dozen  in  bottles  and  20  cents  per  liter  in  kegs 
in  paper  money.  Bieckert's  brewery  also  makes  an  export  beer,  which 
is  sold  to  the  trade  at  $4.50  per  dozen,  in  paper  money.  I  do  not  know 
that  this  brand  has  yet  found  a  market  very  far  outside  of  the  country, 
but  there  is  no  inconsiderable  demand  for  it  in  the  interior. 

Of  the  foreign  or  imported  beers  those  of  English  make  most  com- 
monly seen  on  the  market,  such  as  Bass,  Younger,  Guinuesr;,  Magnolia, 
Blood,  etc.,  are  now  selling  for  $13,  in  paper,  per  dozen,  in  half  bottles, 
equal  to  about  $5  in  gold. 

Of  the  German  beers  such  favorite  brands  as  the  Imperial,  Mainz, 
Culmbacher,  and  Pilsener,  are  selling  for  from  $25  to  $30,  in  paper,  per 
dozen,  in  quart  bottles. 

The  present  price  of  malt  in  this  market  is  12J  cents  gold  per  kilo- 
gram. 

The  price  of  hops  is  40  cents  gold  per  kilogram. 

Corks  are  selling  for  $2  to  $4  gold  per  thousand,  according  to  size 
and  quality. 

E.  L.  BAKER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Buenos  Ayres,  April  28, 1890. 


BRAZIL. 

BAHIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BURKE. 
MALT. 

Concerning  malt,  as  referred  to  in  the  circular  dated  December  15, 
1889,  I  have  the  honor  to  say  but  little  information  can  be  given,  as 
very  little  malt  is  imported.  Something  more  definite  might  be  ob- 
tained about  it  if  the  importation  were  made  by  large  dealers,  but  it  is 
only  small  dealers  that  are  engaged  in  the  business,  if  it  may  be  called 
a  business,  and  these  are  so  scattered,  too,  it  is  difficult  to  Ascertain 
the  cost  of  the  article  or  the  quantity  brought  into  the  place,  even  if 
one  should  succeed  in  finding  the  different  small  dealers  arid  making 
inquiries  of  them  on  this  head.  Therefore  to  ascertain,  first,  the  im- 
ports of  malt  and  whence  imported,  duties  charged,  I  was  obliged  to  go 
to  the  custom-house.  I  there  found  that  for  the  year  1888  the  quantity 
of  malt  imported  was  3,438  kilograms,  or  nearly  3£  tons.  Of  this  smal 
quantity  there  were  imported  from  Germany  2,724  kilograms  and  from 
Portugal  714  kilograms.  For  the  year  1889  the  importation  of  malt  to 
this  port  was  less  even  than  1888,  amounting  to  only  1,766  kilograms 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH   AMERICA.  351 

or  about  1£  tons,  and  Germany  furnished  it.  Am  unable  to  state  the 
cost  per  bushel  or  per  kilogram. 

As  far  as  I  am  informed  none  of  the  article  is  here  prepared. 

The  duty  on  malt  is  1,030  reis  per  kilogram,  equivalent  to  about  57 
cents  United  States  money.  Why  the  duty  is  so  high  I  don't  under- 
stand, as  there  is  no  malt  grown  here  nor  anything  that  is  used  as  u  sub- 
stitute for  it. 

There  are  two  or  three  very  small  manufactories  of  what  is  said  to  be 
a  very  inferior  quality  of  beer. 

BEER. 

Beer  is  imported  from  Germany,  Austria,  Belgium,  United  States, 
Great  Britain,  Portugal,  Italy,  and  Franco. 

During  the  year  1887  538,451  liters  were  imported,  according  to  the 
custom-house  figures.  Of  this  quantity  Germany  sent  231,364  liters ; 
Great  Britain,  214,862  liters ;  Belgium,  87,372  liters ;  Austria,  3,868 
liters ;  and  the  United  States,  985  liters. 

In  1888  the  quantity  imported  was  less  than  that  of  1887  by  218,403 
liters.  Germany  during  this  year  furnished  162,151  liters ;  Great  Brit- 
ain, 151,235  ;  Belgium,  14,604 ;  Austria,  1,094  5  and  the  United  States, 
964  liters. 

In  1889  the  total  importation  was  less  than  that  of  1888,  the  differ- 
ent countries  furnishing  as  follows: 

Liters. 

Germany 184,6-2*2 

Great  Britain 100,460 

United  States 4,010 

France 3,076 

Austria 1,263 

.Italy 593 

Belgium 402 

This  makes  a  total  of  294,422  liters  from  the  year  1889. 
During  the  years  above  mentioned  the  quantities  furnished  by  the 
different  countries  were  as  follows : 

Liters. 

Germany  furnished f>87, 127 

Great  Britain 466,563 

Belgium * 102,073 

Austria 6,225 

United  States • 5,959 

France  3,076 

Italy 593 

The  entire  quantity  for  the  three  years  imported  to  this  city,  accord- 
ing to  the  figures  given,  was  1,162,621  liters.  As  one  liter  is  equivalent 
to  about  2.1  American  pints,  there  would  be  2.341,504  pint  bottles, 
equivalent  to  about  65,042  barrels,  of  beer  consumed  in  Bahia — of  im- 
ported beer — to  say  nothing  of  the  quantity  manufactured  iu  the  place 
and  also  consumed. 


352  MALT   AND    BEER   IN   SPANISH   AMERICA. 

All  beer  is  now  imported  in  bottles.  The  pint  bottles  are  preferred, 
being  more  salable  than  those  containing  a  liter. 

The  duty  is  300  reis  per  liter,  equivalent  to  about  15  cents  of  our 
money,  with  5  per  cent,  -f  7  per  cent. 

The  most  salable  are  Bass's  ale,  German  beer,  and  Guinness7  stout. 

To  get  at  the  first  cost  is  not  an  easy  matter.  There  may  be  an  under- 
valuation. The  invoice  value  may  be  too  large  as  well  as  too  small; 
nothing  very  accurate  can  be  obtained  on  this  head,  the  undervalu- 
ation or  the  too  great  value  depending  upon  many  things.  I  have  been 
informed  that  English  beer  ranges  in  cost  from  3J  shillings  per  dozen 
for  pint  bottles  to  6|  shillings  per  dozen  for  quart  bottles.  German 
beer  is  said  to  be  below  these  figures  even.  To  add  to  the  original 
cost  are  the  following :  freight,  the  duty,  custom-house  stamps,  charges 
for  weighing,  warehouse  rent,  porterage,  fees  of  the  dispatcher,  insur- 
ance, commission,  etc.,  and  the  entire  cost  ready  for  sale  is  consider- 
able. 

The  selling  price  is  from  7J  milreis  to  9J  milreis  per  dozen  for  pint 
bottles,  or  from  say  $3.75  to  $4.75. 

Quart  bottles — German  beer —  sell  from  7  to  9  milreis  per  dozen  bot- 
tles ;  at  retail  the  price  is  500  reis,  or  about  25  cents,  for  every  half  bot- 
tle, no  matter  what  the  quality  is.  The  domestic  manufacture  is  less 
in  price. 

German  beer  is  being  preferred  to  the  English,  because  it  is  a  much 
lighter  beverage  than  the  English,  and  also  because  it  is  cheaper.  Im- 
porters say  the  reason  so  little  is  imported  from  the  United  States  is 
because  of  the  greater  cost  to  the  purchaser  and  the  higher  freight 
rate  for  carrying  it  than  is  paid  on  any  coming  from  Europe.  And  this 
higher  freight  rate  applies  not  only  to  beer,  but  in  general  to  any  article 
brought  to  New  York.  If,  say  the  importers  and  dealers,  the  American 
beer  could  be  sold  at  as  low  a  price  as  the  German  beer,  there  is  no 
doubt  but  the  United  States  might  furnish  the  largest  share  of  the  beer 
that  is  consumed  in  this  place.  Until  this  is  done,  say  they,  the  United 
States  can  not  export  her  beer  in  any  quantity  to  this  place. 

There  are  some  well-known  houses  here  that  have  been  for  years  in 
the  business  of  importing  beer,  wines,  and  liquors,  and  through  these 
the  different  kinds  of  beverage  are  sold  to  wholesale  or  retail  dealers, 
or  even  to  families  in  many  cases.  Besides,  the  different  brands  now 
well-known  have  a  tendency  to  shut  out  any  new  brand,  unless  the 
new  brand  is  an  article  that  is  both  superior  and  cheaper.  In  view  of 
all  this,  then,  the  brewers  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  place  their 
beer  on  this  market,  will  find  it  necessary  to  manufacture  it  more  cheaply, 
get  a  reduction  of  freight  rates,  and  then  establish  an  agency  here, 
having  employed  a  man  of  push  and  activity  who  understands  the 
language  and  can  cater  to  catch  the  trade. 

DAVID  N.  BURKE, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Baliia,  March  21,  1890. 


MALT    AND    BEER   IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  353 

PARA. 

RETORT  IIY  nt\s?'i,  (  LAYTON 
MALT. 

There  are  no  breweries  in  the  States  of  Para  or  Amazonas,  conse- 
quently malt  is  not  imported  into  this  consular  district. 

BEER. 

No  statistics  can  be  obtained  which  will  show  the  exact  quantity  of 
beer  imported  into  Par£  and  the  Amazon  Valley,  but  it  is  estimated  that 
the  consumption  of  the  same  is  between  800  and  1,000  cases  or  barrels 
per  month. 

Beer  is  imported  chiefly  from  Germany  and  England,  Germany  being 
the  largest  seller.  The  importation  of  American  beer  is  very  limited, 
and  can  therefore  hardly  be  considered. 

It  is  shipped  in  pint  and  quart  bottles ;  a  small  quantity  of  English 
stout  comes  in  stone  bottles. 

Import  duty  on  all  foreign  beer  is  300  reis  (about  15  cents)  a  liter, 
with  an  increase  of  5  per  cent,  for  the  emancipation  of  slaves,  long  ago 
established,  but  the  tax  has  never  been  abolished.  A  reduction  of  5 
per  cent,  on  quantity  of  liters  is  allowed  for  breakage.  Minor  custom- 
house expenses  are  not  taken  into  consideration,  except  storage,  which, 
if  beer  is  not  dispatched  on  vessel,  or  before  taken  out  of  the  lighters,  it 
is  something  like  4 -or  5  per  cent,  of  extra  duty  in  the  first  month,  and 
largely  increasing  this  percentage  according  to  the  length  of  time  it  is 
stored. 

The  greatest  demand  is  for  German  beer.  English  ale  and  stout  reach 
about  the  tenth  part  of  German  beer  in  consumption.  German  cheap 
beer  is  sent  to  the  interior  of  the  States  of  Para  and  Amazonas,  while 
good  German  beer,  and  lately  especially  Bavarian  beer,  meets  with  a 
ready  sale  in  the  city.  American  beer  was  imported  about  six  or  seven 
years  ago  in  large  quantities,  but  since  that  time  good  German  beer  has 
come  to  the  front,  so  that  at  present  American  beer  has  a  small  demand. 

German  beer  is  imported  at  from  $5  to  $7  50  a  case  of  seventy-two 
pint  bottles,  free  on  board  ship.  Price  of  English  beer  is  about  $7  a 
barrel  of  seventy-two  bottles.  After  paying  import  duties,  quotations 
for  German  beer  here  are  from  $12  to  $17  a  case,  and  for  English  beer 
$15  to  $17  a  barrel  of  seventy-two  bottles.  Five  per  cent,  discount  is 
allowed  on  the  above  prices  for  cash  within  sixty  days.  The  retail  price 
here  is  from  25  to  30  cents  per  pint  bottle.  All  European  beer  imported 
into  this  consular  district  is  bought  through  foreign  commission  houses, 
on  credit  at  from  three  to  six  months'  time.  The  little  American  beer 
that  comes  to  this  market  is  also  bought  through  New  York  commission 
houses,  and  the  receiver  here  generally  has  to  pay  cash  for  the  same. 


354 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


At  present  it  is  very  difficult  for  a  new  beer  to  be  placed  on  this  mar- 
ket, because  the  authorities  demand  an  exact  analysis  of  the  same.  Im- 
port of  any  beer  containing  salicylic  is  prohibited. 

KOBT.  T.  CLAYTON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Para,  March  20,  1890. 


PERNAMBUCO. 

Statistics  of  malt  and  beer,  imported   into  this  State  during  the  first   six  months  of  the 
year  1889,  as  given  by  the  collector  of  customs  «£  this  port. 

[The  last  six  months  of  the  year  1889  can  not  be  given,  because  the  accounts  are  not  yet  adjusted 
and  made  up  in  the  custom-house  here. 

The  custom-house  does  not  discriminate  regarding  the  quality  of  beer  imported ;  duties  on  superior 
and  inferior  quality  are  the  same  for  all.] 


Importation  from— 

Quantity. 

Price. 

Duty. 

MALT. 

Great  Britain  

• 

Pounds. 
4  238 

Malt    white   first  quality  $7  26 

Germany   -     ......... 

17  372 

for  200  pounds.  * 

(On  malt  15  reis,  or  three- 
quarters  of  a  cent  per 

Portugal 

2  636 

pound,  United  States 

BEER. 

Great  Britain  

Quarts. 
97,296 

$10*.  35  for  200  pounds.  * 

f  Foreign  beer,  1  box  containing 
|     48  bottles,  $15,  and  1  box  con- 
taining 9G.V  bottles,  $1G.    Bar- 
reled beer,  English  (Bass's),  36 

money. 
Beer,  200  reis,  or  10  centw 

1  962 

gallons;  barrel  sold  at  00,000 

Germany        

168  428 

reis,    or  $30    United   States 

Austria  

3,618 

money  ;  retailed    here  at   15 

bottles. 

cents  a  glass  ;  and  1  bottle  of 
beer  costs  at  retail  1,000  reis, 
or  50  cents. 

*  Both  delivered  at  Pernambuco. 


Quantity 
per  annum. 

Price. 

Native  beer  brewed  in  this£ 
State  by  two  breweries.  \ 

Gallons. 
40,  000 
35,  000 

!One  barrel,  containing  6  dozen  bottles,  28,800  reis,  or  $14.40. 
One  barrel,  containing  12  dozen  and  a  half  bottles,  30,000 

Total  

75  000 

one-half  bottle  300  reis  or  15  cents. 

1 

NOTE. — Exchange  reckoned  for  the  above,  one  milreis,  equal  to  50  cents  United  States  money. 


UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Pernambuco,  February  21,  1890. 


H.  C.  BORSTEL, 

Consul. 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  355 

RIO  DE  JANEIRO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  DOOKERY. 
MALT. 

All  malt  used  in  the  Brazils  is  imported,  and  its  average  sales  in  Kio 
de  Janeiro  alone  amount  in  money  value  to  over  $25,000  per  month,  a 
large  portion  of  which  is  for  cash.  The  nature  of  the  business  requires 
a  large  stock  to  be  kept  on  hand  at  all  times,  and  for  this  purpose  there 
are  large  warehouses  both  here  and  at  Santos.  There  are  some  fifty 
small  breweries  in  this  city,  which  buy  from  day  to  day  just  sufficient 
to  meet  their  requirements  and  pay  for  same  in  cash.  Malt  is  imported 
almost  exclusively  from  Germany,  and  is  subject  to  a  duty  about  equal  to 
first  cost  there,  but  the  prices  realized  have  insured  alarge  profit  and  the 
trade  is  considered  valuable.  I  have  had  an  interview  with  Mr.  Gabel, 
proprietor  of  the  largest  brewery  in  Brazil.  He  reports  that  he  is  now 
using  about  30,000  pounds  of  malt  per  month  and  1,000  pounds  of  hops, 
producing  about  10,000  liters  of  beer  per  day,  and  that  it  is  his  intention 
to  double  his  capacity  at  once,  having  already  commenced  work.  He  has 
never  used  American  malt  or  hops,  but  is  ready  and  would  do  so  if 
suitable  to  his  business,  and  any  one  who  is  desirous  of  opening  trade, 
by  sending  to  him  ten  barrels  of  malt  and  25  pounds  of  hops,  or  either, 
will,  I  think,  secure  an  honest  trial ;  and  as  this  is  the  largest  brewery 
in  Brazil,  an  approval  from  him  would  settle  the  point  so  far  as  quality 
is  concerned.  I  would  heartily  recommend  a  trial  of  this  kind,  as  I  can 
see  a  fine  opportunity  to  open  a  profitable  trade,  with  every  inclination 
on  the  part  of  the  Brazilians  to  throw  it  into  our  hands. 

BEEK. 

A  large  quantity  of  beer  is  imported  in  pint  and  quart  bottles  and  sold, 
at  retail,  at  50  cents  per  quart.  It  is  subject  to  a  duty  of  200  reis  per 
liter,  or  about  8^  cents  per  quart,  with  5  per  cent,  additional  on  custom 
bill,  and  every  invoice  is  subject  to  and  must  have  a  certificate  from  a 
government  inspector.  An  order  for  150  barrels  of  beer  has  recently 
been  placed  with  the  Empire  Brewery,  of  New  York  City,  by  Mr.  N.  H. 
Schmitz,  an  American  citizen,  with  the  intention  of  pushing  its  intro- 
duction here,  and  I  see  no  reason  why  he  should  not  be  successful. 
Beer  manufactured  here  is  of  inferior  quality,  and  does  not  compete 
with  that  brought  from  either  the  United  States  or  Germany,  and  from 
the  conditions  of  the  climate  it  has  been  clearly  proven,  after  numer- 
ous trials,  that  it  can  not  be  made  of  a  quality  equal  to  that  made  in  the 
colder  climates ;  hence  it  follows  that  this  will  always  be  a  valuable 
market.  At  present  it  is  almost  entirely  controlled  by  the  Germans, 
who  have,  by  persistent  effort,  within  a  few  years,  about  driven  the 
English  from  the  field.  With  the  aid  of  their  government  they  sought 
and  obtained,  through  the  several  consulates,  most  minute  information, 
and  have,  by  energy  and  push,  obtained  the  valuable  foothold  they  now 


356 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


possess,  and  the  success  which  has  rewarded  these  efforts  clearly  proves 
what  can  be  done  in  this  way,  and,  in  my  judgment,  indicates  the  course 
to  be  pursued  by  us.  I  am  most  anxious  to  afford  all  possible  informa- 
tion in  this  and  all  other  matters  relating  to  the  development  of  trade 
with  this  country,  especially  in  view  of  the  kind  feeling  and  evident  desire 
of  the  people  to  trade  with  us,  and  I  am  ready  to  do  everything  I  can 
to  promote  this  end. 

O.  H.  DOCKERY, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE  GENERAL, 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  February  17,  1890. 


RIO  GRANDE  DO  SUL. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SENNINGTON. 

MALT. 

All  malt  is  imported ;  the  greater  part  from  Bavaria,  and  costs  the 
brewer  $25  per  case  of  150  kilogram ;  the  duty  is  a  cent  and  a  half 
per  kilogram. 

The  malt  is  received  here  prepared ;  but  as  the  Brazilian  tariff  makes 
no  difference  so  far  as  duty  is  concerned  between  the  malted  barley  and 
the  barley,  I  am  unable  to  give  reliable  information  as  to  the  amount 
of  malt  imported. 

Hops  are  also  imported ;  largely  from  Bavaria,  but  some  are  from 
Kent,  England,  and  cost  here  75  cents  a  kilogram. 

BEER. 

Beer  is  becoming  somewhat  more  popular  as  a  beverage  among  the 
native  people  of  this  country  5  but  whatsoever  increased  demand  there 
may  be  among  a  certain  class  of  consumers,  it  is  supplied  to  a  certain 
extent  by  local  breweries. 

Imported  beer  pays  a  duty  of  about  10  cents  per  liter,  and  retails  at 
from  50  to  60  cents  per  bottle. 

I  cannot  give  the  prices  that  the  English  and  German  beer  costs  the 
importer  in  Eio  Grande,  but  am  of  opinion  that  the  retailer  makes  a 
clear  profit  of  100  per  cent. 

The  following  table  shows  the  importation  of  beer  at  the  port  of  Eio 
Grande  do  Sul  for  the  year  1889,  which  I  estimate  to  be  one-half  of  the 
entire  importation  into  this  consular  district. 


Imported  from— 

Quantity. 

Official 
value. 

Liters. 
68  729 

$17  029  50 

Belgium  ........................ 

632 

158.  00 

4  941 

1  235.50 

France          .                  

1  426 

356.50 

Great  Britain  

15,  370 

3,  793.  00 

Italy        .                 

2  006 

501.  50 

Total 

93  104 

23  074.00 

MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  357 

There  are  breweries  in  each  of  the  three  principal  cities  of  this  State — 
Rio  Grande,  Pelotas,  and  Porto  Alegre — which  amply  supply  the  de- 
mand for  the  beer  of  the  country. 

Eio  Grande  has  three  breweries,  with  a  total  capacity  of  about 
1,200,000  bottles  per  annum.  Pelotas  six,  two  or  three  of  which  have 
an  annual  capacity  of  500,000  bottles  each,  and  Porto  Alegre  nine,  two 
of  which  have  each  a  capacity  of  1,000,000  bottles  per  annum. 

The  domestic  breweries  bottle  all  their  beer ;  there  is  nothing  in  the 
malt-liquor  line  handled  in  wood  casks  in  this  country. 

The  ordinary  beer  of  this  country  sells  at  from  90  cents  to  $1  per 
dozen,  from  the  brewer  to  the  retailer  who  sells  it  to  the  consumers  at 
from  16  to  20  cents  per  bottle. 

A  stronger  dark  beer  sells  at  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  higher. 

Imported  beer  is  put  on  the  market  through  certain  commercial 
houses,  which  will  sometimes  have  the  exclusive  agency  for  a  large  scope 
of  country  for  the  sale  of  certain  brands  adopted  by  bottlers  in  Europe. 

In  order  to  establish  any  trade  in  the  sale  of  American  beer  in  this 
country,  I  can  but  reiterate  practically  what  I  have  written  before;  it  is 
necessary  to  establish  a  house  or  an  agency  in  the  part  of  the  country 
where  trade  is  desired,  which  will  push  its  goods,  whatever  they  be,  in 
competition  with  the  importations  from  Europe. 

I  have  noticed  that  the  competition  which  is  made  through  patriotic 
as  well  as  financial  motives  is  the  most  successful,  and  it  is  the  only 
kind  that  will  ever  build  up  a  good  trade  for  American  products  in  this 
country. 

German  and  English  houses  sell  all  the  foreign  beer  in  this  country, 
and  a  simple  glance  at  the  figures  in  the  table  which  I  have  given  shows 
the  effect  of  their  influence  in  pushing  the  products  of  their  respective 
countries  in  foreign  markets. 

LEBBEUS  G.  BENNINGTON, 
Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  Brazil,  March  7, 1890. 


BRITISH  GUIANA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WALTHALL,  OF  DEMERARA. 
MALT. 

No  malt  is  either  made  in  this  colony  or  imported  into  it. 

BEER. 

Malt  liquors  of  various  kinds  are  imported,  both  in  wood  and  in 
bottles,  Hi  idly  from  Great  Britain,  though  to  a  small  extent  from  Den- 
mark. Holland,  and  the  United  States.    The  duty  is  $5  per  hogshead 
H6A 3 


358  MALT    AND   BEER   IN    SPANISH   AMERICA. 

on  that  which  comes  in  wood ;  24  cents  per  dozen  in  bottled  quarts ; 
and  12  cents  per  dozen  in  pints.  That  imported  in  hogsheads  is  bottled 
in  the  colony  before  sale.  It  is  not  customary  to  retail  it,  even  in  the 
spirit  shops,  by  the  glass,  or  to  keep  it  "  on  draught."  The  wholesale 
prices  are  from  $14  to  $17  per  hogshead ;  $6  to  $6.25  per  case  of  four 
dozen  quarts,  or  about  $1.50  to  $1.56  per  dozen  ;  and  $6.50  to  $7.25  per 
case  of  seven  dozen  pints,  or  about  93  cents  to  $1.04  per  dozen.  Com- 
missions and  other  charges  amount  to  10  or  12£  per  cent,  of  the  sales. 

The  retail  price  for  smaller  quantities  is  more  uncertain,  but  may  be 
stated  at  10  to  12  cents  per  bottle  for  pints,  and  16  to  20  cents  for 
quarts. 

Malt  liquors  are  placed  on  the  market  by  consignment  to  local  deal- 
ers. Some  small  experiments  had  been  made  toward  the  introduction 
of  lager  beer  of  American  manufacture,  but  quite  recently  the  Scotch 
brewers  have  begun  to  make  it  of  a  quality  considered  by  many  to  be 
superior  to  that  made  in  the  United  States,  and  tending  to  exclude  the 
latter  from  the  market.  The  price  at  which  this  is  sold  is  somewhat, 
but  not  materially,  less  than  that  realized  for  other  malt  liquors. 

It  is  thought  by  some  that  the  introduction  of  lager  in  small  kegs 
might  lead  to  the  sale  of  it  by  the  glass,  as  in  the  United  States  5  but 
such  are  the  conservative  instincts  of  all  classes  of  the  colonial  commu- 
nity, even  in  matters  of  meat  and  drink,  that  the  results  of  such  an 
experiment  would  be  doubtful,  unless  it  were  prosecuted  persistently 
and  patiently. 

W.  T.  WALTHALL, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSUATE, 

Demerara,  February  20,  1890. 


CHILI. 

IQUIQUE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MERRIAM. 
MALT. 

There  is  no  malt  imported  into  this  consular  district.  ^ 

BEER. 

During  the  calendar  year  1889  there  were  imported  into  Iquique, 
in  pipes,  native  beer  from  ports  between  the  Serena  and  Valdivia, 
2,836,700  liters,  or,  say,  638.258  gallons. 

During  the  same  period  there  were  imported,  in  cases  of  four  dozen 
each,  10,532  dozen  bottles  of  foreign  beer,  mainly  Bavarian  and  Nor- 
wegian, or  nearly  32,000  gallons,  The  amount  of  English  beer  con- 
sumed in  this  port  is  comparatively  small,  and  of  American  beer  much 
less  than  of  English. 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  359 

As  the  figures  show,  the  consumption  of  native  beer  is  about  95  per 
cent,  of  the  total  amount.  The  quality  of  the  native  beer  is  very  fair, 
and  that  of  some  breweries  is  really  excellent,  but  it  is  always  inferior 
to  Die  average  American  beer. 

During  the  past  few  years  there  have  been  moderate  importations 
of  beer  from  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  which  has  given  good  satisfaction  as  to  its 
quality.  The  difficulty  so  far  in  introducing  good  brands  of  American 
beer  in  bottles,  so  as  to  compete  successfully  with  other  beer,  whether 
native  or  foreign,  is  its  price. 

The  probable  cause  of  the  higher  price  of  American  beer  is  the  higher 
ra to  of  freights.  The  best  foreign  beer,  Bavarian  and  Norwegian,  is 
sold  in  the  market  to-day  for  $6  per  dozen,  which  is  equivalent  to  $3 
American  gold. 

If  as  good  a  quality  of  American  beer  could  be  placed  on  the  same 
or  more  favorable  terms,  I  know  of  no  reason  why  a  large  trade  in  beer 
could  not  be  built  up  with  manufacturers  in  the  United  States. 

Great  care  should  be  given  to  the  packing  of  the  bottles.  Com- 
plaints of  careless  packing  of  all  kinds  of  merchandise,  on  the  part  of 
American  exporters,  are  very  common,  and  so  far  as  my  observation 
goes  the  complaints  are  well-founded.  The  English  and  the  French  far 
excel  us  in  this  respect. 

Very  good  brands  of  Bavarian  beer  are  retailed  for  the  equivalent  of 
40  cents,  gold,  per  bottle.  Other  brands  of  Bavarian  and  all  American 
beer  at  50  cents,  gold,  per  bottle.  Half  bottles  also  should  be  sent. 

All  foreign  beer  is  imported  into  this  market  by  about  six  importing 
houses,  who  sell  it  with  general  merchandise. 

The  duties  on  beer  are  specific,  12  cents,  silver,  a  liter  on  beer  in  the 
wood,  and  $1.25  per  dozen  on  beer  in  bottles,  also  silver.  Local 
dues  amount  to  about  60  cents  on  a  case  of  four  dozen  bottles,  in  cur- 
rency, or,  say,  30  cents  a  case  in  gold. 

J.  W.  MERRIAM, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Iquique,  May  17, 1890. 


TALCAHUANO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  VAN  INQEN. 

MALT. 

All  malt  used  here  is  made  by  the  brewers  who  use  it.  The  duties 
are  not  given  in  the  tariff. 

BEER. 

Then-  is  very  little  beer  imported,  as  there  are  a  great  many  German 
breweries  here.  It  is  generally  imported  in  bottles,  and  duty  charged 
thereon  is  about  94  cei  ts,  United  States  gold,  per  dozen  bottles. 


360  MALT   AND    BEER   IN    SPANISH   AMERICA, 

The  beer  mostly  drank  here  is  sold  in  bottles  of  three-fourths  liter, 
which  equals  1.3206  imperial  pint,  at  5  cents,  10  cents,  and  20  cents, 
United  States  gold,  per  bottle  retail,  and  wholesale  at  50  cents,  62  cents, 
and  75  cents  the  dozen  bottles. 

No  malt  imported.  Beer  is  imported  in  very  small  quantities  by  for- 
eign houses,  which  sell  to  retailers. 

Duties  on  hops  imported  in  cases  8J  cents,  United  States  gold,  the  kilo- 
gram, gross  weight,  and  in  sacks  or  bales  11  cents,  United  States,  gold, 
per  kilogram,  gross  weight. 

In  my  opinion  there  is  no  business  to  be  done  in  southern  Chili  in 
foreign  beers,  as  there  are  so  many  brewers  who  supply  this  article  so 
cheaply  as  to  shut  out  all  foreign  competition,  unless  admitted  free  of 
duty,  and  then  the  competition  would  be  doubtful. 

JOHN  F.  YANlNGKEN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Talcahuano,  March  27, 1890. 


ECUADOR. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  SORSBY,  OF  GUAYAQUIL. 
MALT. 

In  Ecuador  there  are  several  breweries.  On  the  coast  there  is  but  one 
and  it  is  at  Guayaquil,  the  "  Guayaquil  Lager  Beer  Brewery  Association." 
In  the  interior  there  are  two,  one  at  Quito  and  the  other  at  Ambato. 
The  Guayaquil  brewery  is  the  only  one  importing  malt. 

Guayaquil. — Heretofore  the  malt  for  the  Guayaquil  brewery  has  been 
imported  in  a  prepared  state,  and  via  New  York  from  Canada.  About 
400  bushels  per  month  is  imported,  costing  delivered  at  Guayaquil,  in- 
cluding import  duty,  $2.50  United  States  gold  per  bushel.  The  import 
duty  on  malt  is  2  cents,  of  a  sucre  per  kilogram,  plus  20  per  cent.,  or, 
say,  36  cents  United  States  gold  per  bushel.  It  is  estimated  that  malt 
can  be  had  from  Chili  at  about  $2  United  States  gold  per  bushel,  inclu- 
sive of  the  duty ;  and  its  safe  to  say  that  in  the  future  Chili  will  furnish 
the  Guayaquil  brewery  with  all  the  malt  required. 

The  interior  produces  all  the  malt  required  for  its  breweries. 

BEER. 

More  than  an  estimate  on  the  beer  imported  into  the  Republic  can 
not  be  given.  The  amount  imported  and  consumed  per  annum  is  about 
300,000  gallons,  the  greater  part  of  which  comes  from  Germany,  but 
recently  English  and  American  beers  are  curtailing  the  German  exports. 
The  duty  on  beer  is  5  cents  per  kilogram  gross,  plus  20  per  cent.,  or,  say, 
1 J  cents  United  States  gold.  "  Gross "  means  that  the  duty  is  charged 
on  the  gross  weight  of  beer,  bottles,  straw,  and  boxes.  Beers  shipped 
to  Ecuador  come  packed  in  cases  of  4  dozen  whole  and  6  dozen  half 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  361 

bottles — soiiH'i  imes  in  barrels  of  <»  dozen  whole  or  10  dozen  half  bottles. 
The  German  beer  is  transported  in.  sailing  vessels  at  30  shillings  per 
ton  measurement,  or  $7.50  United  States  goli.  American  beer  (of  New 
York  manufacture)  is  being  introduced  and  is  slowly  displacing  the 
German  and  English  make.  It  is  transported  to  this  poiot  via  Panama, 
and  the  cost  of  transportation  makes  its  cost  here  very  high.  It  is  sold 
here  at  25  sucres  per  case  of  4  dozen  whole  bottles,  or,  say,  $16  United 
States  gold ;  while  the  German  and  English  beer,  coming  by  sailing 
vessels,  sells  here  at  $12  United  States  gold  for  the  same  quantity. 
This  great  difference  in  price  militates  against  the  American  brewer, 
although  the  American  beer  is  preferred.  Light  beers  are  best  suited 
to  this  market. 

All  imported  beers  are  in  fairly  large  lots  and  in  consignments.  Very 
little,  if  any,  being  bought  outright.  But  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to 
surplant  the  German  and  English  with  American  beer  unless  the  cost 
of  the  latter  can  be  made  to  compare  favorably  with  the  former. 

The  American  beer  is  transported  by  steam,  the  German  and  English 
by  sail,  the  difference  in  the  cost  of  transportation  forces  the  selling  price 
here  of  the  former  to  $16  United  States  gold,  while  the  latter  can  be 
sold  at  $12  United  States  gold  per  case.  The  difference  in  quality  is 
not  enough  to  offset  the  great  difference  in  cost.  If  American  beer  can 
be  laid  down  at  this  point  at  the  same  cost  of  the  German  and  English 
there  can  be  but  little  doubt  that  the  United  States  will  soon  control 
the  market  in  Ecuador.  But  the  quantity  of  beer  imported  will  always 
depend  largely  upon  the  quality  of  the  brew  by  the  Guayaquil  brewery. 
When  that  brewery  was  first  established  they  had  an  experienced  brewer 
the  result  was  that  the  amount  of  foreign  beer  consumed  was  diminished 
very  materially.  Later  they  employed  a  native  brewer  and  the  result 
was  and  is,  owing  to  the  poor  quality  of  beer  brewed,  the  consumption 
of  foreign  beer  is  again  very  great. 

Quito. — At  Quito  the  malt  is  raised  in  Ecuador  and  prepared  by  the 
brewery,  costing  before  prepared  85  cents  per  bushel;  the  quantity 
brewed  per  day  being  about  100  dozen  bottles. 

Ambato.— At  Ambato  the  malt  is  grown  in  Ecuador  and  prepared  by 
the  brewery,  costing  about  85  cents  per  bushel  before  prepared ;  the 
quantity  brewed  per  day  being  about  15  dozen  bottles. 

The  price  at  Quito  and  Ambato  being  $1  (suere),  or  70  cents  United 
States  gold  per  dozen  for  steam,  and  $2  (sucre),  or  $1.40  United  States 
gold  for  lager  beer. 

The  hops  used  at  Guayaquil,  Quito,  and  Ambato  is  imported  from 
Germany  at  a  cost  of  about  $40  sucres,  or  $28  United  States  gold  per 
100  pounds. 

Guayaquil  beer  is  sold  at  $2,  United  States  gold  per  dozen 
by  the  case,  and  retails  at  20  cents  per  bottle.  The  output  of  the 
brewery  is  about  100  dozen  bottles  per  day,  in  kegs  and  bottles,  but 
the  capacity  of  the  brewery  is  said  to  be  from  250  to  300  dozen  per 
day. 


362 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    .SPANISH    AMERICA. 


The  Guayaquil  brewery  manufactures  and  sells  about  10,000  pounds 
of  ice  per  day,  which  is  sold  at  2  cents  United  States  gold  per  pound, 
wholesale. 

In  attempting  to  establish  trade  in  this  country  it  is  well  to  know 
and  to  remember  that  the  trade  is  controlled  in  no  small  degree  by 
trade-marks.  An  article  bearing  a  certain  u  trade-mark,"  when  once 
established,  is  vqry  hard  to  displace. , 

All  classes  and  kinds  of  goods  should  be  lightly  yet  securely  packed, 
with  the  view  to  obtain  the  minimum  weight,  and,  at  the  same  time,  safe 
transportation.  This  point  alone  is  worth  especial  study ;  and  yet, 
strange  to  say,  is  ignored  by  American  shippers. 

I  desire  to  repeat  that  the  tariff  of  Ecuador  exacts  duty  upon  the  gross 
weight  of  the  cargo,  and  when  this  fact  is  borne  in  mind  the  necessity 
of  making  a  special  study  in  packing  for  shipments  need  not  be  en- 
larged upon. 

WILLIAM  B.  SORSBY, 

Consul-  General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Guayaquil,  April  2,  1890. 


REPUBLIC    OF    COLOMBIA. 

BARRANQUILLA. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  WHELPLEY. 
BEER. 

The  term  beer  (cerveza)  includes  all  classes  of  malt  liquors,  as  stout, 
porter,  ale,  and  lager.  Duty,  2J  cents  per  kilogram. 

The  well  known  brands  of  Bass,  Younger,  Guinness,  Tennant,  the 
only  brands  known  to  commerce  twelve  or  fifteen  years  ago,  have  been 
gradually  superseded  here  by  the  German  brands. 

The  imperial,  Pilsen,  Bayrisch,  and  lager,  from  Hamburg  and  Bremen 
breweries,  and  one  or  two  brands  of  Bavarian  beer,  are  in  increasing 
demand,  as  being  not  only  a  lighter  beverage  and  better  adapted  to  the 
climate  than  the  British,  but  also  cheaper  in  price,  as  for  example : 


British 
pin 

9ne-h  a  1  f 

ts. 

German 
pii 

—  »  — 

one-halt 

its. 

Kind. 

Purchase 
price. 

Selling 
price.  * 

Kind. 

Purchase 
price. 

Soiling 
price.  * 

Bass  per  dozen  .  . 

Cents. 
95 

$2.25 

Imperial....  .      per  dozen 

Cents. 
90 

$1  80 

Younger...  do  
Tennant  do 

94 
94 

2.20 

2.20 

Bayriach  do  

Pilaen                             do 

80 
80 

1.50 
1  50 

Guinness  do  

94 

2.20 

Lager  do  .  

80 

1.50 

United  States  cnrrency. 


MALT    AND    BEER    IX    SPANISH    AMERICA.  363 

(i  to  If-  ]>(•!•  (in!,  lusher  than  Un>  HambingMid  Bremen  beers. 


Malt  is  not  imported.  An  " extract  of  malt"  is  sometimes  sent  to 
the  interior,  but  it  is  said  that  at  some  small  brewing  establishment  at 
Bogota  they  also  have  a  local  preparation,  but  the  beverage  made  is  but 
an  inferior  imitation  of  foreign  brands. 

Packages  for  local  sale  of  the  above-named  German  beers  are  put  up 
in  -I  dozen  to  a  case,  and  for  interior  trade  in  5  dozen  to  a  case;  average 
weight  65  kilograms  (13  kilograms  per  dozen). 

Cases  contain  3  or  o  dozen  German  beers,  imperial  one-half  pint 
bottles,  sheathed  in  straw  cones.  The  cases  are  made  of  thoroughly- 
seasoned  Norway  pine  or  spruce  of  five-eighth  inch  thickness  for  tops 
and  bottoms,  and  one-half  inch  for  sides  and  ends,  bound  with  thin 
strap  iron  one-half  inch  wide.  The  cases  are  of  the  following  dimensions: 

Inside  measurements :  3-dozen  case,  11  Jinches  wide,  lOinchesdeep,  and 
20J  inches  long.  For  5-dozen  case,  13  inches  wide,  11J  inches  deep,  26j 
inches  long. 

As  the  duty  is  levied  on  gross  weight  of  package  and  contents,  light 
material  for  boxing  is  a  desirable  feature.  An  extra  one-eighth  of  thick- 
ness in  box  material  would  add  a  large  percentage  of  unnecessary  ex- 
pense, to  an  invoice  of  several  hundred  cases. 

A  cask  of  10  dozen  of  lager,  from  a  Milwaukee  brewery,  has  given 
much  satisfaction  in  style  and  quality  to  an  importing  house  here  who 
intend  to  send  a  liberal  order.  The  same  house  imported  over  2,000 
cases  from  Hamburg  during  the  past  year,  but  consider,  with  many  of 
their  local  consumers,  that  Milwaukee  is  the  best  yet  offered  as  a  malt 
beverage.  Price  not  stated. 

For  local  consumption  the  packing  in  casks  may  be  suitable,  but  it  is 
not  good  for  the  interior  trade.  The  German  bottler,  knowing  that  the 
gross  weight  of  package  is  an  important  factor  in  the  trade  with  this 
country,  use  bottles  as  thin  as  consistent  with  safety  ;  our  brewers  seem 
to  think  thick  concave  bottoms  necessary,  an  increase  of  weight  to  the 
bottle  and  a  decrease  in  its  cubic  capacity  and  contents  as  compared 
with  the  German  flat  bottomed  bottle. 

A  case  of  5  dozen  sent  from  Chicago  last  year  weighed  5J  kilograms 
more  than  a  Bremen  case  of  5  dozen,  and  each  Chicago  bottle  contained 
one  eighth  of  a  pint  less  than  the  Bremen  bottles.  The  Chicago  case  was 
made  of  soggy,  unseasoned  stuff,  three-fourths  inch  in  thickness,  bound 
with  heavy  strap-iron.  Each  bottle  was  larger  in  appearance  than  the 
German,  with  a  thick  concave  bottom,  capped  with  heavy,  lead  foil,  over 
a  needlessly  heavy  wire.  The  importer  objects  to  this  extra  and  useless 
expense;  the  consumer  would  like  more  beer  and  less  glass  for  his 
money. 

S.  M.  WHELPLEY, 

Vice- Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Barranquilla,  February  10,  1890. 


364  MALT   AND   BEER   IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

Beer  imported  during  years  1888  and  1889. 

[From  custom-house  record  of  Barranquilla.    In  kilograms,  per  month.] 
1888. 


Where  from. 

Jan. 

Feb. 

Mar. 

Apr. 

May. 

June. 

July. 

Aug. 

Sept. 

Oct.  ' 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Totals. 

Antwerp  
Bremen 

980 
9,056 

17,  950 
10,  430 

130 
5,370 

19,  060 
66,  763 
910 
3,609 
810 
144,  803 
1,482 
35,  433 
19,  003 
43,  943 
1,300 
2,  927 
4,795 

2,108 

1,578 

18,  792 

19,  399 

910 

Curacao 

452 

547 

2,610 

810 
18,  427 

Hamburg 

6,284 

18,  530 

9,905 
1,000 
4,178 
2,460 
6,918 
1,300 

21,273 
482 
9,360 
4,134 

10,  605 

4,120 

5,860 

11,  915 

6,431 

31,  453 

London  ....... 

Liverpool  
Manchester    . 

790 

""690 
835 

4,374 
4,117 
1,080 

1,604 

11,  127 
6,  793 

4,000 
3,380 
1,809 

""55 
179 

2,310 
5,771 

1,857 
475 

New  York  
N"ew  Orleans  .  . 
Paris  

1,522 

5,611 

12,  950 

827 

.  2,  100 
810 

'i,~785 



Southampton.  . 
Total  



1,875 



986 





149 

19,  114 

50,  310 

31,  261 

37,  145 

20,  176 

11.  335 

13,099 

16,  876 

15,  825 

58,  596 

17,  405 

53,  696 

344,  838 

_' 
Colon 

2,980 
65,  030 

17,"  778 

360 
25,  915 

2,400 
41,  470 

5,740 
264,  597 
27,  470 
1,638 
29H,  127 
25,  971 
36.  074 
34,  644 
42,  243 
4,809 

|  8,  068 

Bremen  ...... 

19,420 

6,758 

6,674 
1,500 

59,  230 

22,  322 

25,  970 

Curasao  

86 

1,  552 

11,  722 
3,041 
126 
903 
3,213 
1,313 

3,260 
384 

6,664 
384 

40,  445 
3,139 
5,840 
1,905 
3,444 

29,  281 
4,596 

16,  589 
2,145 
1,940 
3,010 
10,  840 

61,  982 
10,  000 
6,790 
1,100 

47,  347 
1,212 
295 
4,284 

28,  236 

52,  55l 
1  070 

London  " 

Liverpool  
Manchester  
New  York  
Paris 

11,  163 
12,  945 

7,  237 

9,920 

2,087 
6,016 

1,130 
5,  824 

7,280 
3,  080 
1  110 

2,589 

685 

824 
3  720 

877 

Southampton 

1,794 

Port  Liinon    .  . 

2,554 

Total     

20,  318 

30,  869 

20,  760 

62,  947 

106,  371 

82,  816 

150,  119 

70,  916 

90,  400 

113,  431 

783,  591 

*  Books  of  custom-house  not  posted  for  November  and  December,  1889. 

NOTE.— At  13  kilograms  to  the  dozen  (one-half  pints),  60,276  dozen  for  1889,  exclusive  of  November 
and  December. 


COLON. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  VIFQUAIN. 
MALT. 

1.  There  is  no  malt  imported  into  this  consular  district.    Ther^  are  no 
breweries,  no  duties  on  malts,  none  on  beer. 

BEER. 

2.  The  kinds  of  beer  imported  here  are  German,  English,  and  Amer- 
ican.   In  the  year  1888,  the  last  good  year,  the  imports  of  English  beer 
(porter  and  ale)  averaged  1,000  barrels  per  month ;  it  was  used  largely 
by  the  Jamaicans  working  on  the  canal.    In  the  same  year  the  German 
imports  amounted  to  1,500  barrels  per  month,  mostly  used  on  the  line 
of  the  canal,  largely  by  the  Chinese.    In  the  same  year  the  American 


MALT   AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH   AMERICA.  365 

imports  were  on  an  average  of  600  barrels  per  month,  chietiy  Milwau- 
kee; about  one-seventh  of  it  NewOrleans  beer. 

A  barrel  consists  of  10  dozen  pint  bottles,  or  6  dozen  quart  bottles. 

English  beer  was  sold  here  at  $7  per  barrel ;  the  German  at  $6.50  and 
*!>  per  barrel ;  the  Ameriean  beer,  Milwaukee,  at  $12 ;  New  Orleans  at 

lib. 

Milwaukee  is  "the  beer"  mostly  used  here;  retailed  at  50  and  CO 
cents  per  quart  bottle  (or  35  and  40  cents  American  money  per  bottle). 
During  the  year  1889  Milwaukee  beer  is  the  only  one  that  increased  its 
imports. 

3.  The  beers  are  placed  upon  the  market  by  local  firms  (wholesale 
grocers  and  commission  houses)  and  disposed  by  those  to  the  multitude 
of  saloons. 

In  addition  to  the  answers  I  beg  to  state  that  of  late  the  vessels 
bringing  ice  here  imported,  on  an  average  of  one  per  month,  some  one 
hundred  ten-gallon  kegs  of  regular  lager.  It  is  chiefly  used  in  Panama, 
but  it  is  far  from  being  the  lager  "on  tap"  in  the  States;  in  other 
words,  it  does  not  improve  on  the  voyage. 

In  case  the  canal  resumes  work  it  is  my  opinion  that  a  brewery  with 
beer  garden  in  the  mountains,  some  four  or  five  miles  from  here,  would 
do  an  extremely  lively  business,  provided  it  could  import  its  own  ice. 

VICTOR  VIFQUAIN, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Colon,  January  31, 1890. 


VENEZUELA. 

LA  GUAYRA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BIRD. 

MALT. 

The  importation  of  malt  at  this  port  is  quite  small,  amounting,  as 
carefully  estimated,  to  about  120  bushels  per  month  of  the  value  at  re- 
tail of  $13.82  per  100  pounds.  Importations  are  of  shelled  unground 
grain,  and  the  largest  part  comes  from  Hamburg ;  the  rest  is  contrib- 
uted by  the  United  States.  The  duty  on  unhusked  malt  is  89  cents  per 
100  pounds,  and  12J  per  cent,  of  total  duty  added  for  transit  duties. 
The  duty  on  shelled  unground  malt,  the  kind  that,  is  usually  imported, 
is  $6.66  per  100  pounds  and  12£  per  cent,  of  total  duty  added  for  transit 
duties. 

BEER. 

The  importation  of  beer  at  this  port,  wlnVh  can  be  approximately 
stated  only,  amounts  to  about  60.000  bottles  per  month,  75  per  cenr.  of 
which  comes  from  Germany  and  the  remainder  from  England  and  the 


366  MALT   AND    BBER   IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

United  States,  our  share  in  this  portion  being  quite  small.  About  all 
of  it  comes  in  bottles  or  halt'  bottles,  tbat  from  Germany  and  England 
being  packed  in  boxes  containing  one  dozen  bottles  or  two  dozen  half 
bottles,  while  that  from  the  United  States  is  more  cheaply  packed  in 
barrels  containirg  five  dozen  bottles  or  ten  dozen  half  bottles.  Duties 
are  paid  on  the  gross  weight  of  packages  ;  hence  the  lighter  the  pack 
ing  is  the  less  will  be  the  cost  of  the  article.  The  duty  on  all  kinds  of 
beer  is  $2.22  per  100  pounds,  with  12£  per  cent,  of  total  duty  added  for 
transit  duties.  Beer  is  sold  in  this  market  at  wholesale  at  prices  rang- 
ing, according  to  quality,  from  $3  to  $6  per  box,  and  is  retailed  at 
from  20  cents  to  35  cents  per  half  bottle.  Both  white  and  black  beer 
are  consumed  in  about  equal  proportions. 

Germany  sends  both  the  best  and  worst  qualities  of  beer,  thus  grati- 
fying the  most  extravagant  and  economical  tastes  ;  and  it  is  generally 
asserted  that  all  kinds  of  German  beer  are  cheaper  and  better  than  beers 
from  other  countries.  It  is  also  stated  that  some  of  the  best  brands 
of  American  beer,  that  were  formerly  much  esteemed  here,  have  latterly 
greatly  deteriorated  in  quality. 

A  brewery,  upon  a  small  scale,  has  been  lately  established  in  Caracas, 
and  some  tentative  effort  has  been  made  to  supply  the  market  with 
domestic  beer.  It  has  not,  however,  proved  a  success  and  it  is  believed 
that  climatic  conditions  alone  will  insure  its  failure.  The  beer  is  of 
very  inferior  quality  and  will  not  keep  for  any  length  of  time. 

WINFIELD  S.  BIRD, 

Con&tti. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

La  Guayra,  January  29,  1890. 


MARACAIBO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PLUMAOHER. 
MALT. 

In  this  consular  district  there  are  no  breweries  and  malt  is  not  an 
article  of  trade,  none  being  imported  or  prepared  locally. 

BEER. 

The  imports  of  beer  into  this  consular  district  amount  annually  to 
about  35,000  boxes  of  two  dozen  pints  each.  None  is  introduced  in  the 
wood,  as  the  climatic  conditions  are  such  as  to  render  its  preservation 
a  matter  of  great  difficulty,  and  consequently  beer  on  draught  is  unknown. 

The  total  import  duties  amount  to  5f  cents  per  kilogram,  gross 
weight. 

By  far  the  greater  quantity  of  beer  is  of  German  production,  the  ex- 
ports from  the  United  States  being  comparatively  insignificant,  although 


MALT    AND    REEK     IN    SI'AMSII     AMERICA.  367 

(he  American  fager  introduced  here :  is  of  excellent  qualil.s  and  apprc- 
ciated  by  the  public.  It  would  seem  that  under  these  circumstances 
the  brewers  of  the  United  States  should  find  in  this  section  an  extensive 
market  for  their  products,  but  it  is  their  method  of  packing  which  mili- 
tates against  their  interest. 

As  duties  in  this  country  are  levied  upon  the  gross  weight  of  all  im- 
ports the  character  of  the  receptacle  is  an  important  factor  in  calculat- 
ing cost  of  introduction.  The  beer  shipped  from  Germany  is  packed 
in  boxes  made  of  thin  boards  and  fastened  with  the  lightest  and  least 
n umber  of  nails  consistent  with  safety  of  transport.  The  bottles  are 
made  of  thin,  light  glass,  and  the  aim  of  the  exporters  is,  very  prop- 
erly, to  reduce  as  much  as  possible  the  weight  of  their  shipments. 

The  Americans,  on  the  other  hand,  although  this  important  point  has 
been  repeatedly  brought  to  their  attention,  persist  in  packing  their 
goods  in  such  a  manner  as  to  add  enormously  to  the  import  duties. 

Bottles  of  unnecessarily  heavy  glass,  thick  boards  for  boxes  (some  of 
which  are  of  the  extraordinary  dimensions  of  1J  inches),  a  multitude 
of  heavy  cut  nails,  and  iron  bands  of  considerable  weight — all  these  are 
used  by  American  exporters  of  beer,  and  upon  these  accessories,  which 
might  easily  be  reduced  by  more  than  50  per  cent.,  the  full  beer  tariff 
must  be  paid. 

It  should  not  be  a  matter  of  wonder  that  under  these  circumstances 
the  importers  of  this  district  introduce  the  German  article,  as  the  costs 
of  importation  are  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

As  far  as  quality  and  original  price  at  brewery  are  concerned,  Ameri- 
can beer  should  have  a  ready  sale  in  this  market,  as  it  can  be  disposed 
of  at  retail,  notwithstanding  the  disadvantages  of  packing,  at  from  5J 
to  0  pesos  per  box  of  24  small  bottles  of  12  ounces  each. 

The  ordinary  German  beer  comes  as  a  rule  in  bottles  containing  8 
ounces,  and  retails  at  from  4  to  6  pesos  per  box  of  24  bottles. 

There  are  also  special  classes  of  German  beer  of  superior  quality, 
particularly  the  Dreher  beer  of  Vienna,  which  is  readily  sold  here  at  14 
pesos  ($10.77  United  States  gold)  per  box  of  48  bottles  (halves). 

The  original  cost  of  the  ordinary  grades  of  German  beer  is  10.40 
marks  for  48  bottles,  and  for  the  same  quantity  of  the  superior  quality 
1M.50  marks  (all  bottles  being  halves). 

These  invoice  prices  of  the  German  article  are  subject  to  a  trade  dis- 
count which  is,  perhaps,  never  less  than  4  per  cent. 

The  freights  also  from  Europe  to  this  coast  are  exceedingly  low.  The 
beer  comes  in  sailing  vessels  which  are  sent  to  this  port  to  load  wood 
and  divi-divi,  and  the  charterers  are  glad  to  get  any  class  of  freight  at 
reduced  terms,  especially  as  these  vessels  as  a  rule  are  not  classed  suffi- 
ciently high  to  carry  valuable  or  perishable  cargo. 

There  is  really  no  reason  why  the  brewers  of  the  United  States  should 
not  establish  an  extensive  trade  with  this  country  if  they  would  only 
study  and, bear  in  mind  the  peculiarities  of  the  market. 


368  MALT    AND    BEER    IN    .SPANISH    AMERICA. 

There  are  many  large  houses  which  could  easily  nifoixl  to  send  ac- 
credited representatives,  equipped  with  a  sufficient  knowledge  of  Span- 
ish and  prepared  to  treat  with  the  importing  firms  of  this  and  other 
Venezuelan  centers. 

In  my  dispatch  of  January  21,  last,  referring  to  commercial  matters 
generally,  I  laid  especial  stress  upon  the  necessity  of  active  and  aggress- 
ive representation  on  the  part  of  our  merchants  and  manufacturers, 
and  I  can  think  of  no  branch  of  business  to  which  this  advice  is  more 
applicable  than  that  of  American  beers,  wines,  and  liquors. 

Moreover,  the  direct  intervention  of  the  brewers  by  means  of  travel- 
ing agents  would  do  away  with  the  present  necessity  of  employing  com- 
mission houses  at  New  York  and  other  exporting  points,  whose  charges 
are  rarely  less  than  5  per  cent,  upon  invoice  value. 

This  5  per  cent,  added  to  the  excessive  import  duties  caused  by  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Venezuelan  tariff  form  such  a  burden  that  competi- 
tion with  European  exporters  is  almost  an  impossibility. 

The  demand  in  this  district  for  American  beer,  even  when  offered  at 
low  prices,  is  but  small,  as  it  is  light  lager  which  has  not  the  strength 
suitable  to  the  palates  of  the  people,  nor  does  it  keep  when  stored. 

Bad  corkage  is  perhaps  responsible  to  a  certain  extent  for  this  last 
drawback. 

The  experiment  of  making  beer  in  Venezuela  has  been  tried  in  Cara- 
cas, but  the  results  have  not  been  encouraging. 

In  Bogota,  Colombia,  which  has  an  elevation  above  sea-level  of  some- 
thing more  than  8,000  feet,  an  excellent  beer  is  brewed  from  Indian 
corn,  which  has  a  ready  and  extensive  sale  at  the  rate  of  80  cents  per 
dozen. 

In  Venezuela  the  beer  consumption  is  very  great,  and  in  the  most 
isolated  and  distant  points  of  the  interior  it  is  always  to  be  found.  I 
have  no  doubt  that  should  our  brewers  send  good  beer  in  casks  and 
have  always  a  constant  and  sufficient  supply  of  ice  for  its  preservation 
large  quantities  could  be  sold  on  draught.  There  is  no  reason  also  why 
a  brewery  may  not  be  established  even  in  the  city  of  Maracaibo.  It  is 
true  that  the  heat  is  here  intense,  and,  without  the  means  of  producing 
artificial  cold,  such  an  enterprise  could  not  for  a  moment  be  projected, 
but  as  now  there  are  many  processes  for  reducing  the  temperature  of 
large  rooms  even  to  zero  at  a  moderate  cost  this  difficulty  might  be  thus 
overcome.  Beer  made  from  maize  has  always  been  well  received  in 
these  countries  and  this  product  is  here  as  a  rule  exceedingly  cheap. 

Should  the  disadvantages  of  climate  be  thus  obviated  Maracaibo 
would  be  an  exceptionally  favorable  locality  for  such  an  enterprise,  as 
it  is  the  distributing  point  not  only  for  an  immense  section  of  Vene- 
zuela, but  also  for  the  entire  northeast  of  Colombia. 

The  preceding  remarks  contain  the  answer  to  this  quest-on,  and  to 
resume  briefly,  as  far  as  American  beer  is  concerned,  1  beg  to  state — 

(a)  The  brewers  should  send  representatives  to  study  the  market  and 
treat;  diiectly  with  the  importers. 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  369 

(6)  Great  attention  should  be  given  to  the  packing  in  order  to  reduce 
the  weight  to  a  minimum. 

(c)  The  American  beer  received  in  this  district  is  of  good  quality  and 
is  so  recognized,  but  it  is  too  light  for  the  tastes  of  the  people,  who  pre- 
fer a  stronger  article. 

It  is,  moreover,  a  matter  of  complaint  that  it  deteriorates  during  store- 
age. 

Should  our  brewers  determine  to  make  an  effort  to  secure  a  fair  pro- 
portion of  this  trade,  the  foregoing  suggestions  will,  I  trust,  be  of 
service. 

E.  H.  PLUMACHER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Maracaibo,  February  19, 1890. 


Statement  of  the  weight  of  a  bottle  of  beer  from  various  European  breweries. 

(1)  The  following  breweries  whose  products  are  fair,  but  not  of  superior  quality, 
send  their  beer  in  half  bottles,  weighing  when  tilled  from  17  to  20  ounces  each : 

(a)  Ross  Company,  lager-beer,  Teufelsbrncke,  Kleinflottbeck,  Holstein. 
(6)  Norway  Ale  Brewery,  limited,  Christiania. 

(c)  Imperial  (?erman  Pale  Ale,  Export  Brewery. 

(d)  Export  Beer  Brewery,  Best  India  Pale  Ale. 

(2)  The  following  breweries  produce  a  superior  quality  of  beer,  as  follows: 
(a)  Dreher,  of  Vienna,  half  bottle,  weighing  28  ounces. 

(&)  Frankenbrau,  Bainberg,  Bavaria,  one-half  bottle  weighs  27  ounces. 

(c)  Salvator  Brauerei,  Miiuchen  Schwabing,  one-half  bottle  weighs  26  ounces. 

(d)  Aktien  Brauerei,  Lowenbrau  Miinchen,  one-half  bottle  weighs  27  ounces. 

(e)  Aktien  Brauerei,  Lowenbrau,  Miinchen,  whole  bottle  weighs  48  ounces. 


PUERTO    CABELLO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DE  BLANO. 

MALT. 

No  malt  is  imported  into  this  district  and  none  is  made  therein.  A 
brewery  has  been  lately  established  at  Caracas,  in  the  adjoining  con- 
sular district,  which  imports  malt  for  its  own  use  j  but  to  what  extent, 
and  whence  imported  I  am  not  informed. 

BEEE. 

Beer  is  imported  to  a  large  extent  from  Germany,  Austria,  and  Eng- 
land, and  some  also  from  the  United  States,  but  in  small  quantity. 
Totals  of  importations  can  not  be  given,  as  statistical  notes  are  not 
ki'pt.  It  is  imported  exclusively  in  bottles.  The  duty  is  25  centimes 
of  a  bolivar  per  kilo,  equal  to  $2.2115  United  States  currency  per  100 


370  MALT   AND    BEER    IN   Sl'ANISH   AMERICA. 

pounds.    The  cheap  German  and  fine  Austrian  beers  are  those  most 
generally  consumed. 

The  price  of  beer  by  wholesale  in  this  market  ranges  from  3£  to  7 
pesos  ($2.69  to  $5.38  American  gold)  per  case  of  24  pints.  It  retails  at 
1*5  to  37  centavos  per  pint  (19  to  28  cents  American). 

Beer  is  placed  upon  this  market  at  a  profit  of  8  to  10  per  cent. 

American  beer  is  at  a  disadvantage  in  this  market  on  account  of  the 
bad  packing  and  greater  weight  of  the  packages.  The  breakage  on 
beer  coming  from  the  United  States  is  always  much  more  considerable 
than  on  English  or  German  beer,  amounting  in  many  cases  to  20  per 
cent.  In  a  tarifit  which  is  entirely  specific  and  by  which  duties  are 
levied  uniformly  on  the  gross  weight  of  packages,  with  no  deductions 
for  breakage,  excess  of  weight  is  a  serious  drawback  to  the  handling  of 
American  beer.  It  is  the  opinion  of  several  dealers  in  that  article  in 
this  district  that  if  these  objections  could.be  removed  American  beer 
would  compete  successfully  with  all  other  importations. 

,  CHARLES  DE  BLANC, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Puerto  Cabello,  February  20,  1890. 


BRITISH  WEST  INDIES. 

ANTIGUA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JACKSON. 
MALT. 

Breweries  do  not  obtain  in  these  parts  j  consequently  there  is  no 
demand  for  malt. 

BEER. 

In  connection  herewith  attention  is  drawn  to  a  table  of  statistics 
which  shows  the  amount  of  business  done  in  ale  and  beer  during  the 
last  decade.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  has  been  a  considerable  fall- 
ing off  of  imports.  The  explanation  is  laid  to  the  increase  in  the  con- 
suption  of  whisky,  which  is  considered  healthier  than  strong  ale  and 
beer. 

Complaints  are  constantly  made  that  "Bass's  is  too  heavy  for  this 
climate,"  meaning  that  it  is  clogging  to  the  system. 

On  the  other  hand  a  feeling  is  growing  in  the  public  mind  that  lager- 
beer  is  the  proper  drink  on  account  of  its  lightness,  and  in  support  of 
this  the  statistics  show  an  increase  in  imports  of  lager  from  the  United 
States. 

The  business  in  lager-beer  is  about  confined  to  one  New  York  brewery 
and  one  dealer,  who  sells  most  of  the  beer  by  the  dozen  and  half  dozen 
pints,  m  bottles,  to  families. 


MALT    AND    BEEK    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


371 


Beer  is  not  sold  on  tap,  and  when  imported  in  wood  is  drawn  off  into 
bottles. 

The  duty  is  $2.40  on  a  cask  containing  52  Imperial  gallons,  or  18  cents 
per  dozen  quarts  in  bottles  and  pints  in  proportion. 

British  beer  is  packed  in  barrels  of  7  dozen  pints  or  4  dozen  quarts 
and  sells  wholesale  at  about  $7.20  per  barrel  and  is  retailed  at  12  cents 
per  pint  or  a  little  less  for  a  quantity. 

Wholesale  dealers  charge  5  per  cent,  commission  for  selling  and  for 
storage  at  the  rate  of  5  cents  per  barrel  for  the  first  mouth  and  2 J  cents 
for  each  succeeding  month.  The  charges  for  porterage  and  cooperage  are 
small. 

In  case  the  goods  are  closed  out  at  auction  there  is  a  charge  of  5  per 
cent,  for  the  auctioneer.  This  is  a  favorite  mode  of  closing  consign- 
ments. Shipments  should  be  made  in  pints. 

CHESTER  JACKSON, 

Comul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Antigua,  April  17, 1890. 


Amount  and  invoice  value  of  ale  and  beer  imported  into  Antigua  from  the  year  1880  to 

1890,  inclusive. 


Year. 

Ale  and  beer  from  Great  Britain. 

Lager  beer  from  United  States. 

Gallons  in 
wood. 

Value. 

Quarts  la 
glass. 

Value. 

Quarts  in 
glass. 

Value. 

Total 
value. 

1880 

7,  882$ 
9,609$ 
4,  845£ 
3,  619* 
6,302!| 
l,497g 
3,8061 
1,  725$ 
1,  591* 
3,203 

$3,  031.  00 
3,  796.  00 
1,  864.  00 
1,  392.  00 
2,  424.  00 
561.  60 
1,  264.  98 
570.  12 
584.  98 
1,  088.  32 

Dozens. 
3,486 
5,653 
4,  363 
4,549 
3,  959 
2,680 
3,492 
3,797 
2,362 
2,760 

$4,  879.  60 
7,  926.  24 
6,151.32 
6,  368.  88 
5,591.04 
4,  390.  38 
5,  803.  72 
6,  300.  38 
4,  093.  96 
3,  920.  60 

Dozen*. 
5 
7 
25 

$8.40 
11.76 
42.00 

$7,  919.  00 
11,734.00 
8,  057.  32 
7,  760.  88 
8,  067.  12 
7,  963.  74 
7,  058.  70 
6,  870.  56 
4,  894.  24 
5,  310.  72 

]881      

188° 

1883 

1884 

31 
6 

52.08 
11.76 

1885             

1886 

1887       

25 
114 
160 

42.50 
215.30 
301.80 

1888 

1889               ..   . 

THE  BAHAMAS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  M'LAIN,  OF  NASSAU. 

• 

MALT. 

There  is  no  importation  of  malt  into  this  colony. 

BEKR. 

There  is  no  manufacture  of  beer  in  these  islands. 

Beer  is  imported  from  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States.  That  re- 
ceived from  Great  Britain  consists  principally  of  Bass's  No.  3  ale,  Bass's 
pale  ale,  Tenants'  pale  ale,  Guineas'  stout,  and  Barclay  &  Perkins' 


372  MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

porter.  Small  quantities  of  some  other  make  are  sometimes  received. 
Importations  from  the  United  States  are  made  up  of  Milwaukee  Imperial 
lager  beer,  Bavarian  lager,  lluppert's  lager,  and  Beadleston  &  Woerz's 
beer,  with  an  occasional  consignment  of  some  other  brand. 

The  quantity  imported  in  1888,  the  last  year  I  have  statistics  for,  is 
as  follows:  From  the  United  States,  1,057  dozen  quarts,  valued  at 
$1,854.18,  all  in  bottles,  and  536  gallons  in  wood,  valued  at  $243.32; 
from  Great  Britain,  836  dozen  quarts,  in  bottles,  valued  at  $1,411.34, 
and  8,667  gallons  in  wood,  valued  at  $3,615.05. 

The  duty  charged  on  beer  is,  in  wood,  per  gallon  12  cents,  and  in 
bottles,  24  cents  per  dozen  quarts.  The  duty  is  the  same,  no  matter 
whence  the  beer  is  imported. 

Bass's  No.  3  ale  and  Barclay  &  Perkins'  stout  are  generally  imported 
in  casks  and  bottled  here,  and  sold  at  $1.20  per  dozen  pints,  or  retailed 
in  saloons  at  12  cents  per  pint.  Bass's  and  Tenant's  pale  ales  and 
Guiness'  stout  are  generally  imported  already  bottled,  and  are  sold  at 
$1.08  per  dozen  pints  and  retailed  at  15  cents  per  pint.  American  beer 
is  imported  mostly  in  bottles,  the  Milwaukee  Imperial  selling  at  $1.68 
per  dozen  pints,  Bavarian  at  $1.44,  Ruppert's  and  Beadleston  &  Woerz's 
at  $1.32  per  dozen  pints;  all  retailed  at  15  cents  per  pint. 

There  is  no  special  method  in  vogue  for  placing  beer  on  the  market. 
It  is  imported  and  sold  same  as  ordinary  merchandise. 

The  quantity  of  American  beer  sold  in  this  colony  is  gradually 
increasing,  but  at  a  very  slow  rate,  indeed,  compared  with  the  increase 
in  many  other  lines  of  goods.  The  two  principal  drawbacks  to  its  in- 
troduction are  the  price  of  the  beer  and  the  tastes  of  the  consumers. 
Dealers  say  they  can  make  a  better  profit  in  handling  British  beer  than 
our  American  production.  They  can  buy  it  cheaper  to  start  with,  and 
can  sell  it  for  as  much  when  landed.  The  rmgority  of  beer-consumers 
here  prefer  the  British,  as  it  is  stronger  and  they  like  its  flavor  bet- 
ter. They  have  always  been  used  to  it,  and  do  not  care  to  give  it 
up.  Even  at  a  greater  price  most  Englishmen  would  choose  the  Brit- 
ish beer  so  long  as  his  taste  remains  unchanged. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  beer  sold  here  is  Bass's,  imported  in  casks 
and  bottled  here.  This  is  generally  sold  at  $1.20  per  dozen  pints,  and 
sometimes  as  low  as  $1.08  per  dozen  to  retailers;  and  this  is  really  the  beer 
our  brewers  must  compete  with.  There  is  considerable  profit  in^this  to 
dealers.  It  is  asserted  by  some  that  the  beer  is  u  doctored  "  here  before 
bottling,  but  I  do  not  indorse  the  statement  nor  vouch  for  it,  although 
it  is  evident  to  any  one  that  when  it  is  imported  in  casks  there  is  an 
opportunity  for  dishonest  persons  to  tamper  with  it  to  their  own  profit. 
American  beer  must  be  sold  to  importers  here  at  such  price  as  will  en- 
able them  to  sell  it  at  from  $1.08  to  $1.20  per  dozen  pints,  and  make  as 
large  a  profit  on  it  at  that  figure  as  they  do  on  Bass's  ale.  This  has  not 
yet  been  done,  and  it  is  really  the  first  step  in  the  whole  business,  for  I 
have  no  idea  that  the  people  here  will  be  willing  to  pay  more  for 
American  beer  than  for  British. 


MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  373 

There  then  remains  the  other  objection,  viz,  the  beer- consumer's 
taste.  I  think  that  can  be  reached  better  through  the  matter  of  price 
than  in  any  other  way ;  for  if  a  beer-drinker  can  buy  his  pint  of  Ameri- 
can a  trifle  cheaper  than  his  pint  of  British,  he  will  be  likely  to  try  it? 
at  all  events,  and  may  thus  come  to  like  it. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  British  exporters  increase  their  foreign 
trade  in  all  lines  by  finding  out  just  what  their  customers  want  as  to 
quality,  style,  price,  etc.,  and  then  at  once  meeting  these  requirements, 
and  American  exporters  must  do  the  same  if  they  would  succeed. 
Now,  apply  this  principle  to  the  beer  trade.  I  do  not  believe  that  Brit- 
ish colonists  in  these  islands,  or  indeed  in  any  of  the  West  Indies,  care 
very  much  for  American  lager  beer,  and  it  will  take  much  time,  if  in- 
deed it  can  ever  be  done,  to  cultivate  amongst  them  a  preference  for 
American  lager  over  Bass's  ale.  Is  it  indeed  worth  while  to  try  ?  Is 
lager  beer  the  best  beer  for  the  tropics  ?  Is  it  not  better  adapted  to  the 
temperate  zone  ? 

Now,  would  it  not  be  more  sensible  for  our  brewers  to  manufacture 
for  the  West  Indian  trade  a  kind  of  beer  which  their  would  be  cus- 
tomers already  like  and  are  ready  and  anxious  to  buy?  Couldn't  this 
be  done  more  easily  than  to  try  to  change  the  tastes  of  whole  commu- 
nities? It  is  this  principle  of  manufacturing  and  exporting  goods  to 
suit  prevailing  tastes,  instead  of  attempting  to  change  these  habits  in 
their  customers,  that  has  made  British  foreign  trade  so  successful  the 
world  over. 

If  our  brewers  will  make  a  kind  of  beer  that  is  as  strong  and  that 
will  in  other  respects  resemble  Bass  ale  closely  and  will  furnish  the 
same  to  Bahama  importers  as  low  as  they  can  buy  the  British  ale,  they 
can  soon  supply  this  colony  and,  I  doubt  not,  the  entire  West  Indies, 
with  all  the  beer  they  care  to  consume. 

Permit  me  to  mention  an  objection  urged  against  our  lager  now 
being  imported  here,  which  is  this,  that  the  metallic  capsules  over  the 
corks  are  too  thin  for. hot  climates-  The  British  ones  are  twice  as  thick. 
When  the  covering  is  so  thin  roaches,  rats,  and  all  sorts  of  vermin, 
whose  name  is  legion,  will  gnaw  holes  in  it  to  get  at  the  glue  or  gum 
that  coats  the  top  of  the  cork.  This  gives  the  bottle  an  unsightly  and 
damaged  appearance  and  dissatisfies  a  purchaser.  The  remedy  is 
thicker  capsules,  which  should  be  attended  to. 

The  favorite  drink  of  thepeople  of  these  islands — the  masses,  I  mean — 
is  beer,  Holland  gin,  and  cheap  grades  of  Jamaica  rum.  The  gin  is  im- 
ported from  Great  Britain  and  the  rum  in  schooners  directly  from 
Jamaica,  which  carry  thither  salt  and  bring  back  sugar,  coffee,  and  rum. 

I  think  the  above  is  substantially  all  the  information  I  can  give  ou 
this  subject  which  would  be  of  benefit  to  our  brewers. 

THOS.  J.  McLAiN,  JR., 

Consul, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Nassau,  January  ±3, 1890. 
116  A 4 


374  MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

BERMUDA. 

REPORT  BT  CONSUL  BECKW1TH,  OF  HAMILTON. 
MALT. 

No  malt  is  imported  here  for  brewing  purposes,  and  no  brewing  is 
carried  on  here,  as  the  climate  does  not  admit  of  it,  the  temperature 
rarely  going  as  low  as  50°  Fahrenheit. 

BEER. 

Lager-beer  is  largely  imported  here  from  New  York.  Bass's  ale  and 
Guinness'  stout  and  porter  are  imported  here  chiefly  from  England. 
These  beers  and  ales  are  imported  both  in  bottles  and  in  wood.  Duties 
thereon  are  $4.86  per  hogshead  in  wood,  or  in  bottles  24  cents  per 
dozen  quart  bottles  or  12  cents  per  dozen  pint  bottles. 

Tbe  kinds  of  beer  and  ales  above  mentioned  appear  to  be  the  most 
suitable  and  popular  for  use  here. 

The  prices  are  as  follows:  $26.76  per  hogshead,  ale  or  stout,  hogs- 
head containing  52  to  54  gallons  (Imperial).  Beers  vary  from  $1.95, 
$2.17,  $2.29  per  dozen  quarts  bottled  according  to  quality.  Pints,  bot- 
tled, about  one-half  the  above  prices. 

No  malt  is  imported.  Imported  ales  and  beer  brought  in  wood  are 
sold  by  the  wholesale  importers  to  retail  dealers,  who  place  them  on 
the  market.  Beer  and  ales  are  placed  on  the  market  by  the  retail  dealers. 
I  am  informed  by  the  chief  dealers  that  their  profit  on  a  hogshead  of 
ale  or  stout  is  about  $2.43,  and  that  the  cause  of  the  very  low  price  of 
imported  ales  and  beers  from  Great  Britain  is  that  the  competition  be- 
tween the  brewers  who  ship  here  is  so  great  that  they  are  willing  to 
sell  for  whatever  price  their  product  will  bring. 

HENRY  W.  BECKWITH, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Hamilton,  Bermuda,  February  6,  1890. 


DOMINICA.  % 

REPORT  JBY  COSULAR  AGENT  STEDMAN. 
MALT. 

Malt  is  not  imported  into  Dominica,  there  being  no  breweries. 

BEER. 

The  malt  liquor  consumed  is  principally  Imported  from  Great  Britain, 
but  small  quantities  are  also  obtained  from  Germany,  France,  and  the 
United  States. 


MALT    AND    JiEEK    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

The  following  table  will  show  the  imports  for  1889 : 


375 


Articles. 

Whence  imported. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

United  Kingdom 

Hhds. 
52 

£.  g. 
312    0 

Barbadoes  

13 

78    0 

French  ports 

1 

6    0 

66 

396    0 

ml  ale  in  Inittlca        .   ..........  ...... 

United  Kingdom  

Dozen. 

52'i 

209    0 

Barbadoes 

5121 

205    0 

Trinidad    ... 

126 

50    8 

Leeward  Islands  

19 

7  12 

United  States 

41 

1  16 

French  ports  

10! 

4    5 

Danish  ports  . 

8 

3    4 

Germany  ...... 

167 

66  ^ 

MTOJ" 

548    1 

The  imports  from  Barbadoes,  Trinidad,  and  other  islands,  although 
classified  under  those  heads,  are  mostly  imported  from  Great  Britain 
to  these  places. 

The  light  beers  are  beginning  to  be  used  and  are  preferred  by  a  great 
many  people.  The  climate  is  not  suited  to  the  consumption  of  strong 
beers. 

A  small  quantity  of  the  Philip  Best  Brewing  Company's  Milwaukee 
export  beer  has  been  imported  and  highly  appreciated.  It  is  considered 
superior  to  the  German  lager-beer. 

Beer  in  bulk  is  the  kind  mostly  imported  by  liquor  dealers,  who  bottle 
it  for  retail  purposes.  It  is  sold  at  from  $2.50  to  $3  per  dozen  quarts, 
according  to  quality.  English  bottled  beer  sells  at  from  $3  to  $3.50^ 
There  is  no  wholesale  trade  in  beer. 

The  duty  on  beer  has  lately  been  increased  from  6d.  to  9d.  per  im- 
perial gallon,  which  has  tended  to  check  the  consumption. 

WM.  STEDMAN, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Dominica,  March  18,  1890. 


JAMAICA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ALLEN,  OF  KINGSTON. 
TVTAT/T. 

During  the  last  fiscal  year  there  was  no  malt  imported  into  the  isl- 
and of  Jamaica.  This  fact  is  developed  by  an  examination  of  the  records 
of  the  custom-house.  A  small  quantity  is  locally  prepared;  none,  how- 
ever, is  sold,  the  estimated  cost  of  production  being  $1.25  per  bushel. 
In  this  connection  I  would  state  that  during  the  same  period  above 


376  MALT    AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

mentioned  hops  were  imported  as  follows :  From  the  United  States, 
$1,641.71;  United  Kingdom,  $119.10. 

BEER. 

Under  the  general  heading  beer,  ale,  beer,  and  porter  are  embraced, 
and  no  records  are  obtainable  showing  the  amount  of  each  imported. 

Gallons. 

United  Kingdom 186.537.1 

United  States 11,082 

Other  foreign  states 229.6 


Total 197,848.7 

Beer  from  the  United  States  is  imported  in  pint  and  quart  glass  bottles ; 
from  the  United  Kingdom,  small  importations  in  casks,  the  greater  por- 
tion being,  however,  in  pint  and  quart  glass  bottles;  other  foreign 
states,  in  glass  pint  bottles.  Duties,  12  cents  per  gallon. 

The  variety  known  in  the  United  States  as  lager  beer. 

Prices  as  follows:  Barrels  of  10  dozen  pints,  $12.50;  barrels  of  6 
dozen  quarts,  $12.  Domestic  beer:  In  casks,  30  cents  per  gallon;  in 
pints,  35  cents  per  dozen. 

.Retail  prices  foreign  beer,  as  follows  :  Pints,  12  and  15 cents;  quarts, 
18  cents ;  domestic,  9  cents,  pints. 

Beer  from  the  United  Kingdom  is  usually  sold  on  consignment,  while 
that  from  the  United  States,  as  a  rule,  is  imported  direct  by  the  dealers 
here,  either  through  their  agents  in  the  United  States  or  purchased  from 
the  brewers  themselves,  and  is  sold  by  merchants  to  dealers  in  packages 
containing  10  dozen  each.  Packages  containing  10  dozen  pints  are 
most  convenient  for  this  market. 

About  one  year  ago  an  American  firm  started  a  beer  depot  here, 
importing  lager-beer  from  the  United  States  in  pipes  of  190  gallons 
each.  This  beer  was  bottled  at  the  depot  in  this  city  and  sold  at  the 
rate  of  $1  per  dozen  pints. 

The  business  of  this  firm  was  short-lived,  owing,  I  think,  to  bad  man- 
agement principally.  The  demand  for  American  lager-beer  is  steadily 
increasing  throughout  the  island  of  Jamaica. 

The  light  and  sparkling  appearance  of  the  lager  without  the  bitter- 
ness, together  with  the  neat  appearance  of  the  bottles,  makes  this  beer 
a  general  favorite. 

Recently  a  formidable  competitor  to  the  American  lager-beer  has  ap- 
peared in  the  market  in  the  firm  of  Tennant,  of  England.  This  com- 
pany has  commenced  the  brewing  of  lager- beer  and  has  recently  sent 
a  large  consignment  to  this  market  for  trial,  which  was,  in  my  judg- 
ment, inferior  to  the  best  American  lager  in  color  and  quality  and  is  not 
so  pleasing  to  the  taste,  but  by  reason  of  the  reputation  of  this  firm  as 
ale  brewers  their  lager  will,  at  least  for  a  time,  find  sale.  Tbis  beer  is 
sold  at  about  the  same  price  as  that  charged  for  American  lager. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  statistics  of  importations  from  the 


MALT    AND    BEER    IX    SPANISH    AMERICA.  377 

United  States  as  given  ;il>ove  apply  exclusively  to  lager-beer,  while 
those  from  the  United  Kingdom  refer  almost  entirely  to  ale  and  porter. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  by  far  the  greatest  quantity  of  beer  consumed 
in  this  island  is  of  American  brewing. 

In  my  report  to  the  Department  concerning  the  Jamaica  Exhibition 
it  will  be  noticed  that  1  have  recommended  that  exhibits  of  lager-beer 
be  made.  Such  an  exhibit  will  be  calculated  to  materially  increase  a 
a  demand  for  American  lager. 

W.  G.  ALLEN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  February  7, 1890. 


MONTSERRAT. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  HANNAH. 
MALT. 

No  malt  is  ever,  or,  so  far  as  I  am  able  to  ascertain,  has  ever  been,  im- 
ported into  this  island. 

BEER. 

I  find  that  the  average  importation  of  beer  for  the  past  three  years 
has  amounted  to  about  1,000  gallons  per  annum,  all  from  the  United 
Kingdom,  either  direct  or  through  one  of  the  neighboring  British  West 
India  Islands. 

Of  the  above  quantity  about  220  gallons  would  be  in  English  reputed 
quarts,  about  360  gallons  in  reputed  pints,  and  the  remaining  420  gal- 
lons in  bulk,  the  latter  being  bottled  here  before  offered  for  sale. 

The  duties  charged  here  are  12  cents  per  dozen  quarts,  6  cents  per 
dozen  pints,  and  $2.80  per  hogshead  of  50  gallons. 

The  kinds  of  beer  imported  are  English  pale  ale  and  brown  beer  or 
stout,  in  proportions  of  about  two-thirds  of  the  former  to  one-third  of 
the  latter.  Some  small  quantities  of  lager-beer  have  been  introduced, 
but  this  does  not  find' much  favor  with  consumers. 

The  wholesale  cost  of  beer  at  port  of  shipment  averages  about  $1.G8 
per  dozen  quarts,  $1  per  dozen  pints,  and  40  cents  per  gallon  in  bulk, 
and  the  retail  prices  here  are  from  20  cents  to  24  cents  per  quart  and 
12  cents  per  pint  bottle. 

I  am  of  opinion  that  the  consumption  of  beer  is  on  the  decrease,  and 
this  decrease  I  attribute  in  a  great  measure  to  increase  in  consumption 
of  cheap  wine,  as  well  as  to  a  general  feeling  that  beer  is  an  expensive 
drink  and  not  well  suited  to  the  climatic  conditions  of  health. 

RICHARD  HANNAM, 

Consular  Agent, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Monteerrat,  March  1!»,  1890. 


378  MALT   AND    BEER   IN    .SPANISH    AMERICA. 

NEVIS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  A  OH  NT  SIMMONDS. 

Malt  liquors  are  not  much  consumed  in  this  district.  The  original  im- 
portation takes  place  at  St.  Christopher's  (the  head  of  the  Presidency) 
and  shipped  to  this  place  coastwise  in  small  lots.  It  is  generally  im- 
ported in  hogsheads  of  54  Imperial  gallons  (on  which  there  is  an  import 
duty  of  $2  per  hogshead  and  sold  for  $20)  and  in  bottles  packed  in 
barrels  and  cases  of  4  dozen  quarts  and  8  dozen  pints,  on  which  there 
is  an  import  duty  12  cents  per  dozen  quarts  and  sold  for  $7,  subject 
to  a  slight  fluctuation.  English  bottled  beer  has  hitherto  been  most 
used,  though  there  is  sale  for  foreign  lager-beer.  German  brands  of 
lager-beer  have  hitherto  been  most  used. 

I  believe  that  American  brewed  beer  could  be  placed  on  the  market 
in  the  manner  I  have  already  described  with  successful  results. 

CHAS.  H.  SIMMONDS, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

N&cis,  March  19,  1890. 


TRINIDAD. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SAWYER. 
MALT. 

No  malt  is  imported,  the  climate  not  permitting  brewing. 

BEER. 

Malt  liquors  are  chiefly  imported  in  barrels  and  cases,  each  contain- 
ing 7  dozen  pints  and  4  dozen  quarts.  Lager-beers  are  rapidly  driving 
the  heavy  English  ales  out  of  the  market.  Hitherto  the  German 
lagers  have  been  monopolizing  the  Trinidad  market,  but  the  English 
brewersj  being  fully  alive  to  the  situation,  are  erecting  lager-beer  fac- 
tories in  England  and  Scotland,  and  within  the  past  few  months  some 
shipments  of  English  brewed  lager  from  the  firm  of  Messrs.1!.  &  B. 
Teunaiit  have  been  received  here  and  the  beer,  being  of  Al  quality,  has 
had  great  success. 

Heavy  stouts,  such  as  Guinness's  Dublin,  are  found  too  heavy  and 
also  too  expensive  for  the  Trinidad  trade,  but  a  large  business  is  done 
in  cheaper  stouts,  brewed  chiefly  in  Scotland. 

Consumption  of  stout  in  Trinidad  is  about  2,500  barrels  per  month 
and  of  lager-beer  about  1,000  to  1,200  cases.  Prices  range  from  $6.50 
to  $6  per  7  dozen  pints,  both  stout  and  lager-beer  ;  $6  to  $5.50  per  4 
dozen  quarts  lager-beer  and  stout. 


MALT    AXD    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  370 

Malt  liquor  in  wood  is  also  imported,  but  the  quantity  is  small  and 
prices  obtained  very  low  and  unprofitable.  Import  duty,  Is.  per  dozen 
quart  bottles,  Orf.  per  gallon  in  wood.  Malt  liquors  are  chiefly  handled 
by  commission  agents,  who  are  paid  a  percentage  on  sales  made. 
Sales  are  made  at  three  months. 

Trial  imports  of  lager-beer  from  the  brewery  of ,  in  the  United 

States,  have  been  made  at  Trinidad  and  have  proved  a  failure,  in  so  much 
that  the  same  had  to  be  sold  at  the  low  rate  of  80  cents  per  dozen  for 
barrels  containing  10  dozen  pints.  Small  kegs  of  fresh  lager,  contam: 
ing  about  6  gallons,  are  usually  imported  from  Boston  by  the  im- 
porters of  ice  at  an  average  of  about  150  kegs  per  year;  value,  $6  per 
ke.u'.  These  kegs  when  empty  are  returned  to  Boston  to  be  refilled. 

MOSES  H.  SAWYER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Trinidad,  January  30,  1890. 


DANISH  WEST  INDIES. 

ST.  THOMAS. 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL  TURNER,  OF  ST.  THOMAS. 
BEER. 

Beer  imported  into  this  colony  is  brought  from  Denmark,  mostly.  a> 
the  following,  taken  from  the  import  statistics  for  the  year  ended  March 
31,  1889,  will  show:  Value  of  beer  imported  from  Denmark,  $11,465  ; 
Great  Britain,  $3,466;  Germany,  $1,752;  United  States,  $1,138;  Can- 
ada, - 

Danish  beer  sells  here  for  $1.75  per  dozen  quart  bottles,  which  is  a 
reduction  of  the  former  price,  and  the  American  beer  for  $1.87 J.  The 
former  is  strongly  impregnated  with  alcohol,  made  so  for  this  climate 
especially,  and  is  of  the  brand  known  as  Carlsberg.  The  American 
article  is  of  a  lighter  quality. 

I  am  reliably  informed  that  the  proprietors  of  the  Carlsberg  brew- 
eries are  ready  for  a  still  further  reduction  in  price  in  order  to  hold  the 
trade. 

The  amount  imported  into  Santa  Cruz  is  as  follows :  From  Denmark, 
$7,751 ;  from  the  United  States  and  other  countries,  $717.  The  duty 
is  12£  per  cent,  ad  valorem.  In  that  island  Carlsberg  beer  has  been 
universally  preferred,  but  a  lighter  and  cheaper  beer,  known  as  Tuborg, 
is  fast  becoming  a  favorite.  Carlsberg  costs  $8.20  per  barrel  of  four 
dozen  quart  bottles,  and  retails  at  25  cents  per  bottle.  The  American 
beer  imported  is  of  Philadelphia  and  Milwaukee  brands,  but  very  little 
is  brought  in.  It  sells  for  L^  cents  per  bottle.  Besides  the  above  men- 


380  MALT   AND   BEER   IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

tioned  there  are  two  cheap  brands  imported  in  barrels  in  bulk  from 
Denmark,  viz,  Kongun  and  Aldersro. 

MORTIMER  A.  TURNER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

8t.  Thomas,  March  1, 1890. 


DUTCH  WEST  INDIES. 
CURA90A. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SMITH. 

Very  little  malt  is  imported  here.  Nearly  all  the  beer  used  is  made 
in  Germany.  It  is  put  up  in  bottles.  The  quantity  of  beer  imported 
into  Curagoa  can  not  be  ascertained.  The  import  duty  is  1J  per  cent, 
on  the  invoice  value.  The  average  price  at  which  beer  is  sold  is  about 
$1.50  per  dozen  small  bottles. 

L.  B.  SMITH, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Cura$oa,  January  28,  1890. 


FRENCH  WEST  INDIES. 
GUADELOUPE. 

•         REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BARTLETT. 
MALT. 

There  is  no  beer  brewed  in  Guadeloupe ;  therefore  there  is  no  malt 
import. 

BEER. 

There  was  imported  from  the  United  States,  in  the  year  ended  De- 
cember 31,  1889,  247  barrels  of  bottled  beer,  besides  a  few  smaft  kegs 
imported  in  the  ice  vessel.  There  was  imported  from  France,  also, 
about  the  same  quantity  of  bottled  beer,  put  up  in  baskets  of  one  dozen 
bottles,  each  bottle  containing  one  quart. 

There  was  also,  from  London,  one  small  invoice  of  bottled  beer,  in 
cases  of  six  dozen  pint  bottles,  marked  "  Tottenham  export  Pilsener 
beer,"  which,  I  think,  does  not  take  here,  as  the  consignee  has  a  large 
portion  of  that  invoice  on  hand  at  present. 

The  American  lager  beer  has  a  preference  over  all  others. 


MALT   AND   BEER    IN   SPANISH   AMERICA.  381 

The  price  at  wholesale  of  American  la^er  beer  is  (30  francs  =  $11.58 
per  barrel,  and  the  retail  price  is  50  centimes  —  $0:9.65  for  n  pint,  and  1 
I'm  no  =  19.3  cents  for^a  quart. 

The  wholesale  price  of  beer  from  France  is  from  7  to  8  francs  =  $1. .">."> 
to  $1.54  per  basket  of  a  dozen  quart  bottles ;  the  retail  price  is  1  franc  = 
19.3  cents  per  bottle. 

The  duties  on  imported  beer  are  7  francs  =  $1.35  per  hectoliter. 

Imported  beer  is  sold  by  the  importers  to  jobbers  and  by  the  jobbers 
to  retailers,  but  I  will  observe  that  the  French  people  of  this  colony  are 
not  great  beer  drinkers  j  in  consequence  the  consumption  thereof  is  very 
small. 

CHARLES  BARTLETT, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Guadeloupe,  February  20,  1890. 


MARTINIQUE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GARESCRti. 

I  have  the  honor  to  report  that,  after  correspondence  with  the  French 
officials  here,  it  is  impossible  for  me,  as  yet,  to  give  statistics  of  the  im- 
portation of  beer  to  this  colony  during  the  year  1889.  In  a  final  letter 
of  the  17th  of  March,  Mr.  Ch.  De  Solms  regrets  his  inability  to  give  me, 
as  chief  of  the  custom-house  service,  the  information  I  have  called  for, 
but  tells  me  that  in  the  year  1888  72,379  liters  of  beer  from  France  and 
29,948  liters  from  other  than  French  countries  were  imported  here. 

Xo  records  are  kept  of  the  countries  from  which  the  latter  importa- 
tions are  made,  but  inquiries  made  by  me  of  the  mercantile  community 
justify  me  in  saying  that  they  are  almost  exclusively  American  in  pro- 
duction, and  that  all  beers  are  received  here  in  bottles  packed  in  casks 
or  hogsheads,  the  lighter  kinds  of  beer  being  most  suitable  to  the  Creole 
palate.  Lager  beer  in  kegs  pays  a  duty  of  3.20  francs ;  in  bottles  a  duty 
of  4.30  francs  per  hectoliter,  equivalent  to  about  22  gallons. 

WM.  A.  GARESCHE, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Martinique,  March  18,  1890. 


382  MALT   AND    BEER    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

SPANISH  WEST  INQIES. 
CUBA. 

BARACOA. 

REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  PRYOR. 
MALT. 

There  is  no  malt  imported  into  or  used  in  this  district. 

BEER. 

All  of  the  beer  consumed  in  this  district  is  shipped  here  from  Havana 
and  Santiago  de  Cuba. 

There  is  but  two  kinds  of  beer  handled  here.  Kobert  Younger's  pale 
ale,  in  earthen  pint  bottles,  is  the  only  brand  that  is  consumed  here  to 
any  extent.  All  brewers  and  dealers  in  beer  of  the  United  States  know 
the  quality  of  this  ale ;  it  is  very  heavy,  and  the  dealers  here  say  that 
it  is  not  so  well  suited  to  this  trade  as  some  of  the  lighter  American 
beers,  but  is  handled  in  preference  to  American  beer  because  it  is 
cheaper;  it  is  delivered  at  Baracoa  for  $1.95  per  dozen  pints,  and  retails 
here  at  23  cents  per  pint. 

There  is  a  small  quantity  of  German  beer  consumed  here,  Salvator 
Bier,  in  glass  pint  bottles.  This  is  lighter  and  better  than  the  pale  ale 
but  is  too  expensive  for  this  market ;  it  costs,  delivered  in  Baracoa,  $2.55 
per  dozen  pints,  and  retails  at  28  cents  per  pint,  but  there  is  so  little  of 
this  brand  used  here  that  it  is  hardly  worth  mentioning. 

I  know  of  a  small  shipment  of  Milwaukee  beer  that  was  made  to  this 
port  several  mouths  ago  from  New  York.  It  cost  in  Baracoa,  duties 
and  freight  paid,  $2.07  per  dozen  pints,  and  was  retailed  at  the  same 
price  that  the  English  ale  sells  for.  The  dealer  did  not  renew  his  order 
on  account  of  the  difference  in  the  price  of  it  and  the  English  ale,  but 
says  that  he  would  handle  it  in  preference  to  the  English  ale  if  he  could 
get  it  as  cheap. 

The  duty  on  beer  is  84  cents  per  dozen  pints. 

The  imputation  of  this  district  is  18,000,  the  annual  consumption  of 
beer  is  about  18,40ft  dozen  pints. 

There  are  several  importers  and  merchants  here  who  I  think  would 
handle  American  beers  on  commission  if  they  could  get  it  at  prices  that 
would  enable  them  to  place  it  upon  the  market  at  the  same  price  or  a 
little  cheaper  than  the  English  ale  is  sold  for.  If  this  could  be  done  I 
am  sure  that  the  American  beer  would  displace  the  beer  that  is  now 
consumed  here,  and  the  trade  would  increase. 

HENRY  -Gr.  PRYOR, 

Commercial  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  COMMERCIAL  AGENCY, 

Raracoa,  February  S.  1S90. 


MALT    AND    IJEEtt    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 


383 


CIENFUEGOS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  EHNINQER. 

BEER. 


No  malt  is  imported  into  this  consular  district. 
Imports  of  beer  and  whence  imported  during  the  year  1888  were  as 
follows : 


Mouth. 

Country. 

Port. 

Liters. 

Quarts. 

United  States 

New  York 

90 

93 

Great  Britain 

Liverpool  

2  700 

2,781 

750 

77" 

Great  Britain 

Glasgow  

5,  100 

5,253 

March 

360 

371 

Great  Britain 

Glasgow 

3,050' 

3,  142 

April... 

Mav 

....do  

Belgium 

Liverpool  
Antwerp    . 

1,800 
3  450 

1,854 
3  554 

Great  Britain 

3  500 

3  605 

Bremen 

1  600 

1  648 

Great  Britain 

Glasgow  

7,425 

7,648 

July 

United  States  
Great  Britain 

New  York  
Liverpool 

135 
17,000 

139 
17,  510 

Alienist  

Unhed  States  

New  York  

45 

46 

Great  Britain 

Glasgow..  

18  585 

19,  142 

do 

Liverpool 

0  775 

G  978 

October 

United  States 

New  York  .  . 

450 

403 

3  360 

15  4(51 

United  States 

New  York 

144 

148 

Dscember       .  .             .                       .... 

Great  Britain  .... 

Glasgow  

6,300 

6,489 

United  States 

New  York 

180 

185 

Total 

82  799 

85  282 

XOTE.— In  bottles  only;  none  imported  in  the  wood. 

From  the  foregoing  statement  it  will  be  seen  that  74,402  quarts,  or  S7 
per  cent,  of  the  total  importation  for  1888,  came  from  Great  Britian  via 
( 1  lasgo  w  and  Liverpool.  This  was  almost  entirely  from  Teiiuant  &  ( 'o.'s 
Well  Park  Brewery,  Glasgow,  and  is  imported  in  casks  of  10  dozen 
pint  bottles,  and  cost  here  .$4,  Spanish  money,  per  dozen  quarts. 
.Next  in  order,  constituting  11  per  cent,  of  the  importation,  is  the  Her- 
man product,  from  the  Salvator  brewery,  located  in  Bremen.  This 
sells  a  little  higher  than  the  Scotch  beer;  say  $5  Spanish  money,  per 
dozen  quarts,  or  two  dozen  pints.  Last  of  all,  and  composing  2  per 
cent,  of  the  importation  of  1888,  comes  the  lager  beer  from  the  United 
States,  principally  from  Milwaukee,  and  the  Anheuser-Busch  brew- 
ery ;  this  retails  at  about  the  same  price  as  the  Salvator  beer. 

During  the  past  year  I  have  noted  in  the  coffee-houses  lager  beer 
from  the  the  Empire  Brewery  of  New  York,  which  seems  to  have 
some  sale,  although  the  high  price,  30  cents,  silver,  per  pint  bottle, 
makes  it  rather  a  costly  luxiuy. 


384  MALT   AND   BEER   IN    SPANISH   AMERICA. 

Duties  and  cost  of  a  cask  of  10  dozen  pints. 

Custom-house  duties,  $10  Spanish,  equivalent  to *f>9. 32 

Freight  from  New  York,  per  Ward  Line  steam-ships 1. 45 

Cartage,  etc 30 


Total  expenses 11.  07 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  duties  are  nearly  prohibitive. 

HENRY  A.  EHNINGER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Cienfuegos,  February  24,  1890. 


HAVANA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL   WILLIAMS. 
MALT. 

There  is  but  one  local  brewery  in  Havana,  and  its  production  is  esti- 
mated at  about  3,500  barrels  a  year.  As  I  am  informed,  this  brewery 
imports  its  malt  from  Liverpool  at  a  cost  of  about  40s.  the  336  pounds. 

The  duties  on  malt  at  the  custom-house  here  are  $1.05  the  100  kilo- 
grams (220  pounds)  and  25  per  cent,  additional.  The  production  of  this 
brewery  sells  at  an  average  of  $10  per  barrel. 

BEER. 

The  principal  importations  of  beer  are  from  England,  Scotland,  Ger- 
many, and  the  United  States.  It  is  generally  imported  bottled,  in  casks 
of  7  to  8  dozen  pints. 

Lager  beer,  to  the  extent  of  about  400  kegs  a  month,  is  also  imported 
from  New  York,  and  has  a  ready  consumption. 

Duties  here  on  ale  and  porter  are,  in  wooden  packages,  $3.65  per  100 
liters  (nearly  26  J  gallons)  5  in  bottles,  $8.35  per  100  liters. 

The  following  are  the  latest  market  quotations  of  price,  taken  from 
Spencer's  Weekly  Eeport :  $4.50  to  $4.75  per  dozen  bottles  for  Ten- 
11  ant,  and  $12  to  $12.75  per  barrel  for  Globe  and  Younger  marks,  in 
quart  bottles. 

The  same  publication  gives  the  following  as  imports  for  1889 : 

From  the  United  States,  297  boxes ;  209  barrels ;  2,611  casks. 

From  Europe,  3,331  boxes ;  5,532  barrels  5  12,268  casks. 

EAMON  O.  WILLIAMS, 

Consul- General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Havana,  January  23,  1890. 

"United  States  currency. 


MALT    AND    HKKIi    IN    SPANISH    AMEKICA.  385 

SAGUA  LA  GRANDE. 

REPORT  £T  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  MULLEN, 
MALT. 

Noiinportatiou  of  malt  of  any  kind  is  made,  nor  is  malt  of  any  kind 
prepared  at  this  port. 

BEER. 

Direct  importation  of  beer  is  made  from  England  by  but  one  firm,  who 
imports  monthly  seventy-five  barrels.  Other  firms  bring  from  Havana 
some  125  barrels,  making  a  total  consumption  of  about  200  barrels  per 
mouth,  or  16,800  half  bottles.  All  of  the  aforementioned  beer  comes  in 
stone  bottles  from  the  Well  Park  Brewery  of  J.  E.  Tennant,  England. 
This  beer  is  sold  at  wholesale  at  $14.  per  barrel,  Spanish  gold,  or 
£12.90  United  States  currency,  and  retailed  at  25  cents  per  half  bottle, 
or  $21  Spanish  gold,  or  $19.45  United  States  currency. 

For  a  great  number  of  years  this  beer  was  the  only  one  known  or 
used ;  but  of  late  years  American  lager  beer  has  found  great  favor  with 
the  public,  and  is  fast  taking  the  place  of  English  beer. 

Lager  is  imported  directly  from  the  United  States  but  by  one  firm, 
who  imports  monthly  from  20  to  25  barrels,  each  barrel  containing  ten 
dozen  half  bottles.  An  additional  five  barrels  are  brought  from 
Havana,  making  a  monthly  consumption  of  some  thirty  barrels,  or 
3,000  half  bottles. 

The  cost  per  barrel  of  ten  dozen  half- bottles  at  wholesale  is  $17  Span- 
ish gold  or  $15.74  United  States  currency,  and  retailed  at  20  cents  per 
bottle  ($24  Spanish  gold  per  barrel  or  $22.27  United  States  currency). 

The  duties  on  beer  of  all  kinds  is  as  follows : 

If  imported  in  wood,  for  each  hectoliter $3.  65 

25  per  cent,  war  tax 91 


Total 4.56 

Less  5  per  cent 23 

Net  total  -. 4.33 

A  local  tax  of  $2.50  per  each  hectoliter 2.50 

Total  (Spanish  £old) 6.83 

Total  (United  States  currency) 6.  32 

If  imported  iu  glass  or  stone,  for  each  hectoliter 8.35 


•J.")  per  cent,  war  tax  2.09 

10.44 
>  per  cent 52 


Total «j.  92 

A  local  tax  of  $3.75  per  each  hectoliter  3.75 

Spanish  -,,1,1 1:{.67 

L'jiited  States  currency 12.65 


386  MALT    AND    BEEK    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA. 

The  approximate  duty  on  one  dozen  half-bottles  is  85  cents  United 
States  currency. 

CONSUMPTION. 

The  beer  most  suitable  for  local  consumption  must  be  of  a  light  amber 
color 5  it  must  also  be  of  light  body  and  bottled  in  clear  glass  bottles. 
The  label  on  the  bottle  forms  a  very  important  feature  in  its  sale. 

A  label  containing  some  striking  feature  that  takes  the  eye  and  is 
easily  remembered  becomes  popular  and  is  called  for  by  the  label,  the 
name  of  brewer  being  ignored.  Beer  of  a  medium  brand  bottled  as 
above  directed  would  find  a  better  sale  than  beer  of  a  first-class  quality 
bottled  in  dark  glass  bottles  and  poorly  labeled. 

D.  M.  MULLEN, 

Commercial  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  COMMERCIAL  AGENCY, 

Sagua  la  Grande  February  10,  1890. 


SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  REULER. 

Until  a  few  years  ago,  no  American  beer  found  a  market  in  this  con- 
sular district,  and  even  now  (and  that  after  considerable  trouble)  only 
one  firm  of  manufacturers,  Beadleston  &  Woerz,  of  New  York,  sell  their 
beer,  Imperial  and  Culmbacher  brands,  and  beer  in  kegs,  to  the  largest 
restaurant  here. 

To  arrive  at  approximate  statistics  of  the  actual  consumption  of 
beer  in  this  jurisdiction,  the  writer  has  interviewed  the  importers  here, 
and  has  also  secured  statistics  of  imports  from  the  custom-house  of 
this  city. 

The  custom-house  states  that  during  1889  there  were  imported  from — 

New  York :  Liters. 

In  pint  bottles 5,094 

In  kegs 892 

Total    5,986 

Liverpool,  in  pint  bottles 86,280$ 

Bremen,  in  pint  bottles ... 4, 353 

Havre,  in  pint  bottles *  1,650 

Total 98,269$ 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  how  much  of  the  importation  from  Liver- 
pool is  English  ale,  and  how  much  is  Salvador  beer  (German),  as  all 
beer  from  Europe  is  shipped  from  Liverpool  here  in  Spanish  steamers. 

The  Spanish  customs  tariff,  sections  8  and  9,  imposes  the  following 
duty  on  beer : 

SKC.  8.  Beer  and  porter  in  the  wood  (the  capacity  of  the  keg,  51  centimeters 
high,  31  centimeters  in  diameter  at  the  heads,  even  should  it  contain  31  liters  or  32, 


MALT    AND    BEKR    IN    SPANISH    AMERICA.  387 

is  supposed  to  contain  only  '29  liters  of  beer,  owing  to  the  fact  that  space  must  be  left 
for  the  exclusion  of  gases)  pays  per  keg :  Spanish  production,  $1.1575  ;  foreign  pro- 
duction, $:t.37lW,  United  States  currency. 

SKC.  9.  Beer  in  bottles,  glass,  or  stone  (in  addition  to  the  number  of  liters,  the  num- 
ber of  bottles  or  half-bottles  must  be  stated  in  the  custom-house  entry),  Spanish  pro- 
duction, per  barrel  of,  say,  10  dozen  pints,  one-half  liters,  $2.6854  ;  foreign  production, 
per  barrel  of,  say,  10  dozen  pints,  one-half  liters,  $7.7321,  United  States  currency. 

To  both  these  sections  25  per  cent.,  less  5  per  cent.,  must  be  added  to 
the  duties  and  port  charges,  atthe  rate  of  $0.926  United  States  currency, 
per  1,000  kilos  weight. 

Internal-revenue  tax  amounts  to  10 J  cents  Spanish,  or  $0.09723  per 
liter. 

Beadleston  and  Woerz  American  beer  is  sold  here,  retail  on  draught, 
at  10  cents  a  glass,  and  per  bottle  at  30  cents  Spanish  gold. 

The  consumption  amounts  to  about  20  to  25  kegs,  of  8£  gallons,  per 
year,  and  100  barrels  of  bottled  beer  in  pints  during  the  same  period. 

It  is  my  opinion  that  great  impetus  could  be  given  this  trade  by  our 
manufacturers  making  small  trial  shipments  free  of  charge,  and  adver- 
tising extensively  through  the  country  and  towns.  The  English  bitter 
beer  has  the  largest  sale  and  is  largely  consumed.  The  American  beer 
sells  at  30  cents  a  bottle,  the  English  at  20  cents.  As  very  little  ice  is 
consumed  in  this  city  and  none  whatever  in  the  country,  the  stronger 
English  bitter  beer  is  preferred  by  the  people  of  this  province,  both  for 
its  cheapness  and  for  the  longer  time  it  retains  its  force.  Our  beer 
manufactured  at  home  is  greatly  superior  to  English  and  German 
brands,  and  with  the  enormous  advantages  we  enjoy,  our  close  proxim- 
ity to  these  shores,  and  consequent  cheaper  ocean  freights,  there  is  in  the 
writer's  opinion  no  reason  why  we  can  not  undersell  and  drive  all  other 
competitors  from  the  field. 

As  to  consumption  of  beer,  importers  give  the  writer  the  following 
figures,  for  whose  correctness  we  can  not  vouch : 

Liters. 

American  brands,  principally  Beadlctson  and  Woerz,  and  a  few  cases  of  Mil- 
waukee beer,  say,  per  annum 6,  000 

Tennant's  and  Gounger's  English  bitter  beer,  per  annum,  about 10,800 

Salvator  Bremen  beer  (German;,  per  annum,  about 6,000 


Total 22,bOO 

Selling  prices  of  American  brands  are  about  $2.50  Spanish,  or  $2.315 
United  States  currency,  per  dozen  pints. 

Tennant's  and  Gounger's  bitter  beer,  $20.50  Spanish,  or  $18.5663 
United  States  currency,  per  case  of  10  dozen  pints,  one-half  liters. 

Bremen  Salvator  beer  sells  at  $18.25  Spanish  gold,  or  $16.8995 
United  States  currency,  per  case  of  8J  dozen  pints.  Other  brands  of 
English  ales  and  beers,  such  as  Tottenham  brewery,  Adjutant  brand, 
Bull  Dog  brand,  etc..  have  been  received  in  small  consignments,  but, 
owing  to  their  higher  prices,  have  found  no  sale.  It  will  take  a  good 


388  MALT   AND    BEEK    IN    SPANISH   AMERICA. 

deal  of  advertising  and  expense  to  supplant  Tennantfs  bitter  beer  in  this 
province,  which  beer  is  also  solely  consumed  in  Guantanamo,  Manza- 
nillo,  and  Santa  Cruz. 

OTTO  E.  KEIMER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE. 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  February  1,  1890. 


SAN  DOMINGO. 

PUERTA  PLATA. 

EXPORT  BY  CONSUL  SIMPSON. 

MALT. 

No  malt  is  imported  into  this  district,  nor  is  any  beer  made  here. 

BEER. 

The  imports  of  beer  during  1889  were  14,904  dozens  half  bottles,  and 
the  value  (custom-house)  $10,583.59.  The  duties  amounted  to  $5,503.16, 
or  52  per  cent.  With  the  exception  of  some  200  dozelis  from  the  United 
States,  and  a  smaller  quantity  from  Norway,  the  entire  amount  was  re- 
ceived from  Germany. 

All  beer  is  imported  in  cases,  generally  of  3  dozen  half  bottles, 
that  from  Germany  costing  about  $5.17,  Mexican  duties  paid,  per  case 
(depending  on  exchange)  and  from  the  United  States  20  cents  per  dozen 
half  bottles  more.  It  is  sold  at  wholesale  from  $5.50  to  $5.78  per  case, 
and  retails  for  $2  per  dozen. 

There  are  a  number  of  different  brands  imported  from  Germany,  but 
the  one  most  favorably  received  is  labeled  with  a  long  T.  Parties  who 
have  received  the  article  from  the  United  States  complain  that  in  one 
or  two  months7  time  it  is  entirely  unfit  for  use,  while  that  from  Germany 
keeps  for  years.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  greater  amount  of  alcohol 
contained  in  the  latter. 

Beer,  to  meet  a  ready  sale  in  this  market,  must  be  strong  and  well 
bottled  or  it  will  not  keep,  % 

The  beer  manufactured  in  the  United  States  is  undoubtedly  su- 
perior in  quality  to  any  other  imported  here,  but  it  is  useless  to  expect 
people  to  drink  an  article  that  they  know  nothing  about,  when  they  are 
getting  one  that  suits  them.  I  would  suggest  that  if  any  manufacturers 
consider  the  trade  of  this  district  worth  looking  after,  that  they  procure 
a  sample  of  the  kind  most  in  demand,  analyze  it,  and  see  if  it  will  pay 
to  make. 

THOS.  SIMPSON, 
Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE. 

Puerto  Plata,  March  9,  1890. 


MALT   AND   BEER   IN   SPANISH   AMERICA. 


389 


SUPPLEMENT. 

Statement  showing  the  export*  of  American  leer  and  hops,  by  countries,  during  the  year  1883. 


Countries  to  which  exported. 

Malt  liquors. 

Hops. 

In  bottles. 

Not  in  bottles. 

Dozens 
3,244 

Dollars 
5,978 

Gallons 

DoUan 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

46 

41 

7,443 
11,392 
11,213 
9,659 
13,  417 
16,037 
655 
106 

1  1,  169 
17,  478 
13,  558 
14,488 
17,  847 
17,806 
1,314 
204 

Central  American  States  •  Costa  Rica...  ...... 

10,348 
7,962 
69 
160 
740 
150 
1,543 

2,158 
1,139 
9 
30 
139 
36 
258 

Guatemala  

Honduras    .      .  . 

Nicaragua  
San  Salvador   ...... 

50 

9 

CDJli                                                

China              

265 

496 

100 

13 

Greenland  Iceland,  and  Faroe  Islands  

345 
784 
2,952 
685 
287 

668 
1,540 
5,741 
1,073 
443 

2,665 

533 

1,650 
3,79d 

425 
1,071 

50 

n 

Miquelon,  Langley,  and  Saint  Pierre  Islands..  . 

3,445 

1,136 

Frenc  h  Possessions  in  Africa  and  adjacent  isl'ds. 

80 
2,094 
768 
690 
92 

88 
2,339 
1,386 
1,344 
200 

390 
4,377 
11,  386,  087 
469,  073 

38 
1,510 
2,570,562 
106,  854 

80 

20 

Scotland                                       

Gibraltar   

Nova  Scotia,  N.Brunswick,  and  Pr.  Edward  Isl'd 
Quebec,  Ontario,  Manitoba,  and  the  N.  W.  Ter.  . 
British  Columbia             

187 
6,269 
7,343 

347 
7,470 
9,013 

7,918 
32,  282 
10,384 

1,885 
6,503 
3,311 

20,047 
282,076 
134,746 
8,780 
14,165 

2,664 
58,899 
34,496 
792 
2,434 

"Newfoundland  and  Labrador  

British  West  Indies     

6,840 
210 
2,984 
1,445 
622 
111 
48,512 

12,666 
415 
4,851 
2,927 
733 
218 
84,877 

8,640 

3,199 

British  Honduras          .  .....        .     .....  ..  . 

35 
36,639 
1,  872 

6 
7,387 
239 

75 

27 

British  Possessions  in  Africa  and  adjacent  ial'ds. 
British  Possessions  in  Australasia 

159,  744 

25,  376 

British  Possessions,  all  other  

Hawaiian  Islands                 ......    ........... 

41,  457 
8,660 

47,092 
15,771 

21,562 

7,162 

3,230 
512 

399 
115 

Havti               

Italy---                        

260 
47 
105,940 
361 
4,710 
250 
586 
640 

371 
95 
65,700 
704 
8,932 
527 
971 
831 

27 

9 

18,068 

2,  721  t 

Liberia                                          ..  ... 

MEXICO                                                                             r--   w--r»»»- 

42,688 

16,358 

e,5» 

1,222 
10 

Dutch  West  Indies 

Dutch  Guiana        

Peru                                

Azore,  Madeira,  and  Cape  Verde  Islands  

Russia,  Asiatic'              ^ 

882 
549 

126 

100 

4,450 
10 
6.542 
3,586 
536 
2 
21,067 
1  795 

7,493 
23 
11,834 
6,382 
1,034 
5 
34,445 
3  317 

Spain 

Cuba 

29,959 

7,478 

2,107 
2,810 

394 
391 

Porto  Rico 

Spanish  Possessions  in  Africa  and  adjac.  isl'ds  .  . 
Sweden  and  Norway 

• 

United  States  of  Colombia  

7,503 

1,714 

6,285 

1,347 

13,  308 
54 
3,995 

23,263 
100 
4,481 

6,202 

1,404 

All  other  countries  and  ports  in  Africa' 

160 

20 

Total 

175,069 

575,  089 

70,  059 

50,307 

2,  589,  262 

2,823,832 

f 

116A- 


390 


MALT   AND    BEER   IN   SPANISH   AMERICA. 


Statement  showing  the  imports  into  the  United  States  from  the  several  countries,  of  beer, 
malt,  and  hops,  during  the  year  1890. 


Countries  from  which  im- 
ported. 

Malt  liquors. 

Hops. 

Malt,  barley. 

In  bottles  or  jugs. 

Not  in  bottles  or 
jugs. 

Gallans. 

Dollars 

Gallons. 

Dollars. 

Pounds. 

Dollars. 

Bush. 

Dollars. 

Anstr'firlluPffairy     _. 

320 
18 

186 
10 

173,427 

26,  331 

274,  693 
30,  025 

85,  718 
10,  846 

13,  206 

10,  129 

Bolivia    

Bi  ttzii                  ............ 

Central  American  States: 
Costa  Rica             ...... 

San  Salvador 

Chili                  

China                              .  -• 

Denmark         

245 

108 

Greenland,  Iceland,  and  the 

France           ...  ......  

365 

211 

French  West  Indies 

French  Guiana   

Miquelon,    Langley,  and 
Saint  Pierre  Islands 

French  Possessions  in  Af- 
rica and  adjacent  isl'ds 

French    Possessions,    all 
other  

13,  332 

6,903 

524,  963 

118,  119 

3,  781,  355 

1,  034,  762 

271 

458 

German*  Possessions  in  Af- 
rica and  Australasia 

England        .             

657,  144 
49,  391 
412,  545 

529,  310 
35,  501 
370,  557 

610,  484 
11,  265 
52,  962 

243,  001 
4,624 
13,  526 

83,  680 

22,  062 

216 

200 
33 

199 

228 
53 

Scotland 

Ireland 

Gibraltar 

Nova  Scotia,  N.  Brunswick, 
and  Pr.  Edw.  Island  
Quebec,  Ontario,  Manitoba, 
and  the  N.  W.  Ter  

14,  863 

610 

262 

6 

11,  137 

521 
325 

6 

104 
411 

33 
113 

1,662 

495 

136,  256 

100,  314 

Newfoundland  and  Lahra- 

British  West  Indies 

British  Guiana 

British  East  Indies 

British  Possessions  in  Af- 
rica and  adjacent  islands. 
British  Possessions  in  Aus- 

British   Possessions,    all 

10 

7 

Italy 

«j  apa.n 

748 
255 

819 
162 

Netherlands 

15 
4,728 

1 
1,588 

Azore,  Maderia,  and  Cape 

Russia  on  the  Baltic  and 

Russia  on  the  Black  Sea 

Cuba 

10 

8 

941 

472 

Turkey  in  Africa 

Total  

1,  151,  065 

956,  243 

1,  373,  616 

405,  747 

4,  176,  158 

1,  155,  472 

150,  182 

111,  381 

CONSULAR    REPORTS. 


FRUIT  CULTURE 


IN 


FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


KKWRTS,  FROM  THE  CONSULS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  ON  FRUIT 

CULTURE  IN  THEIR  SEVERAL  DISTRICTS,  IN  ANSWER  TO 

A  CIRCULAR  FROM  THE  DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE, 


ARRANGEMENT. 

Page. 

PART      I.     The  Orange  and  the  Lemon 399-585 

PART     II.     The  Olive 587-727 

PART  III.     The  Fig. 7^9-769 

PAKT   IV.    The  Vine 771-867 

PAKT     V.     Supplement 809-937 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING   OFFICE, 
1890. 


FRUIT  CIRCULAR, 


DEPARTMENT  OF  STATE, 

Washington,  September  28,  1889. 
To  the  Consular  Officers  of  the  United  States  : 

GENTLEMEN:  At  tbe  request  of  the  California  State  Board  of  Horti- 
culture, acting  through.  Mr.  B.  M.  Lelong,  its  secretary,  the  inclosed 
series  of  questions  relative  to  the  cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  figs, 
and  olives  is  sent  to  you  for  reports.  You  are  requested  to  give  such 
information  iu  response  thereto  as  you  can  acquire  without  expense  to 
the  Government  or  to  yourselves.  But  should  you  find  it  impracticable 
to  make  a  satisfactory  report  without  outside  aid,  you  will  submit  to  the 
Department  an  estimate  of  the  anticipated  cost  before  you  obligate 
yourself  for  any  specific  sum. 

I  am,  gentlemen,  your  obedient  servant, 

ALVEY  A.  ADEE, 

Acting  Secretary. 

QUESTIONS  ABOUT  ORANGES    AND  LEMONS. 

(1)  Name  of  best  variety  for  profit. 

(2)  Names  of  other  choice  varieties  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit. 

(3)  Location — where  are  the  trees  grown  that  produce  the  varieties  named  above  ? 
(a)  Distance  from  sea. 

(fc)  Elevation  above  sea-level. 

(c)  Exposure  to  sun. 

(d)  Hilly,  rolling,  or  level  land,  and  which  is  beat  ? 
(«)  Soil  formation  and  character,  also  subsoil,  etc. 

(4)  Climatic  influences. 

(a)  Temperature— minimum,  maximum,  and  average. 

(6)  Nights  celd  or  warm,  sultry  days,  moist,  ordinary  atmosphere. 

(c)  Rain-fall,  in  inches,  for  year. 

(d)  When  rain  falls,  as  to  growth  of  trees  and  fruit? 

(5)  Irrigation — when  and  how  T 

(a)  At  what  stage  of  growth  of  fruit? 

(&)  How  much  at  a  time,  and  how  often,  and  other  particulars  ? 

(6)  Cultivation — when  and  how  ? 

(7)  Fertilizers — what,  when,  and  how  applied? 

(8)  Pruning — what  stage  of  growth;  high  from  ground  or  low,  and  particulars? 

(9)  Picking. 

(a)  When  picked. 
(&)  Stage  of  ripeness. 

(c)  How  cured. 

(d)  Packing  and  shipping. 


394  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

(10)  Distance  planted  apart. 

(11)  How  are  trees  propagated  ? 

(12)  Are  best  varieties  seedling  or  budded? 

(13)  Are  orchards  large  or  small? 

(14)  Age  of  fruiting;  age  when  largest  crops;  maturity  of  trees. 

(15)  What  insect  pests,  and  how  treated  ? 
(a)  Are  there  any  beneficial  insects  ? 

(&)  Are  there  any  parasites  of  the  injurious  insects? 
(c)  Name  parasites,  and  tell  how  they  work. 

(16)  Give  particular  information  as  to  picking  and  curing  lemons  before  shipping, 

season  picked,  etc. 

(17)  Send  any  printed  information  aa  to  processes ;  prices  or  statistics  issued  by  Gov- 

ernment or  otherwise. 

QUESTIONS  ABOUT  FIGS. 

(1)  Name  of  best  variety  for  drying. 

(2)  Name  of  best  variety  for  eating  when  ripe. 

(3)  Name  of  other  varieties  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit. 

(4)  Where  are  the  trees  grown  that  produce  the  varieties  above  named  ? 
(a)  Distance  from  sea. 

(&)  Elevation  above  sea-level. 

(c)  Exposure  to  sun. 

(df)  Hilly,  rolling,  or  level  land,  and  which  is  best. 

(e)  Soil  and  subsoil  character. 

(5)  Climatic  influences. 

(a)  Temperature — minimum,  maximum,  and  average. 

(&)  Rain-fall,  in  inches. 

(c)  When  rain  falls,  as  to  growth  of  trees  and  fruit,  and  how  much  and  effects  ? 

(6)  Irrigation — method,  when  and  how  much,  and  during  what  growth  of  trees  and 

fruit  ? 

(7)  Cultivation — when  and  how  ? 

(8)  Fertilizers — what,  when,  and  how  ? 

(9)  Pruning — when  and  how  ? 

(10)  Picking. 

(a)  At  what  stage  of  ripeness,  time  of  day,  etc.? 

(&)  Give  process,  from  picking  to  boxing  of  figs,  minutely. 

(e)  Are  they  dipped  in  some  solution ;  what  and  how  ? 

(11)  Distance  planted  apart. 

(12)  How  are  trees  propagated  ? 

(13)  Are  orchards  large  or  small  ? 

(14)  What  age  do  trees  attain  and  how  long  fruitful  ? 

(15)  What  insect  pests,  and  how  treated  ? 

(a)  Are  there  any  beneficial  insects  ?  I 

(&)  Are  there  any  parasites  of  the  injurious  insects  ? 
(c)  Name  parasites,  and  tell  how  they  work. 

(16)  How  are  cuttings  of  best  varieties  to  be  secured  ? 

(17)  Can  you  secure  any  printed  matter,  such  as  reports,  methods,  or  statistics  issued 

by  Government  or  otherwise,  and  send  us  ? 

QUESTIONS  ABOUT  OLIVES. 

(1)  Name  of  best  variety  for  pickled  olives. 

(2)  Name  for  best  variety  for  olive  oil  ? 

(3)  Names  of  other  choice  varieties  for  pickles  (eating)  and  oil,  worthy  of  culture 

and  for  profit. 


FRUIT    CIRCULAR.  395 

(4)  Where  are  the  trees  grown  that  produce  the  varieties  above? 
(a)  Distance  from  sea. 

(&)  Elevation  above  sea-level. 

(c)  Exposure  to  sun. 

(d)  Hilly,  rolling,  or  level  land,  and  which  is  best. 

(e)  Soil  and  subsoil  character. 

(5)  Climatic  influence. 

(a)  Temperature — minimum,  maximum,  and  average. 

(&)  Rain-fall,  in  inches. 

(c)  When  rain  falls,  as  to  growth  of  trees  and  fruit,  and  how  much  ? 

(6)  Irrigation— method,  when  and  how  much,  and  during  what  growth  of  trees  and 

fruit. 

(7)  Cultivation— when  and  how  t 

(8)  Pruning— when  and  how  T 

(9)  Picking. 

(a)  At  what  stage  of  ripeness,  both  for  pickling  and  oil. 
(6)  Next  step  after  picking. 

(c)  Give  minutely  the  process  of  pickling  and  making  oil  until  completed  ready 
for  market. 

(10)  At  what  age  do  trees  commence  fruiting  ? 

(11)  What  is  the  average  yield  per  tree  or  acre  ? 

(12)  What  distance  apart  planted  ? 

(13)  How  are  trees  propagated  ? 

(14)  Can   you  give  other  information  that  will  help  growers  of  olives  in  California 

to  succeed  I 

(15)  Can  you  secure  any  printed  matter,  reports,  methods,  or  statistics  issued  by  the 

Government,  agricultural  colleges,  newspapers,  or  otherwise  ? 

(16)  What  insect  pests,  and  how  treated  ? 
(a)  Are  there  any  beneficial  insects  ? 

(&)  Are  there  any  parasites  of  the  injurious  •  insects  f 
(c)  Name  parasites,  and  tell  how  they  work. 


PART  I. 
ORANGES  AND  LEMONS. 


397 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS . 


CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA. 
CAPE  COLONY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  HOLLJS,  OF  CAPE  TOWN. 

The  time  was,  and  not  so  long  ago,  when  the  orange  crop  of  this 
colony  meant  a  good  revenue  to  the  farmer.  With  the  advent  of  the 
Australian  bug,  whose  scientific  name  I  have  forgotten,  all  this  is 
changed,  and  in  place  of  trees  loaded  with  luscious  fruit  now  only  re- 
main a  few  blackened  stumps  to  mark  where  the  orchards  once  stooa. 

No  systematic  effort  was  made  to  eradicate  the  pest,  A.  saying  it  was 
useless  for  him  to  struggle  against  the  evil  while  B.,  whose  orchard  was 
close  by,  gave  the  bug  free  license  to  breed  and  multiply. 

I  have  just  heard  of  a  new  method  of  destroying  these  insects  which 
may  be  worth  a  trial.  It  is  to  make  a  cross  incision  in  the  bark  |_- 
shaped,  and  after  rolling  back  the  bark  dust  the  wound  with  flowers  of 
sulphur.  Wax  and  bind  up  as  after  budding. 

Years  ago  I  found  that  the  juices  of  the  squash  vine  was  a  solvent  of 
sulphur  and  would  take  it  into  the  circulation  of  the  plant.  At  all 
events,  it  will  cost  nothing  to  try,  and  will  do  no  injury  to  the  tree. 

GEO.  F.  HOLLIS, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Cape  Toicn,  March  5,  1890. 

399 


400  FEUIT   CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


EGYPT. 

In  reply  to  the  circular  of  the  Department,  dated  September  28, 1889, 
asking  certain  questions  about  the  cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  figs, 
and  olives,  I  have  the  honor  to  inform  you  that  these  fruits  are  not  cul- 
tivated to  any  extent  for  commerce  in  this  country,  although  they  are 
sometimes  to  be  found  in  private  gardens. 

EUGENE  SCHUYLER. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Cairo,  November  22,  1889. 


MOROCCO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MATHEWS,  OF  TANGIERS. 
(jRepullished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41£.) 

Varieties. — As  most  of  the  trees  are  seedlings,  the  varieties  are  numer- 
ous ;  the  most  valuable  are  the  round,  sweet  orange,  and  the  small 
aromatically  flavored  fruit  known  as  the  Mandarin  orange.  The  Man- 
darin is  the  most  valuable. 

Maturity. — Nine  years  from  seed;  two  years  after  grafting  or  budding. 

Seedlings  remain  fruitful  over  a  century ;  grafted  or  budded,  from 
thirty  to  forty  years. 

Propagating. — They  are  propagated  from  seeds,  inarching,  grafting, 
budding,  and  by  cuttings. 

Planting. — Fifteen  feet  apart,  or  about  150  trees  to  the  acre,  if  graft- 
ings ;  seedlings,  20  feet  apart,  100  trees  to  the  acre. 

Insect  pests. — Various  vine-fretters  and  kermes  are  very  troublesome, 
and  cause  considerable  damage  to  orange  trees.  The  common  remedy  to 
a  certain  extent  is  to  wash  the  trunk  and  main  branches  with  a  lotion  of 
lime-water,  and  by  watering  the  leaves  with  the  hand  pump.  Trees  too 
closely  planted,  or  placed  in  damp  and  shady  localities,  or  even  not 
properly  pruned  to  permit  light  and  air  through  all  their  branches, 
create  a  parasite  or  leaf  disease  known  as  the  "demantiumimono- 
phyllum  "  or  charcoal,  which  covers  the  leaves  with  a  black  adhesive 
dust ;  also  the  "  lichen  auranti, n  which  appears  as  a  crust  of  a  gray 
whitish  color.  The  bad  state  of  health  of  the  trees  creates  these  para- 
sites and  fungus.  I  have  cured  these  with  petroleum,  which  must  be 
applied  in  a  mixed  state  by  churning  milk  and  petroleum  to  a  consis- 
tency of  cream,  as  petroleum  mixed  with  water  is  often  injurious. 
These  liquids  are  unmixable,  and  when  applied  in  some  parts  only  the 
petroleum  touches  the  trunk  or  leaves,  and  on  the  others  the  water 
alone,  while,  if  well  mixed  with  milk,  the  strength  of  the  petroleum  is 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  AFRICA — MOROCCO.      401 

reduced,  tlic  application  is  uniform,  and  the  results  most  certain  and 
beneficial  to  nil  trees.  « 

Situation. — Orange  orchards  are  planted  both  inland  and  on  the  sea- 
coast,  on  valleys,  hillsides,  and  uplands.  They  yield  best  results  in 
well-drained  low-lying  lands  sheltered  from  the  cold  north  winds. 

Some  are  within  200  yards  of  the  sea  on  the  sand. 

Irrigation. — They  are  irrigated  artificially,  mostly  from  wells  from 
which  the  water  is  drawn  by  animal  power,  with  very  primitive  draw- 
wells. 

Cultivation. — The  ground  is  manured  and  cultivated  with  a  heavy 
hoe  once  a  year.  The  yield  and  proceeds  can  not  be  ascertained  in 
Morocco.  The  cost  of  cultivation,  including  manuring,  in  the  best 
orange  orchards  is  at  the  rate  of  25  cents  per  tree  per  annum ;  labor- 
er's and  pruner's  wages  from  18  to  20  cents  per  day. 

OBSERVATIONS  ON  ORANGE  CULTURE. 

In  any  country  where  the  medium  temperature  in  winter  is  superior 
to  40°  and  in  summer  rises  to  85°,  the  cultivation  of  orange  orchards 
can  be  made  lucrative. 

Orange  trees  are  not  particular  with  regard  to  soil ;  they  grow  lux- 
uriantly in  the  sand,  and  even  in  strong  and  very  inferior  soils,  pro- 
vided they  are  manured  and  copiously  watered  in  the  summer.  There 
have  been  empirics  who  have  written  on  the  orange  trees  and  on  the 
manner  of  composting  the  soil,  recommending  all  sorts  of  filthy  uos 
trums  and  unwholesome  composts  which  nature  never  designed,  and 
nobody  can  form  an  idea  of  the  mischief  which  such  people  do.  In  nine 
cases  out  of  ten  the  leading  cause  of  failure,  where  trees  get  diseased 
or  where  neither  fruit  nor  flowers  are  had  with  any  certainty,  is  due  to 
ill-treatment  and  poisoning  of  the  roots  with  the  obnoxious  mixtures. 

Seedlings  are  always  preferred,  as  they  stand  cold  weather  and  their 
yield  is  enormous ;  besides,  the  objects  to  be  attained  in  raising  the 
orange  trees  from  seed,  are,  first,  to  procure  new  varieties,  all  of  which 
are  more  or  less  acceptable  as  to  size,  flavor,  and  shape ;  secondly,  to 
provide  hardy  stocks  for  grafting  or  budding  known  fancy  varieties,  in 
preference  to  grafting  or  budding  on  stock  raised  from  the  cuttings  of 
citrons,  or  even  of  orange  cuttings,  which  are  more  delicate,  of  less 
growth,  and  short  life.  In  recurring  to  budding,  the  hardiest  stock  of 
all  is  that  of  the  bitter  or  sour  orange,  the  most  beautiful  of  the  tribe 
in  form,  elegance  of  foliage,  and  abundance  of  fruit.  When  the  medium 
atmospherical  temperature  of  the  spring  has  reached  70°  the  seed  may 
be  sown  and  watered  regularly,  and  in  fifteen  days  they  will  come  up. 
If  the  seeds  are  from  the  finest,  ripest  fruits,  there  will  be  no  necessity 
of  budding  to  perfectionate  the  fruit.  The  fruits  from  trees  raised 
from  seed  are  the  earliest  and  stand  transportation  well ;  the  flowers  of 
these  trees  stand  the  cold  weather  best. 


402        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Excessive  dampness  and  humidity  in  the  soil  produces  the  "chlorosis," 
or  yellow  of  the  leaves,  which  at  last  ends  in  destroying  the  tree. 

Excessive  aridity  of  the  soil  is  also  another  cause  of  suffering  to  the 
orange  tree,  but  does  not  cause  its  death. 

Strong  winds  only  cause  the  fall  of  the  fruit  before  ripening. 

The  fogs  and  white  frost  of  spring  sometimes  cause  an  alteration  in 
the  orange  tree,  which  afterwards  is  shown  in  the  shape  of  reddish  spots 
on  the  exterior  part  of  the  skin  of  the  fruit,  which  renders  it  unfit  for  use 

VARIETIES  CULTIVATED. 

The  races  and  varieties  known  are  innumerable,  the  majority  of  which 
are  still  unclassified.  The  most  interesting  are  divided  in  eight  groups, 
namely:  (1)  sweet  orange,  (2)  sour  orange,  (3)  Mandarin  orange,  (4) 
limes,  (5)  Bermagots,  (6)  Pampelmuses,  (7)  lemons,  (8)  citrons. 

(1)  Sweet  orange. — The  sweet  orange  raised  from  seed  in  a  warm  cli- 
mate is  a  vigorous  tree,  which  reaches  the  height  of  15  feet ;  its  foliage 
large  and  oblong  prolongated,  of  a  dark  brilliant  green.     The  flowers 
are  hermaphrodite  and  pure  white.    The  fruit  is  quite  round,  with  a 
smooth,  yellowish  skin.     It  commences  to  ripen  in  the  middle  of  Novem- 
ber, and  in  March  arrives  at  full  maturity.    Trees  from  seed  without 
grafting  give  the  largest  crops,  and  it  is  not  unusual  for  an  adult  tree  to 
produce  from  three  to  four  thousand  oranges  per  annum.     These  trees, 
if  conveniently  sheltered  from  the  cold  winters,  live  centuries.    Grafted 
or  budded  orange  trees  hardly  grow  higher  than  10  feet  in  their  proper! 
climate,  while  in  others  they  only  reach  6  or  7  feet,  and  even  less,  and 
their  life  is  short.  The  principal  sweet-orange  trees  which  are  selected  by 
those  engaged  in  the  orange  culture  are  the  Bigaradia  (Citrus  vulgaris 
bigaradia)  Imperial,  the  Royal  Bigaradia,  the  Bigaradia  of  silvery  leaf 
(C.  vulgaris  argentea),  the  Bigaradia  of  spotted  leaf  (C.  vulgaris  varie- 
gata),  the  Bigaradias  of  double  flower  and  of  violet  flower,  and  the  Big- 
aradias  of  round  fruit,  angulated  fruit,  spotted  fruit,  and  crowned  fruit; 
also  the  Bigaradia  of  myrtle  leaf  and  that  of  double  flower,  producing 
cake-shaped  fruit;   the  Balearic  or  Mallorea   orange,  large,  smooth, 
thin  skin,  of  vigorous  growth;  the  Portugal  or  China  orange,  of  less 
growth  than  the  Balearic,  but  producing  very  large  fruit;  the  orange 
of  Nice,  highly  favored  in  Provence  for  its  elegance  and  beautiful  fruit. 
The  Maltese  or  blood  orange  is  very  rich,  and  also  an  abundan^  bearer, 
the  fruit  having  a  pulp  stained  with  crimson ;  the  foliage  resembles  that 
of  the  Portugal  or  China  orange.     There  are  numerous  other  varieties, 
most  of  which  are  more  nominal  than  real,  mostly  the  results  of  hybrid- 
izing, and  which  are  more  of  a  botanical  ornament  than  of  profit. 

(2)  Sour  orange. — The  sour  or  bitter  orange,  many  of  which  have  curi- 
ous and  very  interesting  foliage,  portly  and  handsome  trees,  with  gold 
and  silver-striped  leaves,  myrtle  leafed,  willow  leafed,  plain  and  striped, 
tricolor  striped,  juid  many  others  very  showy.    The  flowers  of  these 
trees  bring  the  highest  prices  in  market.    Their  fruit  is  preferred  for 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  AFRICA MOROCCO.      403 

confectionery,  marmalades,  etc.  The  sour  or  bitter  orange  tree  is  still 
more  rustic  and  hardier  than  the  sweet  orange  from  seeds,  and  its  growth 
is  more  rapid.  There  is  of  this  tribe  the  China  sour-orange  tree,  which 
is  dwarf,  only  growing  to  about  4  or  5  feet  in  height  the  most. 

(3)  Mandarin. — The  Mandarin  orange,  originally  from  China,  propa- 
gated also  from  seed,  was  introduced  in  Europe  about  the  middle  of  the 
present  century ;  only  grow  from  seed  to  a  height  of  12  feet,  and  to  about 
6  feet  when  propagated  by  grafting  or  budding.     The  pulp  of  the  Man- 
darin orange  is  almost  free  from  the  rind  ;  the  latter  is  very  aromatic. 
The  Tangerine  orange,  recently  introduced  in  Europe,  is  a  variety  of 
the  Mandarin;  its  fruit  is  less  than  half  the  size  of  the  Mandarin,  in 
fact  often  no  larger  than  a  walnut,  but  exceedingly  sweet  and  perfumed. 
The  Japanese  orange  is  a  shrub  which  the  Chinese  cultivate  on  a  large 
scale,  and  known  by  the  name  a  Kumkoat;  "  is  almost  unknown  in  Eu- 
rope; it  attains  a  height  of  4  feet,  and  by  pruning  it  is  grown  in  pots, 
where  it  only  grows  to  about  20  inches,  covering  itself  with  a  fruit  no 
larger  than  a  good-sized  cherry.     The  rind  is  so  thin  and  smooth  that  it 
is  eatable.    They  are  preserved  whole  in  sugar.    I  have  four  in  pots  from 
15  to  18  inches  in  height  with  ripe  fruit ;  they  have  ripe  fruit  from  De- 
cember to  April;  they  resist  the  cold  weather  better  than  the  hardiest 
of  the  orange  tribe,  but  in  summer  they  require  hot  weather  to  bring 
their  fruit  to  maturity.     I  strongly  recommend  this  interesting  and 
profitable  shrub  to  our  California  orange-growers.     One  acre  of  land 
will  accommodate  500;  manure  annually,  and  if  possible  in  summer. 
An  irrigation  or  two  of  manure  water  will  bring  the  fruit  to  perfection. 

(4)  Sweet  limes  (Citrus  limeta). — The  sweet-lime  tree  has  the  bearing 
and  foliage  of  the  lemon  tree ;  small  white  flowers ;  the  fruit  more  or 
less  large  or  small,  according  to  the  varieties ;  its  color  is  of  a  pale  yel- 
low ;  the  pulp  is  an  insipid  sweet,  slightly  bitter.    The  varieties  known 
in   the  south  of  Spain  and  in  Morocco,  where  they  abound,  are  the 
u  Roman,"  the  "  Melaroce,"  and  "  St.  Jerome." 

(5)  Bergamot  orange  (Citrus  bergamia). — Tall  tree;   oblong  leaves  of 
medium  size,  of  a  lively  green  on  the  upper  surface  and  paler  on  the 
under  part  than  the  other  varieties  of  orange;   very  small  flowers 
and  of  a  particularly  mild  aroma.     The  fruit  is  depressed  in  shape, 
smooth,  and  of  a  lemon-yellow  color ;  the  pulp  is  slightly  sour  and  of  a 
pronounced  aromatic  flavor.    The  chief  varieties  are  the  common  Ber- 
gamot, the  orange  Bergamot,  the  sweet  lemon  Bergamot,  and  the  Adam 
apple  Bergamot,  and  some  others  which  probably  are  only  monstrosi- 
ties propagated  by  grafting.    The  cultivation  of  the  ordinary  Berga- 
mot is  very  lucrative  by  the  great  quantity  of  volatile  oil  extracted 
from  the  rind  of  its  fruits. 

(6)  Pampelmuse. — Pampelmuse  ( Citrus  decumana)  probably  is  a  species 
entirely  distinct  from  the  preceding,  nevertheless  it  has  certain  similari- 
ties to  the  natural  ordinary  sweet  orange  from  seed ;  it  grows  the  same 
height ;  very  few  thorus.    It  differs  in  foliage — broad  leaves  and  large 


404        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

flowers  of  a  pure  white.  The  fruit  is  depressed  and  of  immense  size,  of 
a  pale  yellow,  and  only  matures  on  the  second  year ;  they  require  shelter 
and  a  warm  locality.  The  "  Lumias  "  are  a  variety  of  the  Parnpelmuse. 

(7)  Lemons  (Citrus  limonum). — This  species  is  more  a  large  shrub  than 
a  small  tree  5  they  require  a  warmer  climate  than  oranges  do  5  their 
flowers  are  white  inside  and  reddish  on  the  outside.    There  are  numer- 
ous varieties.    They  require  less  irrigation  than  the  orange  tree  ;  are 
easily  propagated  from  cuttings,  which  the  dealers  in  orange  trees  use 
extensively  for  budding  or  grafting. 

(8)  Citron. — There  are  various  varieties — the    ordinary  citron,  the 
lemon  citron,  the  St.  Jerome  citron  of  very  large  fruit,  the  Florence  cit- 
ron, and  the  sweet  citron  ;  the  flowers  are  reddish,  pink,  white,  and 
violet.    It  grows  well  in  narrow  valleys  where  the  heat  in  summer  is 
retained  during  the  evenings;  it  grows  admirably  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  in  almost  any  soil,  and  is  easily  multiplied  from  slips  or 
cuttings,  which  are  also  used  for  budding  or  grafting  by  the  dealers  and 
venders  of  orange  trees. 

For  California  I  would  recommend  raising  sweet  oranges  from  seed 
or  grafting  the  seedlings  or  stocks  of  the  sour  orange,  the  hardiest  of 
all  for  cold  winters. 

Observations  on  pruning. — The  flower  and  fruit  are  produced  on  the 
young  wood  of  the  current  season  generally.  The  pruning  has  in  view 
three  objects:  first,  to  keep  the  branches  from  being  too  numerous,  and 
thereby  making  the  foliage  too  thick,  so  as  to  exclude  air  and  sun  to  a 
great  part  of  the  head  ;  secondly,  to  check  those  branches  which  grow 
too  vigorously  for  the  rest  of  the  tree ;  thirdly,  to  remove  old  and  bare 
wood  and  make  way  for  the  young.  The  weakest  branches  should  also 
be  removed,  and  the  pruning  should  be  done  on  dry  days  during  the 
months  of  February  and  March.  No  shoots  should  be  allowed  to  grow 
below  the  head,  unless  left  for  the  purpose  of  propagation  by  layering 
in  pots  and  thus  obtaining  young  additional  trees. 

The  orange  tree  spreads  its  roots  close  to  the  surface  5  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  disturb  them  when  cultivating  the  soil  around  the  trees. 

Nothing  is  wasted  of  the  orange  tree.  The  leaves,  the  flowers,  and 
the  fruit  are  all  a  source  of  profit ;  they  all  constitute  a  branch  of  com- 
merce. On  pruning  the  trees  the  leaves  are  gathered  from  the  cut 
branches,  dried,  and  they  sell  in  the  markets  of  Europe  from  $14  to  $4. 
per  hundred- weight.  The  flowers  are  sold  for  the  distillery  and  other 
purposes  in  France  at  25  cents  per  pound.  Oranges  for  exportation  are 
gathered  in  November  when  their  color  begins  to  change  from  green  to 
a  yellowish ;  the  second  gathering  for  short  distances  is  made  in  Decem- 
ber, and  the  last  for  the  nearest  markets  in  February  and  March. 

FELIX  A.  MATHEWS, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Tangier,  April  2,  1884. 


CONTINENT    OF   AMERICA. 
MEXICO. 

GUERRERO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSVL  SUTTER,  OF  ACAPULCO. 
(Rcpnblished  from  Consular  Report  No.  41£.) 

Varieties. — Sweet  and  bitter  oranges,  navel  oranges,  lemons,  limes, 
shaddocks,  citrons. 

Limes  and  sweet  oranges  are  the  most  valuable.  Some  15,000  boxes 
of  limes,  representing  for  the  growers  a  value  of  about  $25,000,  are  ex- 
ported annually  per  steamers  of  the  Pacific  Mail  Steam-ship  Company 
to  San  Francisco.  Brought  to  town,  selected,  and  packed  for  export, 
this  fruit  costs,  more  or  less,  $3  per  box. 

Only  small  quantities  of  oranges  are  exported  to  San  Francisco  per 
steamer  from  December  to  February,  before  the  crop  from  the  islands 
in  the  Pacific  overstocks  the  market. 

Oranges  are  obtained  at  $5  per  thousand,  but  on  account  of  high  rates 
of  freight  can  not  compete  in  the  San  Francisco  market  with  the  fruit 
imported  from  those  islands. 

Maturity. — Lime  trees  which  are  allowed  to  grow  like  a  bush,  with 
branches  rising  from  the  roots,  commence  to  bear  at  the  age  of  four 
years,  and  are  in  full  bearing  when  eight  years  old;  in  good  soil  and 
with  but  very  little  care  the  tree  will  attain  the  age  of  fifty  years.  This 
tree  is  indigenous,  whilst  the  other  varieties  of  the  citrus  family  are  said 
to  have  been  imported. 

Orange  trees  commence  to  bear  at  the  age  of  five  years,  are  in  full 
bearing  at  the  age  of  ten,  and  will  remain  fruitful  fully  as  long  as  the 
lime  tree. 

Propagation. — All  the  trees  are  seedlings. 

Insect  pests. — Ants  are  the  only  insects  which  are  injurious  to  the 
trees,  much  more  to  the  orange  than  to  the  lime  trees;  people  protect 
their  trees  in  various  ways  from  ants  with  more  or  less  success.  The 
ants  are  destroyed  by  digging  up  their  nests,  or  are  kept  off'  the  trees 
with  fine  sand,  fire,  water,  petroleum,  etc.  Fungous  growth  and  other 
parasites  are  not  found  in  such  abundance  as  to  seriously  injure  the  trees. 

Planting. — Most  of  the  trees  are  planted  very  irregularly,  in  selected, 
favorable  spots,  which  may  keep  moist  all  the  year  round.  In  a  few 

405 


406        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

newly  laid  out  lime-tree  plantations  the  distance  between  trees  is  20 
feet  in  every  direction. 

Situation. — Anywhere,  mostly  in  moist  places  along  small  streamlets 
or  gulches  on  the  hill-sides,  in  low  bottoms  along  rivers,  or  near  the 
sea-shore ;  in  sandy  black  loam  they  yield  the  best  results  ;  the  sweet- 
est and  thin-skinned  oranges  usually  grow  on  hill-sides,  whilst  the  fruit 
of  lowlands  is  generally  thick-skinned. 

Some  orchards  are  in  close  proximity  to  the  sea-shore,  in  sandy  black 
loam,  in  some  instances  with  lagoons  or  brackish  water  on  the  side  op- 
posite to  the  sea-shore,  and  give  very  excellent  results.  Thus  situated 
there  is  one,  newly,  regularly  planted,  of  8,000  lime  trees  and  100  orange 
trees,  with  room  for  many  thousands  more,  and  with  the  advantage  of 
cheap  transportation  by  water  to  Acapulco,  the  port  of  shipping. 

Irrigation. — Xo  system  of  artificial  irrigation  is  in  use ;  the  ground 
between  trees  is  not  cultivated,  but  merely  kept  free  of  undergrowth 
and  weeds,  lands  being  as  yet  of  but  nominal  value. 

Yield. — As  the  orchards  are  not  regularly  planted  and  the  trees  are 
scattered  here  and  there  without  any  regard  to  economy  in  laud  occupied, 
it  is  utterly  impossible  to  state  even  only  approximately  the  yield  or 
cost  of  cultivation  of  an  acre  per  annum. 

One  orange  tree  from  the  age  of  eight  years  up  to  fifty  years  of  age  in 
ordinarily  good  conditions  will  yield  on  an  average  3,000  oranges  every 
year,  worth,  picked,  $4  per  thousand.  A  lime  tree  from  the  age  of  eight 
years  to  the  age  of  fifty  bears  fruit  all  the  year  round,  and  will  yield 
about  8,000  per  year,  worth  on  the  tree,  say,  $L<>. 

Land  being  but  of  nominal  value,  no  interest  on  capital  invested  in 
the  same  or  any  ground  rent  is  to  be  taken  in  account:  nothing  is  irri- 
gated, consequently  the  cost  of  cultivation  is  very  little,  say  $150  per 
annum  for  an  orchard  of  several  hundred  trees. 

There  being  no  export  market  for  the  other  varieties  of  the  citrus 
family,  they  are  of  comparatively  little  value,  and  only  raised  for  home 
consumption. 

JOHN  A.  SUTTER,  JR., 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Acapulco,  February  15,  1884. 


SONORA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WILLAIID,  OF  GUAYMAS. 

On  receipt  of  circular,  I  addressed  letters  to  several  of  the  orange 
growers  in  the  interior  of  Souora  (for  at  Guaymns  but  few  oranges  are 
grown)  and  in  reply  was  informed  that,  as  the  cultivation  of  oranges 
as  a  business  in  Sonora  dates  back  only  a  few  years  (since  the  Sonora 
railway  has  been  in  operation,  1882),  they  did  not  feel  competent  m 
giving  a  proper  report. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMON® MEXICO.  407 

I  am  told  that  the  first  plants  or  cuttings  of  oranges  cultivated  in  So- 
nora  were  brought  by  the  Jesuit  fathers  ninety  years  ago  from  Italy,  and 
planted  at  the  missions  of  San  Jos^  de  Guaymas  and  Hermosillo.  But 
little  attention  was  paid  to  their  cultivation  excepting  for  home  con- 
sumption, as  there  was  no  market  for  them  on  the  coast  (as  they  are 
grown  from  Guaymas  to  Panama),  and  no  quick  transportation  existed 
to  take  them  to  a  market  north.  After  the  Sonora  Railway  was  fin- 
ished it  furnished  the  means  of  getting  them  to  a  market  in  the  United 
•States,  and  in  1883  a  small  shipment  was  made  with  good  results,  and 
since  then  orchards  have  been  planted  and  oranges  now  figure  as  an 
article  of  export  to  the  United  States  by  rail.  In  1888,  14,000  boxes 
of  200  oranges  each  were  shipped.  The  fruit  is  sold  on  the  trees  at  from 
$G  to  $8  per  1,000,  being  purchased  by  fruit  dealers  through  their  agents, 
who  pick,  pack,  and  ship  the  fruit. 

The  Sonora  orange  commences  to  ripen  in  November,  and  by  the  end 
of  December  the  fruit  is  nearly  all  harvested. 

Orange  trees  are  grown  along  the  sea-coast,  and  in  the  interior  of  the 
country  up  to  3,000  feet  altitude.  Bottom  lands  have  been  used  for  this 
purpose  heretofore,  but  I  am  told  some  orchards  have  been  recently 
planted  near  Herinosillo  (inland  100  miles  from  Guaymas,)  on  rolling 
lauds  and  hillsides. 

The  trees  are  irrigated  throughout  the  year,  particularly  in  the  dry 
season,  which  commences  in  October  and  ends  in  July. 

The  trees  are  raised  from  the  seed  of  the  sour  orange  and  are  set 
out  or  planted  30,  40,  and  60  feet  apart  j  the  second  year  are  grafted 
or  budded  with  the  sweet  orange.  They  commence  to  give  a  small 
quantity  of  fruit  the  third  year  after  grafting,  and  are  in  full  bearing 
condition  in  the  eighth  year,  yielding,  if  well  grown,  from  1,000  to  1,500 
oranges  per  tree. 

No  insect  pests  have  appeared  as  yet  to  destroy  the  tree  or  fruit. 

Lemons,  figs,  and  olives  are  cultivated  to  a  limited  extent.  These 
fruits  from  the  few  trees  cultivated  are  used  for  home  consumption 
alone,  none  being  exported. 

A.   WlLLARD, 

Consul, 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Guaymas,  Mexico,  November  13,  1889. 


LOWER  CALIFORNIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  VIOSCA,  OFLAPAZ. 

Varieties. — The  Castillian  orange  (Naranja  de  Castillo)  is  the  best 
variety  known  here  for  profit,  supposed  to  have  been  introduced  by  the 
early  Spaniards;  of  recent  years  seed  and  young  trees  brought  by  fruit 
growers  from  the  States  of  Siualoa  and  Sonora  have  been  planted  in 
2 


408        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

different  orange  orchards,  resulting  in  quite  an  improvement  in  the 
quality  and  flavor  of  the  fruit  over  the  old  orange-producing  trees  in 
the  country ;  other  varieties  are  of  limited  production,  such  as  man- 
darin, pear  and  king  orange  and  not  of  sufficient  quantity  for  export. 

The  citrus  family  comprises  here  six  species  fruitful  and  profitable 
for  cultivation.  Citron,  shaddock  (torouja),  large  lemons,  limes  (citrus 
limetta)  lima,  sweet  lime,  king  orange.  The  lima  chichona,  or  sweo« 
teat  lime,  weighs  commonly  from  12  to  14  ounces  and  is  very  delicious. 
The  king  orange  is  the  production  of  an  orange  tree,  a  young  shoot 
grafted  into  a  sweet  lime  tree  and  in  time  from  that  to  a  shaddock  or 
torouja,  and  finally  a  shoot  from  this  last  is  again  grafted  on  a  common 
orange  tree.  Each  of  the  orange  fruit  weighs  from  4  to  5  pounds,  and 
are  of  very  delicate  and  sweet  flavor  and  also  exempt  from  acid. 

Situation. — The  locations  where  the  trees  grow  are  San  Antonio,  San 
Jos6,  and  La  Paz.  San  Antonio  is  56  miles  from  the  sea ;  the  other 
places  are  ports  of  entry. 

Elevation  of  the  first-named  town,  1,200  feet;  the  other  two  are  in  a 
level  valley,  all  fully  exposed  to  the  sun. 

Level  land  is  best.  The  soil  here  is  alluvial,  sandy,  and  the  subsoil 
within  four  feet  under  is  of  clay  and  gravel. 

Temperature. — The  average  temperature  is  85°,  minimum  60°,  maxi- 
mum 93°,  Fahr.  During  winter  nights  are  lightly  cold,  never  warm, 
but  quite  warin  during  the  day.  In  summer,  sultry  days  very  seldom 
and  the  atmosphere  generally  very  clear. 

Bain  commences  in  July  and  ends  in  October,  in  time  to  assist  the 
growth  progress  of  fruit. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  practiced  all  the  year  round.  The  citrus 
family  have  to  be  watered  every  three  or  four  days,  and  give  them  as 
much  water  as  possible. 

Cultivation. — Young  trees  are  transplanted  in  the  month  of  Septem- 
ber, and  also  in  February,  and  the  cleaning  of  trees  takes  place  in  De- 
cember. 

Fertilizers. — Cow  and  other  manure  is  used  as  fertilizer,  but  in  set- 
ting young  trees  a  circular  hole  is  excavated  of  4  feet  diameter  and  of 
3  or  4  feet  depth,  and  about  a  4-iiich  layer  of  old  cattle  bones  is  put 
down,  and  on  the  top  of  it  another  6  inches  of  clay,  and  after  another 
6  inches  of  manure,  and  following  common  soil.  The  tree  is  set  on 
the  top  of  that.  The  best  results  have  been  obtained  that  way. 

Pruning. — First  remove  the  inner  superfluous  shoots  living  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  sap  of  the  tree,  and  cut  all  other  unnecessary  branches  to 
allow  circulation  of  air.  It  is  evidently  proved  that  the  tree  should  be 
allowed  its  full  growth  from  ground.  It  is  best  either  to  protect  it  from 
hot  breezes  or  from  the  heat  of  the  soil,  and  even  from  frost,  as  gen- 
erally the  upper  part  only  suffers,  and  the  rest  of  the  tree  is  fully  pro- 
tected. 

picking  of  oranges  takes  place  early  in. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS CENTRAL  AMERICA.       409 

whence  they  are  just  ripe  enough  for  shipping.  Oranges  are  cured  by 
buying  them  separately  under  4  or  6  inches  of  very  dry  sand,  in  a  shaded 
and  ventilated  place,  for  a  month  or  two,  after  that  they  can  be  taken 
out,  will  look  proportionally  fresh,  and  will  keep  in  that  condition  for 
six  months. 

Packing  and  shipping. — When  packed  for  export  the  oranges  are 
wrapped  in  paper  and  packed  in  special  boxes. 

Planting. — Orange  trees  are  planted  20  feet  apart,  lemons  15  feet, 
and  limes  20  feet.  Orange  trees  are  propagated  by  seed,  shoots  from 
roots,  and  by  branch  cuttings. 

Some  orchards  are  quite  large  and  others  are  small. 

Maturity. — Fruiting  begins  at  five  or  six  years  from  the  time  the  seed 
is  planted ;  when  the  tree  is  fifteen  years  old  and  upwards  it  produces 
the  largest  crop  of  fruit.  The  full  maturity  of  the  tree  is  uncertain. 

Insect  pests. — Trees  here  are  very  seldom  troubled  with  insect  pests, 
with  the  exception  of  some  seasons,  by  an  insect  in  the  shape  of  a  tick, 
called  manteca,  which  is  very  easily  removed ;  but  sometimes  worms 
in  the  shape  of  teredo  on  the  roots  kill  the  tree  beyond  cure. 

JAMES  VIOSCA,  Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

La  Paz,  December  21,  1889. 


CENTRAL   AMERICA. 
GUATEMALA. 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL-GENERAL  HOSMER. 

I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  the  circular  submit- 
ting a  list  of  questions  regarding  the  cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  figs, 
and  olives. 

In  reply,  I  beg  respectfully  to  state  that  the  fruits  referred  to  are  of 
spontaneous  growth  in  Guatemala,  and  are  not  cultivated  or  exported. 
They  grow  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Republic,  from  the  sea-level  to 
an  altitude  of  5,000  feet  above  it,  and  are  freely  consumed  by  the  popu- 
lation, but  without  care  or  effort  in  their  culture. 

JAMES  K.  HOSMER, 

Consul-  General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Guatemala,  December  9,  1889, 


410        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 

BRAZIL 

BAHIA. 
INTRODUCTORY. 

I  have  the  honor  to  report  the  following  concerning  oranges  anil 
lemons,  as  called  for  in  the  circular  dated  September  28,  1889. 

As  neither  tigs  nor  olives  are  grown  here  in  the  State  of  Bahia,  noth- 
ing need  be  said  of  them.  Very  little  attention  is  paid  even  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  orange  or  the  lemon ;  so  little,  that  all  that  are  grown 
are  used  in  the  place,  none  being  exported  even  to  adjoining  States. 
The  supply  is  so  limited  as  practically  to  prohibit  exportation,  on  ac 
count  of  the  very  high  price  that  must  necessarily  be  paid  for  them. 

Should  one  wish  to  send  a  box  of  selected  oranges  to  a  friend  in  the 
United  States,  he  must  pay  for  such  box  of  one  hundred,  packed  ready 
for  shipment,  12 £  millreis,  equivalent  to  $6.1 2£,  and  this  in  the  orange 
season,  too.  Therefore,  as  none  are  grown  except  for  home  consump- 
tion, it  seems  quite  useless  to  answer  the  questions  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  submitted. 

ORANGES. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  is  called  Lavanja  de  embigo  or  navel 
orange.  These  oranges  are  seedless.  When  properly  cultivated  they 
grow  to  a  great  size  and  have  a  most  delicious  flavor,  being  also  very 
juicy.  It  is  not  an  infrequent  thing  to  find  oranges  of  this  class  weigh- 
ing a  kilo  each,  and  often  a  little  more,  and  measuring  in  circumference 
from  18  to  20  inches.  The  orange  of  this  class  of  ordinary  growth 
measures  from  12  to  15  inches  in  circumference. 

The  other  varieties,  not  choice,  however,  are  Lavanja  de  terra,  or  Se- 
ville orange,  which  has  rather  a  bitter  taste,  with  seeds,  and  not  as 
large,  nor  of  course  as  fine  a  flavor,  as  the  Lavanja  de  embigo. 

Another  kind  is  the  Laranja  de  Cravo  or  tangerine,  similar  to  the 
tangerine  of  Florida,  with  seeds.  The  fourth  and  the  last  class  is  the 
Laranja  brabo,  or  wild  orange,  with  pips  also. 

Whatever  cultivation  is  given  the  navel  orange  receives,  though 
some  attention  is  being  given  to  the  tangerine. 

Situation. — Anywhere  along  the  sea-coast.  I  have  been  informed 
they  may  grow  anywhere  in  fact  in  the  State. 

As  there  is  no  land  in  the  State  that  is  cultivated  that  has  any  great 
degree  of  elevation,  it  may  be  said  they  will  grow  at  any  elevation. 

Soil. — Clayey  soil  mostly  about  and  in  this  city.  Some  sandy.  In 
the  interior  of  the  State  more  of  an  alluvial  nature*  The  character  of 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS — BRAZIL.  411 

the  subsoil  is  presumably  much  the  same  as  the  soil.  In  most  cases  the 
subsoil  lias  never  been  turned  up.  The  land  is  never  prepared  by  plow- 
ing it.  The  grass  and  weeds,  when  cut  away  at  all,  are  cut  by  large 
hoes. 

Climatic  influences. — Along  the  coast  the  mercury  ranges  between  76° 
and  92°  in  the  shade.  In  the  interior,  especially  on  the  higher  eleva- 
tions, the  range  is  greater.  Cool  nights  and  very  moist  atmosphere. 
Rain-fall  in  inches,  I  do  not  know.  Generally  the  rainy  season  begins 
about  April  1,  continuing  to  November  1,  though  there  are  frequent 
showers  in  the  dry  season  from  November  to  April.  Consequently,  as  the 
fruit  is  usually  picked  from  May  to  August,  it  ripens  in  the  rainy  season. 

Irrigation. — There  is  no  irrigation. 

Cultivation  consists  simply  in  cutting  the  grass  and  weeds  that 
spring  up  whenever  needed,  and  is  done,  as  stated,  with  a  large  hoe. 

In  a  very  few  orchards  the  ground  is  seeded  with  grass,  which  is  cut 
when  green,  after  which  the  soil  is  loosened  with  the  hoe,  then  animal 
manure  is  scattered  broadcast  through  the  grove. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  done  after  the  tree  reaches  its  fifth  year,  or  there- 
abouts, say  4  to  6  feet  from  the  ground.  It  is  then  continued  every  year 
thereafter,  while  the  tree  has  growth. 

Picking. — This  depends  on  the  demand,  as  they  are  not  shipped.  Peo- 
ple will  buy  them  only  when  ripe,  consequent^  they  are  allowed  to 
remain  on  the  tree  till  reaching  the  stage  of  ripeness. 

Were  the  oranges  to  be  shipped,  the  picking  before  being  ripe,  would, 
of  course,  depend  upon  the  length  of  time  occupied  by  the  steamer  to 
the  place  of  destination. 

Planting. — The  trees  are  planted  from  12  to  16  feet  apart,  and  propa- 
gated by  cuttings  in  Bahia.  The  orchards  are  very  small  generally. 

Maturity.— The  trees  commence  to  bear  in  about  five  years.  If  the 
trees  are  properly  cared  for,  largest  crops  are  obtained  from  the  eighth 
to  the  twentieth  or  twenty-fifth  year  in  the  life  of  the  tree.  Much  de- 
pends, of  course,  on  the  seasons — whether  very  dry  or  very  wet.  They 
are  fruitful  for  thirty  to  forty  years. 

Insect  pests. — A  sort  of  white  worm,  which  is  destroyed  by  brushing 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  with  a  mixture  of  clay  and  water,  or  rather  paint- 
ing it  with  the  liquid  mixture. 

LEMONS. 

There  are  but  two  varieties  of  lemons  in  this  State.  The  one  called 
Lima  doce,  or  sweet  juice;  the  other  Limao,  an  acid,  nearly  round  lime. 
This  lime  is  abundant,  but  is  not  cultivated  to  any  appreciable  extent. 
It  is  much  more  acid  than  the  lemon  proper,  and  is  known,  I  believe, 
by  the  scientific  name  of  Citrus  limetta,  the  lemon  being  known  as  Cit* 
rus  limonum. 

As  the  limes  are  not  shipped  there  is  no  curing,  no  packing.  They 
are  picked  whenever  there  is  a  demand  for  them  and,  like  oranges,  may 


412  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

be  obtained  nearly  the  entire  year,  though  like  the  oranges  they  are 
best  in  their  season,  which  is  the  same  as  the  orange  season. 

There  are  no  statistics  issued  on  the  subject  from  any  source.  Prices 
of  both  oranges  and  lemons  depend  on  the  supply.  The  lowest  price 
for  the  best  quality  of  oranges  is  about  4  vintins,  equal  to  4  cents. 
The  maximum  price  is  about  8  vintins,  say  8  cents.  Lemons,  or  limes, 
may  be  bought  from  ten  for  1  cent  to  one  for  3  cents,  depending  on  the 
supply  01  scarcity. 

D.  N.  BURKE, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Bahia,  March  1,  1890. 


BRITISH  GUIANA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WALTHALL,  OI*DEMERARA. 

• 

ORANGES. 

Varieties. — The  oranges  grown  in  this  colony  are  known  as  tangier- 
ine,  bitter,  sweet,  and  myrtle.  Under  the  term  u  sweet,"  several  varie- 
ties are  included,  which  have  no  distinctive  name. 

Situation.— The  groves  are  on  the  coast  lauds  and  banks  of  the  rivers, 
inland  from  the  sea,  varying  from  a  few  hundred  yards  to  several  or 
many  miles,  but  scarcely  above  the  sea  at  all,  as  the  alluvial  laud  lies 
mainly  below  the  level  of  spring-tides.  The  cultivated  lands  are  gen- 
erally open,  with  little  shade,  and  almost  exclusively  level.  The  soil  is 
alluvial,  forming  a  stiff  blue  clay,  with  a  superficial  covering  of  u  pe- 
gass,"  or  vegetable  mould. 

Climatic  influences.— The  year  consists  of  two  wet  and  two  dry  sea- 
sons, more  or  less  irregular  in  duration.  December  and  January  are 
generally  rainy;  February  and  March  usually  dry  ;  April  (in  whole  or 
in  part),  May,  June,  July,  and  sometimes  August,  are  more  or  less  wet, 
May  and  June  being  generally  very  rainy ;  September  and  October 
almost  invariably  very  dry,  as  is  sometimes  a  part  or  the  whole  of  No- 
vember. February,  April,  August,  and  November  are,  however,  very 
variable  and  uncertain.  I 

The  temperature  is  singularly  uniform.  The  extremes  on  the  coast 
are  about  70°  and  90°,  Fahrenheit.  The  difference  between  day  and 
night  is  more  marked  than  the  variations  of  either  the  day  or  the  night 
temperature  at  the  different  seasons.  The  mean  maximum  temperature 
of  the  days  is  about  87° ;  mean  minimum  of  the  nights,  about  75°. 

There  are  not  many  days  that  can  properly  be  called  sultry,  as  good 
breezes  generally  prevail  at  all  seasons. 

The  rain-fall  is  variable,  ranging  within  the  last  twenty  years  from 
52  to  108  inches,  but  averaging  about  85  or  90  inches. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS — BRITISH  GUIANA  AND  ECUADOR.       413 

Irrigation. — None,  except  what  is  merely  incidental.  (See  reports  of 
the  undersigned,  of  August  2, 1889,  on  Irrigation  and  Drainage,  and  of 
November  8,  1889,  on  Canals,  etc.,  in  British  Guiana.)  There  is  practi- 
cally no  cultivation  in  this  colony  of  any  fruits  except  plantains  and 
cocoanuts. 

Fertilizers. — No  fertilizers  are  ever  used. 

Pruning. — No  pruning  is  ever  done. 

Picking. — Gathered  when  mature,  but  while  still  green.  Usually 
kept  dry,  but  no  system  of  curing  followed.  None  are  exported. 

Planting. — There  are  no  regular  plantations.  Therefore  there  is  no 
system  as  to  distance  apart.  The  trees  are  propagated  exclusively 
from  seed.  The  trees  are  usually  mixed  with  other  plants,  and  there- 
fore variable  in  extent. 

Maturity. — The  trees  begin  to  bear  when  from  five  to  seven  years  old. 
They  mature  at  the  age  of  from  ten  to  twenty  years,  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  period  of  greatest  production,  although  this  is  largely 
dependent  upon  various  circumstances. 

Insect  pests. — Orange  scale  insects  on  the  coast,  and  parasol  ants  in 
the  interior.  No  treatment  adopted  as  a  rule. 

LEMONS. 

Very  few,  if  any,  lemons  are  grown  in  this  colony.    Limes  are  cheap 
and  abundant  but  not  systematically  cultivated,  picked,  or  cured,  and 
none  are  shipped. 
No  statistics  issued. 
Neither  figs  nor  olives  are  grown  in  British  Guiana. 

W.  T.  WALTHALL, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Demerara,  February  20,  1890. 


ECUADOR. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  SORSBY  OF  GUAYAQUIL. 
ORANGES. 

There  is  but  one  variety. 

Location. — The  distance  from  the  sea  depends  upon  the  sea-level. 
Elevation  above  the  sea-level  1,000  to  1,500  feet.  Exposure  to  the  sun 
continuous. 

Level  land  is  best,  soil  and  subsoil  formation ;  lime  and  sandy. 

Climatic  influences. — Temperature  50°  minimum,  88°  maximum,  70° 
average.  Nights  warm  and  moist;  sultry  days  in  dry  season  ;  atmos- 
phere extremely  dry.  There  are  two  distinct  seasons.  In  the  dry  sea- 
son it  is  never  wet,  and  in  the  wet  it  is  never  dry,  the  rain-fall  for  four 


414        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

months  being  very  hea\y.  When  rain  falls,  the  growth  of  the  tree  and 
fruit  is  attained.  Irrigation  not  practiced. 

Cultivation. — Plowing  during  rainy  season.    No  fertilizers  used. 

Pruning. — Not  resorted  to. 

Picking. — Picked  in  the  dry  season,  June  and  July,  mainly,  and 
picked  half  ripe  for  export,  but  ripe  for  home  consumption. 

Packing  and  shipping. — Packed  loose,  and  shipped  to  Peru  and  Chili 
exclusively. 

Planting. — Distance  planted  apart  12  feet ;  propagated  by  seed ;  none 
but  seedlings.  The  orchards  are  small. 

Maturity. — Age  of  fruiting  begin  at  five  years ;  age  of  largest  crops 
at  ten  years ;  maturity  of  trees  ten  years. 

Insect  pests — There  is  an  injurious  insect  pest  known  as  the  Pulgou, 
which  kills  the  tree. 

LEMONS. 

Picking. — The  lemon  is  small,  and  is  picked  green  both  for  home  con- 
sumption and  for  export,  and  ripens  after  it  is  gathered.  There  is  no 
method  of  curing.  They  are  picked  in  the  dry  season,  mainly  in  June 
and  July. 

Curing. — There  is  no  particular  process;  the  fruit  is  handled,  both  in 
gathering,  stowing,  and  shipping,  by  hand. 

Yield. — The  best  information  I  can  get  is  that  the  yield  of  the  orange 
is  about  1,500,000  per  annum,  the  price  being  about  80  cents  sucre,*  or, 
say,  CO  cents  gold,  per  100. 

It  is  practically  impossible  to  get  the  yield  of  the  lemon.  There  is 
exported  s^bout  60  boxes  of  500  each,  and  the  price  is  about  300  sucre 
or  $2.10  United  States  gold  per  box. 

WILLIAM  B.  SORSBY, 

Consul- General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Guayaquil,  March  10,  1890. 


ECUADOR. 

REPORT  SY  CONSUL  BEACH,  OF  GUAYAQUIL. 
(Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41|.) 

Notwithstanding  its  very  restricted  domain,  it  is  probable  that  no 
country  in  the  world  possesses  so  great  a  variation  of  climate  as 
Ecuador,  which  ranges  from  the  temperature  of  perpetual  snow  to  that 
of  perpetual  summer,  neither  essentially  changing  with  the  alternations 
of  the  seasons.  The  ice  and  snow  at  all  times  cover  the  summits  of 
Chimborazo  and  other  mountains  of  great  altitude,  while  in  the  lower 
sections  the  mercury  ranges  between  65°  and  85°. 


The  aucre  i.s  the  monetary  unit  of  Ecuador. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  ECUADOR.          415 

The  soil  is  h-ss  varied  than  the  climate  in  characteristics,  though 
possessing  several  elements.  The  lowlands  are  either  loam  unmixed, 
sandy  loam,  or  clay  loam.  The  surface  of  the  uplands,  with  scarcely 
an  exception,  is  of  volcanic  origin — lava,  scoria,  porphyry,  etc.  As  in 
some  other  part  of  South  America,  notably  Venezuela,  the  exposed 
rocks  are  undergoing  a  constant  decomposition,  producing  a  soil  every- 
where in  some  degree  fertile.  In  Ecuador  even  the  lava  has  been  so 
disintegrated  as  to  form  a  soil.  Those  giving  attention  to  botany  un- 
derstand that  each  of  the  vegetable  species  needs  specific  elements  to 
promote  germination  and  conduce  to  development.  Some  require  ele- 
ments other  than  a  favorable  soil  or  temperature.  A  portion  of  the 
vegetable  kingdom  matures  only  after  passing  through  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  and  which  would  not  survive  under  a  continuous  sum- 
mer temperature.  The  cocoanut  tree,  as  an  illustration  of  the  special 
requirements  of  many  species  of  plants,  may  have  a  soil  and  tempera- 
ture that  are  favorable,  yet  it  must  "  breathe  r  the  salt  atmosphere  in 
order  to  exist  and  thrive. 

Ecuador,  though  having  the  wide  range  of  temperature  before  men- 
tioned, does  not  have  radical  changes,  and  therefore  does  not  sustain 
all  of  the  vegetation  that  would  appear  to  have  a  place  somewhere  in 
the  wide  range  of  temperature  noted.  Yet  there  are  few  countries,  if 
any,  that  can  sustain  a  more  diversified  vegetation  than  Ecuador.  In 
fruits  it  produces  all  that  belong  to  the  tropics,  usually  in  great  profu- 
sion and  perfection ;  and  many  varieties  not  considered  tropical,  as 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  and  strawberries.  In  no  respect  have  the 
productive  resources  of  the  country  been  fully  developed,  and  the  prac- 
tices afford  a  poor  instruction  for  others  to  follow.  A  description  of  the 
crudities  of  the  practice,  and  possibilities  of  the  country,  may  prove  of 
interest  in  portraying  inutilized  opportunities,  and  how  not  to  do  it. 

ORANGES. 

There  are  three  varieties  of  oranges  grown  in  Ecuador,  viz,  thick  skin 
and  thin  skin,  sweet,  and  sour.  The  thin-skin  variety  is  in  most  de- 
mand for  domestic  use.  None  are  exported  further  than  Peru  and  Chili. 
The  trees  come  into  bearing  at  from  three  to  four  years  of  age,  and  con- 
tinue to  bear  until  about  twenty  years  old. 

The  trees  are  all  seedlings  ;  that  is,  they  coineup  and  grow  naturally. 

The  fruit  while  ripening  is  occasionally  afflicted  with  insects,  evidently 
after  the  sweet  juice. 

Asa  rule  the  trees  are  not  planted,  but  grow  where  they  by  chance 
come  up.  If  set  out  in  orchards  the  trees  should  be  placed  at  least  40 
feet  apart,  as  the  fruit  requires  much  air  and  sunlight  to  mature  well. 

The  fruit  does  not  produce  well  immediately  on,  the  sea-coast,  but  5 
miles  or  more  in  the  interior  it  does  well  on  any  kind  of  soil,  though  best 
on  a  deep,  rich  loam. 


416        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  fruit  is  uot  irrigated,  and  the  land  is  not  cultivated,  not  even  by 
cutting  down  the  brush  and  weeds  with  a  machete. 

No  expense  for  cultivation.  Trees  well  matured  average  a  yield  of 
4,000  oranges  per  year,  which  are  sold  on  the  tree  at  $10,  but  which 
bring  in  the  Guayaquil  market  from  $3  to  $4  per  thousand.  The  home 
market  is  usually  well  supplied,  and  more  luscious  fruit  is  not  elsewhere 
produced. 

LEMONS. 

The  lemon  family  in  Ecuador  is  of  three  sorts — large  sour,  limes,  and 
sweet.  The  trees  come  into  bearing  at  from  two  to  three  years  of  age> 
and  continue  to  bear  up  to  about  twenty  years  of  age. 

The  trees  are  all  seedlings,  and  come  up  by  chance. 

Neither  trees  nor  fruit  are  troubled  with  insects. 

There  are  no  orchards;  but  if  there  were,  the  trees,  to  produce  well  and 
bear  good  fruit,  should  be  from  40  to  50  feet  apart,  for  the  same  reason 
as  given  regarding  oranges.  The  trees  that  come  up  promiscuously 
are  often  transplanted  into  hedges  and  set  near  together,  more  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  fence  than  realizing  from  the  fruit,  which  is  of 
market  value. 

The  trees  are  not  detrimentally  affected  by  sea  breezes,  and  they  ap- 
pear to  thrive  anywhere. 

The  trees  are  not  cultivated  or  irrigated. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  what  the  yield  would  be  under  good  treatment, 
but  it  certainly  would  be  very  large.  The  price  of  the  fruit  is  too  low 
to  make  the  business  of  lemon  growing  profitable  in  Ecuador. 

HORATIO  N.  BEACH, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Guayaquil,  February  24,  1884. 


VENEZUELA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BIRD,  OF  LAQUAYBA. 

ORANGES. — From  general  information  and  from  considerable  personal 
observation,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  Valencia  orange  is  the  only  va- 
riety known  in  Venezuela,  the  besc  of  which  grow  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
city  of  Valencia,  Venezuela,  40  miles  in  the  interior  and  about  1,825  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  They  seem  to  thrive  best  with  moderate  ex- 
posure to  the  sun  on  hilly  or  undulating  land,  on  soil  composed  of  black 
loam.  The  average  temperature  best  suited  to  their  growth  would  ap- 
pear to  be  77°  P.,  with  extremes  of  85°  and  70°.  The  fruit  matures  best 
in  a  moderate  season  of  rain,  but  irrigation  is  never  practiced.  The 
cultivation  of  this  fruit  is  proceeded  with  after  the  most  primitive  fash- 
ion, being  propagated  by  grafts  on  seedling  stocks  and  receiving  no 
fertilizing  nor  pruning  whatever.  The  orchards  are  of  small  extent, 


ORANGES    AND    LEMOiTS    IN    VENEZUELA.  41  7 

none  being  raised  for  exportation.  The  trees  are  set  15  feet  apart;  they 
sutler  little  or  no  injury  from  insects  or  fungous  growth  ;  they  come  into 
bearing  after  five  years  from  planting,  when  they  begin  to  bear  average 
crops  and  are  therea  fter  quite  neglected.  When  planted  near  the  coast 
the  orange  does  not  do  well,  but  those  raised  in  the  interior  are  of  good 
size  and  line  flavor. 

LEMONS. — The  lemon  is  not  grown  in  Venezuela.  There  is  a  larger 
sour-sweet  fruit  raised  here  that  is,  in  general  appearance,  much  like 
the  lemon.  There  is  also  the  smaller  fruit  called  the  lime,  that  is  raised 
in  great  abundance,  but  never  exported.  These  are  the  only  fruits  prop- 
agated here  that  bear  any  resemblance  to  the  lemon  of  commerce. 

WINIFELD  S.  BIRD, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Laguayra,  November  15,  1889. 


MARACAIBO. 

Oranges  and  lemons  of  many  varieties  grow  wild  in  abundance  on 
our  river  bottoms  but  nobody  has  ever  paid  any  attention  to  their  culti- 
vation. Figs  are  also  planted,  but  very  few  ;  they  bear  in  great  abun- 
dance. The  same  may  be  said  of  olives;  both  figs  and  olives  grow  in 
the  hot  sandy  soil  of  the  coast  as  well  as  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  Cor- 
dilleras. There  is  no  doubt  that  if  those  fruits  would  receive  proper 
attention  and  were  cultivated  on  a  large  scale  a  great  export  trade 
could  be  established. 

E.  H.  PLUMACHEK, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Maracaibo,  December  14,  1889. 


PUERTO  CABELLO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  DE  BLANO. 

Relative  to  the  cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  and  olives  in  this 
district,  I  have  the  honor  to  report  that  I  have  been  unable  to  obtain 
Information  of  sufficient  value  to  be  transmitted  to  the  Department  of 
State.  The  olive  tree  is  not  known  in  this  district ;  as  for  oranges, 
lemons,  and  figs,  they  are  not  cultivated  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  term ; 
they  grow  without  any  care  or  attention  here  and  there,  and  flourish 
and  thrive,  or  languish  and  perish,  according  to  circumstances.  No 
lemons,  oranges,  or  figs  are  exported  from  this  district. 

CHARLES  DE  BLANC, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Puerto  Cabello,  February  20,  1890. 


418  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


BRITISH  WEST  INDIES. 

BERMUDA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BECKW1TH,  OF  HAMILTON* 

Varieties. — In  Bermuda  we  have  but  one  variety  of  sweet  orange, 
which  is  delicious,  large,  and  juicy.  I  know  of  no  name  for  our  oranges ; 
they  are  yellow,  somewhat  like  the  Havana  and  New  Orleans  oranges, 
although  not  oval  shape,  being  round  and  flat;  some  measuring  18 
inches  in  circumference.  The  Mandarin  orange  and  grape  fruit  are  also 
grown. 

Situation. — The  trees  grow  in  valleys  and  are  protected  by  cedar 
trees  and  hills.  When  exposed  to  the  high  winds  they  do  not  flourish. 
They  are  sometimes  grown  near  little  bays,  and  but  a  few  feet  from  the 
sea,  and  very  little  above  sea-level.  The  trees  thrive  by  exposure  to 
the  sun.  The  valleys  are  the  best  where  the  soil  is  the  deepest,  and  of 
a  deep-red  color. 

Soil. — The  soil  is  from  3  to  4  feet  in  depth,  and  subsoil  is  a  deep- 
red  clay  in  these  valleys,  in  some  places  of  the  depth  of  12  feet,  but  on 
the  sides  of  hills  not  deeper  than  6  to  12  inches,  and  mostly  a  loamy 
soil. 

Climate — We  can  grow  here  all  that  grows  in  a  tropical  climate. 

In  the  summer  the  average  temperature  is  about  80°,  in  winter  from 
65°  to  70°.  Night  and  day  varies  very  little.  Our  changes  are  seldom 
more  than  from  3°  to  4°.  The  sultry  days  are  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber. The  moist  atmosphere  occurs  after  heavy  rains,  the  ground  being 
porous,  and  the  heat  of  the  sun  will  then  produce  a  heavy  atmosphere; 
ordinarily  clear,  bright,  and  beautiful  weather. 

Trees  of  all  kinds  are  becoming  fewer  on  the  islands,  in  consequence 
of  which  we  do  not  have  as  much  rain  as  formerly,  but  when  we  have 
frequent  rains  it  adds  much  to  the  growth  of  the  fruit  and  trees. 

The  seed  is  planted  in  boxes ;  they  are  also  budded  on  the  Seville 
orange  and  lemon  when  the  bark  can  be  freely  removed  from  the  wood. 

Cultivation. — Most  of  the  trees  are  little  cultivated;  some  are  planted 
in  the  grounds  with  the  crops,  and  the  only  fertilizers  are  what  are  used 
for  other  crops — sea- weed,  stable  manure,  etc.  I  find  the  best  fertilizer 
to  be  chamber-lye,  about  1  gallon  to  300  gallons  of  water,  thrown  around 
the  roots  two  or  three  times  a  mouth.  Care  must  be  used  in  not  mak- 
ing it  too  strong,  as  the  albumen  forms  around  the  roots  and  prevents 
the  water  penetrating,  and  in  time  all  the  leaves  drop,  and  if  the  roots 
are  not  attended  to  the  tree  dies ;  the  remedy  is  to  remove  all  the  soil 
and  use  lots  of  water. 

*  I  have  obtained  the  information  herewith  given,  largely,  through  Mr.  J.  B.  Heyl, 
who  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  successful  fruit  growers  here. — H.  W.  B. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  BERMUDA.          419 

Pruning. — Only  the  dried  branches  are  cut  off  fruit-bearing  trees,  trim 
while  young  to  a  proper  shape — then  let  alone.  The  height  from  the 
ground  iu  some  cases  is  30  feet,  but  a  good  height  here  is  from  20  to  25 
feet.  They  have  always  to  be  protected  from  the  wind. 

Picking. — The  picking  is  done  in  December  and  at  any  hour  of  the 
day.  They  are  picked  when  fully  yellow — if  the  negroes  do  not  steal 
them  before. 

Curing. — In  a  dry  room  for  two  or  three  days,  spread  on  the  floor, 
numbers  too  small  to  ship,  home  consumption  take  all. 

Planting. — The  trees  are  planted  about  20  feet  apart,  and  propagated 
by  transplanting  from  boxes — budded  and  grafted.  We  have  good 
oranges  from  seedlings,  but  know  what  we  are  getting  when  we  bud. 
You  can  never  count  on  a  seedling.  The  orchards  are  decidedly  small. 

Maturity. — A  budded  tree  bears  in  three  or  four  years ;  a  grafted  tree 
in  about  five  years;  seedlings  seven  or  eight  years,  sometimes  ten. 
When  the  largest  crops  are  produced  is  owing  mostly  to  favorable 
seasons.  There  are  trees  on  the  islands  over  fifty  years  old  still  bearing. 

Insect  pest. — Sometime  in  the  fifties  (58  or  59)  I  think,  a  vessel  was 
brought  inhere  in  distress,  with  a  cargo  of  oranges;  one  gentleman 
who  had  some  fifty  or  sixty  very  fine  trees  bought  a  few  boxes  of  these 
oranges  to  plant  the  seed.  In  a  few  months  his  flourishing  trees  were 
covered  with  an  insect  which  gave  the  trees  the  appearance  of  being 
whitewashed.  This  insect  fed  on  the  bark  of  the  tree  and  extracted 
the  yellow  sap  from  the  bark,  curling  the  latter  up.  Every  device 
thought  of  was  tried,  but  the  Island  was  cleaned  of  nearly  every  tree, 
lemon,  oranges,  limes,  all  shared  the  same  fate.  I  lost  mine  as  well, 
with  the  exception  of  two  lime  trees  and  a  few  lemons  in  another  part 
of  my  grounds  which  led  me  to  look  to  the  cause  of  their  being  healthy. 
Between  the  two  lime  trees  grew  a  pawpaw  tree,  and  on  looking  at  the 
lemon  trees  I  found  three  or  four  pawpaw  trees.  I  then  visited  all  the 
trees  I  heard  of  that  were  living,  and  wherever  I  found  a  live  tree  the 
pawpaw  tree  was  near  it.  I  also  found  glycerine  a  first-rate  remedy, 
half  glycerine  and  half  water  with  a  little  carbolic  acid,  applied  with  a 
paint  brush  all  over  the  trunk  seemed  to  keep  the  atmosphere  from 
the  insect,  which  soon  dies  (or  the  carbolic  acid  may  kill  it),  and  the 
first  rain  washes  off  the  glycerine,  which  does  not.  destroy  the  trees 
as  would  oil.  I  have  now  some  healthy  trees  grown  from  seed,  with 
fruit  on  and  last  year  we  had  a  fair  crop ;  another  thing  to  look  after  is 
that  your  trees  do  not  go  too  much  to  wood ;  the  woody  roots  should  be 
cut  off  5  or  6  feet  around  the  tree  ;  they  are  the  roots  running  from  the 
tree  which  make  the  branches,  and  the  fine  roots  that  are  close  to  the 
tree  are  the  fruit  roots  and  the  ones  to  be  nourished. 

HENRY  W.  BEOKWITH, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Hamilton,  November  28,  1889. 


420  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

DOMINICA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  STEDMAN 

The  oranges  exported  from  this  island  are  of  the  common  sweet 
variety.  The  trees  are  not  cultivated,  but  grow  promiscuously  through- 
out the  island,  at  altitudes  varying  from  50  to  1,600  feet,  and  are  most 
plentiful  on  the  leeward  side.  The  fruit  begins  to  ripen  early  in  Septem- 
ber, and  the  crop  continues  until  the  end  of  November— small  quantities 
can  be  had  in  December  and  January. 

The  Seville  sweet  orange  (which  is  used  principally  in  making  mar- 
malade) ;  the  Tangarine  and  Portugal  oranges  are  also  grown  to  a  small 
extent,  but  have  not  been  exported. 

There  are  a  few  lemon  trees  in  the  island,  mostly  of  a  poor  descrip- 
tion, but  the  lime  tree  is  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent  and  in- 
creasing annually.  A  small  quantity  of  the  fresh  fruit  is  exported,  but 
the  great  bulk  of  the  crop  is  compressed  and  the  juice  exported  in  a 
raw  and  concentrated  form,  the  latter  principally  to  the  United  States 

The  trees  are  grown  at  various  heights,  in  some  places  as  high  as 
1,500  feet.  The  trees  are  planted  at  distances  of  from  14  to  18  feet 
apart,  according  to  the  richness  of  the  soil,  and  are  propagated  from 
seed.  The  picking  begins  in  July  and  extends  to  November,  the  height 
of  crop  being  in  September.  The  juice  is  extracted  by  passing  the. 
fruit  through  a  mill  and  afterwards  concentrating  in  copper  taches. 

WM.  STEDMAN, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Roseau,  Dominica,  March  4,  1890. 


JAMAICA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  HOSKINSON,  OF  KINGSTON. 
(Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41^.) 

In  reference  to  the  fruit  circular,  I  forwarded  by  last  mail  a  press 
copy  of  Dr.  Neesh's  lecture  on  orange  cultivation.  The  lecture  has 
since  been  published  in  one  of  the  city  newspapers,  and  combines  a 
scientific  treatment  of  the  subject  with  a  long  practical  experience  of 
the  writer.  Oranges  have  never  been  regularly  planted  out  in  this 
island  as  they  are  in  Florida,  all  the  orange  trees  having  been  self- 
sown,  mainly  by  the  seeds  being  carried  by  birds  into  the  brush,  and 
when  the  plant  has  grown  up  the  thickets  have  been  cleared  away, 
leaving  the  young  orange  trees  standing  in  irregular  groups.  No  pains 
is  ever  taken  to  improve  the  variety,  and  no  particular  attention  of  any 
is  given  to  tfce  trees,  the  cleared  land  being  the  main  considers 


ORANGES   IN   JAMAICA.  421 

tioii  for  cattle  grazing.    The  doctor  says  of  the  introduction  of  the 
orange : 

When  the  English  landed  in  this  island  they  found  here  the  sweet  and  bitter 
orange  and  the  lime.  The  citron  and  shaddock  are  of  more  recent  introduction ;  and 
at  the  present  time  nearly  all  the  useful  kinds  of  the  orange  family  are  either  widely 
disseminated  or  to  be  found  as  growing  specimens  in  our  botanical  gardens.  The 
JEgle  marmelos,  or  Bael  fruit,  is  yet  scarce;  the  Japanese  orange,  or  kumquat,  is 
almost  unknown,  and  some  kinds  of  lemon,  notably  the  bergamot  and  lime,  are  still 
wanting. 

After  speaking  at  length  of  the  conspicuous  and  distinctive  charac- 
teristics of  the  orange  tree  as  evidence  in  the  leaf,  the  flowers,  the 
seeds,  and  the  rind,  he  says : 

The  sweet  oranges  grown  in  Jamaica  have  been,  up  to  quite  recent  years,  of  no  par- 
ticular or  named  variety.  They  have  been  grown  from  seed ;  and  it  speaks  much  for 
the  perfect  suitability  of  the  soil  and  climate  in  most  parts  of  the  island  that  such 
excellent  fruit  should  have  been  produced  under  a  plan  which  embodies  none  of  the 
teachings  of  horticultural  art,  under  a  plan,  in  short,  which  is  one  of  neglect  or  lucky 
chance,  left  to  take  the  place  of  intelligent  guidance.  The  earliest  cultivators  of 
oranges  in  this  island  were  the  enslaved  negroes,  and  the  oldest  trees  yielding  the 
largest  crops  are  only  to  be  found  on  those  parts  of  estates  which  were  set  apart  for 
the  cottages  and  gardens  of  the  slaves.  I  know  of  a  small  sugar  estate  on  which, 
forty  years  after  emancipation,  the  fruits  of  the  orange  trees  planted  by  the  old 
negroes  around  their  dwellings,  were  sold  to  a  contractor,  without  any  expense  of 
labor,  for  £40.  This  was  almost  at  the  commencement  of  our  fruit  trade,  and  the 
crop  (more  carefully  handled  now  than  then)  is  worth  more  than  double  the  money. 
Our  common  variety,  then,  is  a  mixture  of  seedlings,  some  of  the  fruit  being  really 
excellent,  of  large  size,  of  good  flavor,  and  of  qualities  which  achieve  for  it  a  popu- 
larity in  the  American  market.  Naturally,  when  the  cultivators  trust  only  to  seed- 
ling trees  for  their  crops,  the  best  fruit  will  be  produced  in  the  most  highly-favored 
localities.  The  orange  tree  requires  a  deep,  rich  soil,  a  warm  climate,  with  plenty  of 
sun  to  ripen  and  sweeten  the  fruit,  and  plenty  of  moisture  to  keep  up  its  growth. 
These  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  obtain  in  the  parish  of  Manchester,  which  is 
famous  for  its  oranges,  also  in  the  cooler  parts  of  Clarendon  and  St.  Catherine  and  in 
St.  Ann's,  from  all  of  which  parts  the  best  oranges  are  exported.  % 

Of  the  methods  for  propagating  desired  varieties  he  says : 

We  owe  the  large  number  of  varieties  to  the  tendency  which  the  orange  has  to 
*'  sport,"  as  gardeners  term  the  tendency  of  seedlings  to  prove  different  from  the 
parent  plant.  Whilst  this  tendency  is  of  some  advantage  as  affording  the  chance  of 
improvement,  it  is  a  disadvantage,  in  that  it  prevents  the  propagation  of  the  tree  by 
means  of  seed,  for  when  seeds  are  sown  the  resulting  tree  is  much  more  likely  to  be 
inferior  to  than  it  is  to  equal  or  surpass  its  parent.  Hence  the  necessity  for  special 
means  of  propagation,  as  by  cuttings,  layering,  budding,  and  grafting.  The  orange 
tree  is  not  usually  propagated  by  cuttings,  but  it  can  be  done ;  nor  by  layers,  and 
yet,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  modification  of  the  method  of  layering,  known  as  layering 
by  elevation,  is  practiced  in  the  case  of  the  orange.  Almost  everybody  is  familiar 
with  the  process  of  laying  down  the  shoot  of  a  grape-vine.  The  branch  of  the  vine  is 
simply  laid  in  a  shallow  trench  ;  it  is  pegged  down  in  its  place,  or  a  stone  is  placed 
upon  it  to  keep  it  down.  The  trench  is  then  filled  up  with  earth,  which  should  be 
kept  moist,  when  in  about  three  mouths  a  copious  supply  of  roots  has  been  thrown 
out  by  the  branch  in  the  trench,  and  the  shoot  may  be  cut  off  from  the  parent  vine 
and  be  planted  in  an  independent  position.  Now,  in  the  case  of  a  high-growing  tree 
Jifce  the  orange,  we  can  not  bring  the  branch  down  to  the  ground,  but  we  can  carry 


422        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

up  the  soil  to  the  branch.  It  is  done  in  this  way :  A  flower-pot,  or  box  is  made  with 
a  slit  in  its  side,  so  as  to  receive  a  growing  branch,  which  is  first  of  all  prepared  by 
wounding  or  wringing  the  bark,  so  as  to  cause  it  the  more  readily  to  throw  out  roots. 
The  flower- pots  or  boxes  are  then  filled  with  soil  and  secured  in  their  places  by  cords 
or  props.  The  earth  in  the  pots  is  kept  moist  by  frequent  waterings  ;  and  the  result 
is  that  in  a  short  time  roots  are  thrown  out,  after  which  the  branch  may  be  sawn  off 
below  the  flower-pot,  and  it  is  ready  to  be  planted  out.  This  plan  is  now  greatly  re- 
sorted to  by  the  Portuguese  in  the  Azores  ;  and  I  should  like  to  read  the  following 
short  extract  from  the  account  of  their  method  by  a  visitor  to  the  orange  groves  of 
the  island  of  St.  Michael.  He  says : 

"  The  trees  are  increased  in  a  curious  way.  The  mode  of  propagation  was  derived 
from  the  Chinese,  and  has  been  much  in  use  of  late  years.  A  branch  of  the  diameter 
of  4  or  5  inches  is  chosen,  around  which  a  circular  incision  is  cut.  Around  this  straw 
matting  is  wound  in  the  shape  of  a  funnel,  and  filled  with  beaten  earth  from  the  mid- 
dle of  May  to  the  middle  of  June.  Roots  soon  begin  to  push,  and  by  the  following 
winter  it  is  provided  with  sufficient  to  support  it  when  detached  from  the  parent 
stem.  The  young  plant  thus  obtained  often  bears  fruit  at  the  end  of  two  or  three 
years." 

This  mode  of  propagation  has  simplicity  for  its  recommendation.  By  its  means  the 
possessor  of  any  good  kind  of  orange  tree  could  soon  establish  a  considerable  number 
of  the  same  kind,  and  without  the  exercise  of  any  special  skill.  But  it  is  a  slow  pro- 
cess of  multiplication  compared  with  budding  and  grafting,  which  in  fact  are  the 
modes  adopted  by  nurserymen.  For  these  modes  stocks  are  necessary.  Stocks  may 
be  raised  from  seeds,  or  fall-grown  bitter  orange  trees,  or  sweet-orange  trees  of  inferior 
kinds  may  be  cut  down  to  stumps  and  a  bud  or  graft  inserted.  For  the  theory  on 
which  budding  and  grafting  depends  I  must  refer  you  to  horticultural  works,  and  also 
for  the  details.  Let  it  suffice  here  to  state  that  the  process  is  by  no  means  difficult, 
and  may  be  acquired  by  any  persevering  grower  simply  by  attending  to  the  direc- 
tions. 

***»**!» 

To  return  to  the  orange  tree  and  the  question  of  pruning.  The  orange  tree  differs 
from  coffee  trees  and  most  fruit  trees  in  that  very  little  skill  or  labor  in  pruning  is 
required.  As  already  stated,  the  fruit  is  formed  on  young  shoots  of  the  current  year's 
growth,  and  consequently  pruning  this  tree  can  not  exert  the  same  influence  as  in 
pruning  coffee,  which  requires  ripened  wood  for  the  bearing  shoot.  Fertility  in  the 
orange  is  promoted  by  manuring,  and  pruning  may  be  simply  restricted  to  cutting 
out  dead  wood  and  misdirected  branches,  or  to  giving  a  desirable  shape  to  young 
trees.  To  stimulate  a  bearing  tree  to  its  utmost  productiveness,  the  following  plan 
may  be  followed :  Let  a  cord  be  passed  loosely  round  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  and  with 
the  distance  of  the  uttermost  branches  from  the  stem  for  a  radius,  let  a  circle  be 
marked  on  the  ground  round  the  entire  circumference  of  the  tree.  A  deep  trench, 
fully  a  foot  wide,  should  be  dug  along  this  line  and  be  filled  up  with  a  mixture  of 
bone-dust  and  well-rotted  manure  ;  finally,  let  the  trench  be  covered  by  the  loosened 
soil.  The  effect  of  this  treatment  will  be  to  stimulate  a  growth  of  young  rootlets, 
which  will  feed  upon  the  enriched  soil  of  the  trench ;  the  result  of  this  •vtill  be  that 
a  strong  growth  of  young  shoots  will  everywhere  take  place  amongst  the  branches; 
and,  as  a  final  consequence,  the  tree  will  be  full  of  flower  and  fruit.  When  the  sea- 
son's growth  has  taken  place,  it  will  be  found  that  the  tree  has  gained  in  size  to  the 
outer  dimensions  of  the  trench. 

Of  the  preparation  for  market  be  says : 

Within  the  past  few  years  great  improvements  have  taken  place  in  the  modes  of 
collecting  and  packing  the  fruit.  At  first,  in  the  early  history  of  our  fruit  trade,  the 
oranges  were  rudely  knocked  down  from  the  trees  by  means  of  long  sticks,  with  no 
more  care  than  a  pe,n -keeper's  cattle-man  would  take  in  knocking  down  a  lot  of  bitter 
oranges  as  a  fee-el  for  the  jiigs.  They  were  carried  loose  in  carts  to  the  port,  and  at  tha 


ORANGES    IN    JAMAICA.  423 

port  the  oranges  were  shipped  in  bulk.  With  all  this  bruising  and  want  of  care  it  is  not 
surprising  that  cargoes  on  arrival  at  New  York  were  found  to  be  in  such  adamaged  state 
as  to  be  next  to  worthless  in  value.  These  early  shipments  indeed  seem  to  have  been 
good  for  no  other  effect  than  to  teach  the  American  consignees  two  things,  one  of  which 
was  the  excellence  of  a  Jamaica  orange  when  it  happened  to  reach  New  York  in  good 
condition,  the  other  was  the  lamentable  ignorance  of  our  people  of  all  that  pertained 
to  collecting  and  packing  the  fruit.  American  contractors  next  appeared  upon  the 
scene.  These  agents  had  been  sent  out  to  make  purchases  of  growing  crops,  and  to 
teach  and  superintend  improved  methods  of  packing.  They  brought  with  them 
hundreds  of  pairs  of  small,  stout  pruniug-shears,  of  no  great  monetary  value,  which 
they  gave  away  to  the  laborers,  whom  they  taught  &>  cut  off  the  orange  fruits  by  the 
stem  and  to  deposit  them  carefully  in  a  basket.  They  also  taught  that  the  oranges 
should  be  carefully  laid  on  shelves  and  floors  for  one  or  two  days,  then  to  examine 
them  for  signs  of  decay,  and  to  wrap  up  in  paper  and  pack  in  barrels  only  those  which 
were  sound.  These  teachings,  wherever  they  were  intelligently  followed,  had  a  good 
effect.  The  extra  value  of  Manchester  "  stem-cut"  oranges  in  the  New  York  market 
soon  proved  that  care  meant  money,  while  carelessness  signified  loss.  Our  Creole 
middlemen  and  contractors  soon  became  more  exacting  as  to  the  careful  handling  of 
the  oranges  they  bought  from  the  peasant  proprietors,  and  the  upward  tendency  of 
local  prices  has  steadily  gone  on  as  a  consequence.  Seven  or  eight  years  ago  the 
wholesale  price  of  oranges  in  the  interior  towns  was  sixpence  per  100,  and  their  value 
in  New  York  was  a  thing  not  to  be  foretold  from  the  prices-current,  for  very  often  the 
shipment  of  such  fruit  entailed  a  heavy  loss.  Nowadays  the  price  of  a  barrel  of 
wrapped  oranges  is  $3,  and  the  price  obtained  in  New  York  fluctuates  between  $5  and 
$7.  Under  the  improved  modes  of  packing  the  trade  has  steadily  gone  on  increasing, 
until  it  is  now  an  established  and  most  important  industry,  representing,  according 
to  the  latest  returns,  an  export  value  of  £37,567,  obtained  for  34,000,000  of  oranges. 

And  of  the  several  competitors  in  the  fruit  market  he  says : 

For  the  possession  of  our  actual  and  possible  future  markets  we  have  certain  com- 
petitors. The  principal  of  these  is  Florida ;  next  comes  Cuba,  which  ships  oranges 
principally  from  the  port  of  Havana.  The  island  of  Porto  Rico  is  rather  a  formidable 
competitor.  Mayaguez  is  the  principal  port  of  shipment,  and  the  fruit  is  so  fine  that 
it  fetches  good  pricesjn  the  American  market.  Of  Jamaica  oranges  400  are  taken  as 
the  average  number  contained  in  a  barrel,  but  of  the  oranges  shipped  from  Porto  Rico  a 
barrel  contains  on  the  average  350  ;  in  other  words,  seven  of  such  oranges  are  equal  to 
eight  of  those  sent  from  Jamaica.  They  are  also  said  to  keep  well.  The  extra  size 
denotes  careful  cultivation,  and  the  better  keeping  qualities  tell  of  care  in  picking  and 
packing.  The  Bahama  Islands  usually  send  oranges  to  the  American  markets,  but  this 
year  the  growers  have  been  unfortunate,  as  the  crop  is  reported  to  have  been  entirely 
destroyed  by  a  succession  of  heavy  gales.  The  other  West  India  Islands  must  also  be 
regarded  as  possible  competitors,  though  up  to  the  present  they  are  not  actively  com- 
peting. British  Honduras  is  also  a  competitor,  both  in  bananas  and  oranges,  and  the 
opening  up  of  a  direct  line  of  railway  between  Mexico  and  the  American  frontier, 
which  has  just  no  w  occurred,  also  suggests  Mexico  as  a  competitor,  if  not  with  Jamaica, 
at  least  with  Florida.  California  is  even  a  competitor,  but  the  effect  of  her  com- 
petition is  simply  to  supply  the  markets  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  even  there  Califor- 
nia has  to  struggle  against  the  shipment  of  oranges  from  Tahiti  and  other  islands  in 
the  Pacific.  At  present  the  countries  bordering  the  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean 
are  competitors  more  for  the  supply  of  lemons  to  the  United  States  than  of  oranges. 
The  Azores  have  their  principal  orange  trade  with  England,  and  only  a  limited  trade 
with  the  United  States.  In  the  Azores  they  have  great  diflficul ties  of  climate  to  con- 
tend against.  Westerly  gales,  sweeping  over  the  wide  expanse  of  the  Atlantic,  are 
BO  violent  as  to  be  very  destructive  to  the  orange  crop.  To  overcome  the  disadvan- 
tage, expensive  structures  of  high-walled  iuclosures  of  small  area  have  to  be  resorted 
to  in  order  to  provide  shelter.  It  need  hardly  be  remarked  that  all  such  difficult^ 
^nd  expense  are  snared  in  Jamaica.; 


424  FKUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Let  me  add,  in  conclusion,  that  Jamaica  is  admirably  adapted  for 
orange  cultivation.  The  soil,  the  climate,  the  rapidly  increasing  steam 
facilities  for  transportation,  and  the  cheapness  of  laud  seem  to  me  to 
combine  to  make  of  this  island  an  especially  desirable  field.  As  I  have 
said,  the  fruit  actually  grows  wild,  and  without  other  cultivation  than 
keeping  down  the  bush.  If  the  same  intelligent  care  and  attention  were 
given  to  the  growth  of  the  tree  and  to  the  proper  packing  of  the  fruit 
for  market  that  obtains  with  us  in  the  United  States,  it  would  prove  a 
most  profitable  and  pleasant  occupation  to  all  engaged  in  it.  But  the 
cultivation  is  regarded  as  secondary  to  the  use  of  the  land  for  cattle 
or  sheep  pasturage,  and  the  care  and  handling  of  the  fruit  is  still,  as  a 
rule,  of  the  roughest  and  most  careless  description.  Nearly  50  percent, 
of  the  fruit,  on  an  average,  is  either  spoiled  or  seriously  damaged  before 
it  reaches  a  market,  and  the  greater  portion  of  this  great  loss  is  due  to 
rough  and  careless  handling. 

GEO.  E.  HOSKINSON, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  March  27,  1884. 


JAMAICA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  HOSKINSON. 
(Repnblished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41£.) 

In  further  continuation  of  the  subject  treated  of  in  my  dispatch  of 
the  27th  of  March,  I  have  now  the  honor  to  forward,  in  a  connected 
form,  the  notes  of  an  experienced  observer  and  cultivator  of  the  orange 
tree. 

GEO.  S.  HOSKINSON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  April  14,  1884. 

[Inclosure.— Consul  Hoskinson's  report.] 

Varieties. — Of  oranges,  the  varieties  principally  grown  are  native  seedlings,  some 
of  which  were  prior  to  the  emancipation  planted  by  the  slaves  near  their  dwellings 
and  attended  to  by  simple  methods  of  cultivation.  Many  of  the  trees  now  furnishing 
fruit  for  export  are  the  reman ts  of  those  planted  by  the  slaves,  such  as  the  irregular 
groves  now  to  be  found  on  sugarestates  and  coffee  plantations.  Some  of  the  trees  are 
native  seedlings  -spontaneously  springing  up  in  pastures  and  guinea-grass  pieces. 
Since  emancipation  the  colored  people  have  planted  orange  trees  in  their  small  free- 
holds in  the  mountains.  This  has  been  done  to  a  large  extent  in  the  parish  of  Man- 
chester, where  sweet  oranges  of  good  quality  have  been  long  grown,  and  where  the 
soil  and  climate  conduce  to  excellence  in  the  quality  of  the  fruit.  Besides  the  na- 
tive seedlings  superior  kinds  of  sweet  oranges  (of  unnamed  varieties)  have  been  is- 


ORANGES   IN   JAMAICA.  425 

sued  from  the  Botanic  Gardens,  also  Tangerine  oranges  of  a  very  fine  quality.  The 
trees  issued  from  the  gardens  are  bu'dded  and  grafted.  The  Tangerines  are  mostly 
grafted.  It  is  difficult  to  say  which  are  the  more  valuable.  The  Tangerine  oranges 
fetch  the  highest  price  in  the  local  markets,  but  they  are  not  exported.  Of  the  na- 
tive seedlings  those  produced  in  Manchester  are  admitted  to  be  the  best  in  the  island 
on  account  of  size,  sweetness,  flavor,  and  for  their  good  keeping  qualities.  It  has 
also  been  maintained  that  they  bear  handling,  packing,  and  the  sea  voyage  to  New 
York  better  than  varieties  grown  elsewhere  ;  for  example,  better  than  those  grown 
on  the  north  side  of  the  island.  Seedling  trees  begin  to  bear  at  eight,  nine,  and  ten 
years,  and  are  in  full  bearing  at  fifteen  or  twenty  years.  Grafted  or  budded  trees 
come  into  bearing  a  little  earlier  from  the  time  of  planting  out.  Nothing  definite 
can  be  stated  as  to  how  long  the  trees  remain  fruitful  further  than  it  must  be  a  long 
time,  as  trees  dating  from  the  era  of  slavery  and  estimated  to  be  fifty  or  sixty  years 
and  perhaps  older  are  still  in  full  vigor,  and  the  writer  has  seen  such  trees  without 
observing  about  them  any  signs  of  decay  from  old  age.  The  longevity  of  the  orange 
tree  is  well  known,  but  in  this  island  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  age  of  old  orange 
trees,  owing  to  the  fact  that  their  planting  was  the  work  of  slaves  in  their  own  time 
and  not  plantation  work.  Records  of  old  plantation  work  still  exist,  but  not  of  the 
planting  of  orange  trees.  The  foreign  market  for  Jamaica-grown  oranges  has  only 
been  opened  up  within  ten  or  twelve  years  past,  and  it  is  only  in  recent  years  that 
methodical  planting  has  been  resorted  to. 

Of  lemons,  the  known  varieties  are  only  two,  viz,  an  old-established  seedling  variety, 
producing  very  large  fruit,  and  seedlings  obtained  about  five  years  ago  by  the  im- 
portation of  Sicilian  lemons  from  New  York,  with  the  object  of  obtaining  their  seed 
for  planting  purposes.  The  fruit  obtained  from  the  trees  of  the  last-named  variety 
are  of  larger  size  than  the  fruits  from  which  their  seeds  were  obtained.  The  trees  re- 
ferred to  have  borne  good  crops  this  season,  the  lemon,  as  is  well  known,  coming 
earlier  into  bearing  than  the  orange.  There  is  as  yet  only  a  limited  production  of 
lemons,  and  the  trade  is  principally  in  the  hands  of  two  growers,  who  send  their  pro- 
duce to  New  York.  For  local  use,  in  the  preparation  principally  of  lemonade,  and  in 
cookery  and  domestic  uses  the  lime  takes  the  place  of  the  lemon.  The  lime  grows 
spontaneously  in  most  parts  of  the  island.  It  is  of  the  easiest  possible  culture. 

The  trees  of  all  these  varieties  of  citrus,  orange,  lemon,  and  lime  are  principally 
seedlings.  It  is  only  latterly,  that  is,  since  the  development  of  the  export  trade,  that 
budding  and  grafting  have  been  resorted  to. 

Insect  pests. — In  Jamaica  the  orange  trees  have  few  insect  pests,  and  there  are  no 
complaints  of  attacks  of  fungus.  It  is  only  where  orange  trees  are  attempted  to  be 
grown  in  hot  and  dry  localities,  as,  for  example,  in  gardens  in  the  city  of  Kingston, 
and  the  rather  arid  plain  of  the  Liguanea,  in  the  parish  of  St.  Andrews,  that  they 
suffer  from  coccus  and  ants.  In  such  localities  lemons  and  limes  suffer  less  than 
orange  trees ;  but  in  the  locality  referred  to  the  climate  is  admitted  to  be  too  hot  and 
dry  for  the  orange  tribe.  On  the  plains  of  St.  Catherine,  in  the  vicinity  of  Spanish 
Town,  recent  attempts  at  planting  orange  trees  have  been  made.  This  plain  is  an  ex- 
tension of  the  Liguanea,  but  the  climate  is  moist  and  the  lands  are  capable  of  irriga- 
tion by  the  Rio  Cobre  Irrigation  Works.  These  plantations  were  recently  inspected 
by  a  Government  officer,  one  of  the  superintendents  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  and  in 
his  report  he  speaks  favorably  of  the  appearance  of  the  young  trees,  without  men- 
tioning the  ravages  of  any  pest.  However,  it  is  known  that  the  coccus  has  attacked 
orange  trees  in  another  locality  in  the  same  parish,  but  the  attacks  have  been  sub- 
dued by  smearing  the  trees  with  a  composite  lime  wash  made  by  boiling  together 
lime,  sulphur,  and  tobacco  stems  in  water.  Further  in  the  interior  and  at  a  greater 
elevation  the  coccus  is  almost  entirely  unknown.  It  has  not  hitherto  been  a  subject 
of  complaint  amongst  growers. 

Planting. — Most  of  the  trees  in  pastures  and  on  sugar  estates  and  coffee  plantations 
etand  very  far  apart ;  indeed,  they  may  be  said  to  be  isolated  trees.  In  close  planta- 


426  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

tions  the  distances  are  between  20  and  30  feet  apart.  In  the  small  grounds  of  the 
peasantry  the  trees  may  be  observed  so  closely  planted  as  to  be  in  contact.  Wide 
planting,  however,  is  preferred  by  intelligent  growers  as  tending  to  the  best  results. 
Tangerine  oranges  are  planted  at  22  feet  apart,  and  larger  sweet  oranges  at  25  to  30 
feet  apart ;  lemons,  18  to  22  feet. 

Situation. — Plantations  of  orange  trees  are  made  principally  at  elevations  above 
1,000  feet.  In  Manchester  the  elevations  will  average  2,000  feet.  Undulating  valleys 
are  principally  selected  on  account  of  the  greater  depth  of  the  soil  to  be  found  on 
such  spots,  also  on  account  of  its  greater  richness.  The  soil  principally  selected  is 
that  of  the  white  limestone  formation  of  Jamaica  geology,  known  as  "  honeycomb 
rock."  The  resulting  soil  is  a  strong  red  earth,  calcareous  and  ochery,  owing  to  the 
presence  of  red  oxide  of  iron.  Orange  trees  yield  the  best  results  on  the  limestone 
soils,  both  on  account  of  constituents  promoting  fertility  and  on  account  of  the  per- 
fect natural  drainage  of  such  soils. 

The  sea-shore  is  avoided.  The  powerful  sea-breezes  (trade  winds)  are  hurtful  to 
the  blossoms  and  tender  branches.  At  an  elevation  of  500  feet  the  sea-breeze  ceases 
to  be  troublesome.  The  sea-shore  is  also  too  arid,  and  as  a  rule  the  soil  of  the  coast 
line  is  sterile  and  unsuitable. 

Irrigation.—  Artificial  irrigation  is  only  practiced  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  plain 
of  St.  Catherine,  and  its  application  to  orange  trees  must  at  present  be  regarded  as 
experimental  merely.  The  principal  crop  cultivated  between  orange  trees  is  guinea 
grass,  but  some  of  the  best  growers  prefer  to  keep  up  a  clean  cultivation,  the  number 
of  such  cultivations  and  cleanings  being  determined  by  the  growth  of  weeds.  To 
keep  up  a  clean  cultivation  in  certain  low  and  moist  districts  would  require  a  clean- 
ing every  three  weeks;  but  longer  intervals,  as  of  eight  or  ten  weeks,  could  be  taken 
in  drier  portions  of  the  year.  The  general  practice,  however,  is  to  allow  the  grass  to 
grow  and  to  keep  weeds  and  shrubby  undergrowth  cut  down  by  means  of  a  cut- 
lass or  bush-knife,  which  is  done  three  or  four  times  a  year.  In  the  grounds  of  the 
peasantry  the  whole  list  of  cultivated  crops  in  the  tropics  might  be  enumerated  as 
crops  cultivated  between  orange  trees.  It  may  suffice,  however,  to  mention  yams 
(Dioscorea  alata,  Dioscorea  trifida,  etc.),  cocoes  (Colocasia  esculente) ,  bananas  and  plan- 
tains (Musa  sapientum  and  Musa  paradisiaca),  coffee  shrubs  (Caffea  arabica),  papaws 
(Carica papaya),  annatto  (Bixa  orellana),  and  small  culinary  vegetables.  The  " yard" 
or  "  provision  ground"  of  the  peasant  is  generally  a  perfect  medley  of  vegetable 
growth,  including  besides  orange  trees  almost  everything  else.  In  such  places  the 
cultivation  of  the  orange  tree  is  associated  with  the  stirring  and  cleaning  of  the 
ground  necessary  for  the  smaller  crop. 

Yield. — Owing  to  imperfect  data  it  is  difficult  to  give  particulars  as  to  yield,  pro- 
ceeds, and  cost  of  cultivation.  Undoubtedly  the  yield  could  be  increased  by  more 
careful  cultivation  and  judicious  manuring.  The  yield  in  a  tropical  climate  may  be 
described  as  more  continuous  than  in  a  warm  temperate  or  subtropical  region.  Orange- 
trees  are  observed  to  be  in  flower  and  in  fruit  at  the  same  time.  The  tendency  to 
continuous  flowering  is  so  strong  that  every  copious  shower  may  be  said  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  a  growth  of  young  shoots  with  their  flowers.  This  tendency  greatly  pro- 
longs the  season  of  fruit.  It  is  scarcely  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  sweet  Granges 
may  be  obtained  all  the  year  round,  but  the  principal  season  of  fruit  is  from  Septem- 
ber to  April.  This  tendency  is  even  stronger  in  the  case  of  the  lime,  which  is  to  be 
had  in  plenty  for  ten  or  eleven  months  of  the  year.  As  to  proceeds,  it  is  only  when 
the  orange  crop  is  sold  in  bulk  to  a  contractor  that  the  figures  become  known.  This 
is  the  general  practice  on  sugar  estates  wherever  oranges  may  be  growing.  The  cost 
of  cultivation  has  a  wide  range,  from  nothing  at  all  where  it  is  neglected,  as  is  too 
often  the  case,  to  the  heavy  expense  of  maintaining  a  clean  cultivation.  In  the 
orange  districts  nearest  Kingston  the  prices  obtained  by  the  peasant  proprietors  (who 
sell  small  lots  weekly  to  carters  and  dealers)  on  the  spot  range  from  M.  to  Is.  per  100 
hand-picked  and  with  a  small  portion  of  the  stem  remaining.  The  buyer  conveys 
them  to  Kingston,  wraps  them  in  paper,  and  packs, them  in  barrels  for  transit  by 


ORANGES    IN   JAMAICA.  427 

sh-.-iiiHT  t<»  \i-\v  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Baltimore.  At  this  rate  the  yield  ("mm 
sin^lr  1  ivrs  has  IHMMI  ;\si  iuiaird  to  range  from  lOa.  to  ^0«.,  and  oven  more  according  to 
the  agi»  mid  si/.'  of  the  tree.  Growers  who  pack  their  own  oranges  usually  obtain 
l'2g.  a  luuTfl  in  Kingston.  Latterly,  the  tendency  of  prices  has  been  upwards.  Man- 
chester "  stem  cut "  oranges,  carefully  wrapped  and  packed,  are  worth  16*.  ($4)  a 
barrel  in  the  local  export  market.  In  New  York  they  are  worth  from  $5  to  $8  per 
barrel  according  to  fluctuations  in  the  market.  A  barrel  contains  from  350  to  400 
oranges.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  profits  of  the  large  grower  greatly  exceed 
those  of  the  peasant. 

GENERAL  REMARKS. 

The  spontaneous  character  of  orange  cultivation  in  Jamaica  is  a  noticeable  feature. 
It  is  only  during  recent  years  that  a  new  character  is  being  given  to  the  culture  by 
systematic  plantingand  increased  attention.  The  official  count  of  oranges  exported  in 
theyear  ending  September  30,  1383,  is  34,000,000.  Almost  all  these  were  wild  oranges 
or  spontaneously  grown  fruits.  The  climate  of  Jamaica,  in  the  elevated  portions  of 
the  interior,  is  believed  to  be  exceedingly  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
orange,  and  the  soil  also.  The  excellent  seedlings  spontaneously  grown  may  be  ad- 
duced in  support  of  this  belief.  When  cultivation  is  bestowed  the  first  effect  is  to  in- 
crease the  size  of  the  fruit.  Manuring  is  much  neglected,  but  when  manures  are  ap- 
plied the  increased  yield  and  the  more  rapid  growth  of  the  tree  are  very  noticeable. 
The  tree  is  a  gross  feeder,  and  requires  lime,  potash,  and  phosphatic  and  ammoniacal 
manures.  Cow  manure  is  the  compost  applied  in  Jamaica.  The  orange  industry  is 
limited  to  the  export  of  the  fruit  to  the  United  States  and  Canada.  No  commercial 
attempts  have  been  made  to  extract  the  essential  oils  for  perfumery. 

The  length  of  the  season  of  fruiting  in  this  island  is  also  noteworthy.  Those  who 
are  experimenting  with  irrigation  entertain  the  idea  that  the  season  may  be  con- 
trolled so  as  to  produce  fruit  at  any  desired  time  of  the  year  by  its  aid.  But  this 
may  prove  a  doubtful  advantage,  as  summer-grown  oranges  would  enter  into  compe- 
tition with  northern  fruits  in  their  own  markets.  For  the  same  season  a  summer  crop 
of  bananas  is  not  so  valuable  as  the  crop  produced  during  the  absence  of  northern 
fruit.  The  natural  close  of  the  orange  season  in  Jamaica  is  marked  by  the  fruiting 
of  the  Star  apple,  and  then  all  classes  prepare  for  themselves  the  tropical  dainty 
which  the  Creoles  style  "  matrimony."  This  is  &  mixture  of  fresh  orange  juice  with 
the  pulp  of  the  Star  apple,  co  which  various  flavors  are  added  according  to  taste. 
But  the  simple  admixture  is  a  delicious  compound  and  is  universally  relished. 


TRINIDAD. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SAWYER. 

Orange  and  lemon  trees  are  attended  with  good  soil  and  climate  in 
this  colony ;  but  they  are  mostly  in  a  semi-cultivated  condition,  as,  hith- 
erto, planters  have  given  their  attention  to  the  more  important  indus- 
tries. The  fruit,  however,  is  of  good  size  and  quality,  a  considerable 
number  being  shipped  to  ^ew  York  by  direct  line  of  steamers.  Figs 
and  olives  are  useless  in  this  colony,  the  former  being  destroyed  by 
frngivorous  bats,  and  the  latter  do  not  bear. 

MOSES  H.  SAWYER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Tr ini<la<l.  It.  W.  /.,  November  22,  1889. 


428  FEUIT    CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Mr.  Hart  to  Consul  Sawyer. 

[Inclosure  in  Consul  Sawyer's  Report.] 

Varieties. — The  St.  Michael,  or  ordinary  sweet  orange.  Citrus  awrantium,  or  the 
Mandarin  and  Sangerine. 

Situation. — In  sheltered  valleys,  at  elevations  from  100  to  1,000  feet  above  sea- level, 
and  from  one-fourth  mile  inwards.  The  trees  are  slightly  shaded  from  the  sun.  Shel- 
tered valleys  are  best;  soil,  loamy,  alluvial;  subsoil,  volcanic  (trap). 

Temperature. — Mean  maximum,  87°. 5  Fah.  Mean  minimum,  69°.7.  Mean  annual, 
78°. 6.  Maximum,  91°,  September  mean  for  mouth.  Minimum,  66°.9,  February  mean 
for  month.  Range  of  temperature  varies  from  21°  to  30°  daily. 

Average  rain-fall  for  twenty-jive  years,  65.49  inches.  Growth  takes  place  during 
rainy  season,  from  July  to  December.  (Driest  month,  February.) 

Irrigation. — No  artificial  irrigation  used. 

Cultivation. — Practically  the  trees  grow  without  attention.     (Weed.) 

Fertilisers.— No  manure  used,  except  near  a  homestead,  when  farm-yard  manure  is 
very  beneficial. 

Pruning. — Little  or  no  pruning  practiced.  Trees  would  be  better  for  attention  in 
this  direction. 

Picking. — When  commencing  to  turn  yellow,  or  when  "  full,"  to  use  the  local  term. 

Curing. — Simply  dried. 

Packing. — Packed  in  cases  containing  2  cubic  feet,  with  one  division ;  wrapped  in 
paper. 

Planting.— ~No  regular  plantations  yet  exist.  Trees  are  planted  irregularly,  and  all 
trees  are  raised  from  selected  seed  at  Royal  Botanic  Gardens  and  distributed  through- 
out the  colony. 

Maturity. — Trees  begin  to  bear  at  five  to  six  years,  and  reach  full  maturity  at  twenty 
years. 

Insect  pests. — Insects  common:  Brown  and  white  scale,  cottony  scale ;  sometimes 
destructive ;  cleaned  with  lime  wash  and  soap  solutions.  I  know  of  no  useful  insects 
but  the  numerous  varieties  or  species  of  wasps. 

No  printed  matter  available. 

Cuttings.—  Cuttings  can  be  secured  through  the  New  York  agents  of  Direct  Line 
Steamers,  George  Christall  &  Co. 

J.  F.  HART,  F.  L.  S., 
Government  Botanist  and  Superintendent  of  the  Royal  Botanic  Garden,  Trinidad. 


DUTCH  WEST  INDIES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SMITH,  OF  CURASAO. 

i 

In  regard  to  the  information  relative  to  the  cultivation  of  oranges, 
lemons,  figs,  and  olives,  requested  in  circular  dated  the  28th  September, 
I  have  to  report  that  said  fruits  are  not  cultivated  here.  In  former 
times,  when  rains  were  more  regular,  a  kind  of  bitter  oranges,  from  the 
peels  of  which  the  Cura9ao  liqueur  is  made,  was  grown  here,  but  is  now 
almost  entirely  abandoned. 

L.  B.  SMITH, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Curasao,  W.  /.,  November  8,  1889. 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN   GUADELOUPE.  429 


FRENCH  WEST  INDIES. 
GUADELOUPE. 

REPORT  PREPARED  BY  MR.  ST.  FELIX   CALARDEAU,  DIRECTOR  OF  THE  BOTAN- 
ICAL GARDEN  AT  BASSE-TERRE,  FOR  CONSUL  BARTLETT. 

The  only  variety  of  lemons  raised  to  any  extent  in  this  island  is  the 
small  lime,  which  is  used  in  Dominica  and  Montserrat  for  making 
concentrated  lime  juice.  In  Guadeloupe  thus  far  it  is  only  used  for 
domestic  aud  culinary  purposes,  but  could  be  raised  as  well  as  in  the 
English  islands  for  making  concentrated  juice.  For  many  years  there 
h;is  been  a  disease  on  the  lime  trees,  but  the  evil  seems  now  to  be  pass- 
ing off. 

There  are  plenty  of  good  oranges  in  the  island  j  they  arc  mostly  used 
for  local  purposes.  Very  little  exportation  has  been  tried  from  here, 
Guadeloupe  being  too  distant  from  the  United  States  to  export  oranges 
profitably  by  sailing  vessels.  Steamers  would  succeed  and  perhaps 
incite  the  country  people  to  raise  fruits  for  exportation.  There  are  tour 
or  five  varieties  of  good  oranges  in  the  island. 

No  regular  orchards. — The  trees  are  a  few  in  gardens  and  on  differ- 
ent estates,  more  or  less.  No  large  fields  of  oranges.  Grows  more 
luxuriantly  on  cool  mountain  sides.  Subject  also  for  many  years  to  a 
blight,  caused  by  a  variety  of  aphis  or  louse,  which  attacks  the  young 
twigs  of  the  trees. 

No  special  cultivation. 

No  fertilizers  used. 

No  pruning. 

Oranges  are  ripe  from  November  to  April.    Blooms  in  March. 

Trees  are  propagated  from  seeds. 

Fruit  at  five  or  six  years  from  seed.  The  variety  not  always  the 
same  from  seed.  No  grafting  of  orange  trees.  Trees  in  full  bearing  at 
ten  years  of  age  from  seed.  Live  a  great  many  years. 

No  exportation  of  oranges  or  lemons  from  the  island. 

ST.  FELIX  CALARDEAU. 

BASSE-TEKBE,  March  23,  1890. 


430        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

SPANISH  WEST  INDIES. 
CUBA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  WILLIAMS,  OF  HAVANA. 

No  regular  system  for  the  cultivation  of  oranges  and  lemons  for  ex- 
port is  followed  in  this  island.  The  only  plantings  of  these  fruits  here 
are  made  in  scattered  spots  of  land  about  the  buildings  of  small  pro- 
prietors. The  trees  seldom  receive  the  care  of  good  husbandry,  and 
whatever  surplus  arises  in  this  way  over  local  demand  is  sold  to  gath- 
erers who  ship  it  to  the  United  States.  Therefore  regular  and  well 
laid  out  orange  groves,  as  seen  in  Florida,  do  not  exist  here.  But  the 
capacity  of  this  island  for  the  production  of  these  two  fruits  of  superior 
quality  is  almost  unlimited. 

RAMON  O.  WILLIAMS, 

Consul- General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Havana,  March  24,  1890. 


SANTIAGO    DE   CUBA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  REINER. 
ORANGES. 

Varieties. — The  wild  orange  found  all  through  the  mountainous  and 
wooded  districts  of  this  island  is  no  doubt  native  thereto,  as  it  is  found 
in  mountains  and  wildernesses  where  no  human  foot  has  ever  trod  before; 
whereas  the  sweet  orange  was  brought  here  last  century  and  even  earlier 
by  the  French  and  Spaniards,  and  also  the  English,  from  Trinidad  and 
Martinique.  Owing  to  the  lack  of  transporting  facilities  the  oranges 
are  not  at  all  cultivated  and  trees  here  and  there  on  coffee  and  sugar 
estates  enable  the  people  living  in  this  city  to  occasionally  enjoy  the 
fruit.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  oranges  planted  in  the  immediate  vicin- 
ity of  this  city  and  also  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  coast,  no  mat 
ter  how  sweet  they  originally  were,  produce  crops  of  sour  oranges. 
This  is  no  doubt  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  which  is  chiefly  com- 
posed of  decomposed  coral  rock  and  contains  considerable  lime.  In  the 
rich  alluvial  soil  of  the  interior  oranges  suitable  for  commerce  can  easily 
be  grown,  but,  considering  the  cost  of  transporting  them  to  the  sea- 
board, their  cultivation  on  a  basis  sufficiently  extensive  to  warrant  a 
large  export  is  at  the  present  out  of  the  question. 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    PORTO    RICO.  431 

As  to  the  varieties  of  sweet  oranges  grown  here,  1  find  from  per- 
sonal observation  that,  whatever  its  origin,  the  sweet  orange  acclimated 
here  takes  a  good  deal  of  the  flavor  and  character  of  our  Florida 
oranges,  and  as  no  effort  is  made  to  scientifically  cultivate  any  particu- 
lar kind  and  species,  it  is  impossible  to  determine  the  best  variety. 

Situation. — Trees  producing  sweet  oranges  are  found  here  on  sugar 
and  coffee  estates  from  10  to  50  miles  from  the  coast  line  and  distant 
from  shipping  ports  and  harbors. 

As  to  elevation  above  sea  level,  sweet  oranges  can  be  produced  in 
rich  alluvial  soil  found  at  various  elevations. 

Climate. — The  temperature  of  this  island  varies  from  60  minimum  to 
100  maximum  (Fahrenheit)  all  the  year.  The  nightsin  winter  are  gen- 
erally cool,  especially  when  the  north  winds,  most  common  from  De- 
cember to  March,  prevail.  In  the  mountainous  districts  of  this  pro- 
vince the  nights  are  never  sultry,  although  the  days  very  often  are  very 
sultry.  In  the  absence  of  any  scientific  statistics  I  calculate  from  per- 
sonal observation  that  the  rain-fall  is  about  45  inches  per  annum. 

LEMONS. 

Lemons  are  not  cultivated  at  all,  and  in  their  stead  limes,  growing 
wild  here  and  native  to  this  country,  are  used. 

The  lack  of  laboring  men,  the  few  necessities  of  the  natives,  and 
the  poor  transporting  facilities  render  the  success  of  all  agricultural 
industries,  except  the  cultivation  of  sugar,  almost  impossible  as  a  com- 
mercial investment. 

Figs,  although  easily  grown  here,  are  very  rarely  found.  Olives  not 
at  all. 

OTTO  E.  REIMER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  January  10,  1890. 


PORTO  RICO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  CONROT,  OF  SAN  JUAN. 
(Republished  for  Consular  Reports,  No.  41£.) 

In  answer  to  the  Department's  communication,  dated  December  4, 
1883,  requesting  information  with  regard  to  fruit  culture  and  the  extent 
and  value  of  the  fruit  industry  as  conducted  in  this  consulate,  1  have 
respectfully  to  state  that  there  are  no  grape  vineyards,  olive  trees,  or 
figs  cultivated  in  this  province. 

Orange  trees  grow  all  over  this  island.  The  Porto  Kico  orange  mostly 
cultivated  averages  from  2£  to  4  inches  in  diameter.  The  trees  average 


432        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

from  8  to  30  feet  in  height,  according  to  the  attention  given  to  their 
culture.  They  commence  bearing  the  fourth  year  and  hold  their  own 
for  fifty  years  or  even  more.  Their  fruit  is  very  sweet,  with  a  fine  deli- 
cate acid,  thin  pulp.  When  taken  medium  care  of  the  trees  produce 
abundantly,  say  1,000  to  1,500  oranges  to  each  tree.  These  are  planted 
from  seeds,  say  the  pit  of  the  fruit,  grafting,  or  budded,  but  the  seeds 
give  better  results.  The  seed  should  be  dried  in  the  air  without  expos- 
ure to  the  sun  or  artificial  heat.  The  trees  are  very  seldom  troubled 
with  disease,  unless  entirely  neglected,  when  they  are  subjected  to  a 
sickness  called  "  piojillo,"  similar  to  a  white  mold  dampness,  which 
spreads  over  the  leaves,  branches,  and  trunk  of  the  trees.  Whitewash, 
with  lime,  and  ashes  at  the  roots  of  the  trees  produce  the  desired  effect. 

The  trees  are  planted  about  eight  yards  apart.  Any  closer  the  trees 
are  not  so  productive. 

This  island  being  very  fertile,  orchards  are  to  be  found  in  all  parts  of 
it,  from  close  to  the  sea-shore,  say  about  a  mile  distant  from  the  coast, 
up  to  the  interior,  and  up  the  mountains  as  high  as  2,500  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  It  is  noticed  that  all  kinds  of  trees  produce  well,  and 
are  much  finer  in  sandy  soils,  say  about  a  mile  or  two  from  the  sea,, 
where  the  soil  consists  of  black  sand,  or  about  three  parts  of  fine  sand 
and  one  part  of  black  earth,  with  a  bottom  of  hard  clay  at  from  3  to 
4  feet  below  the  surface.  Most  of  the  orchards  are  situated  from  2  to  5 
miles  from  the  sea-coast. 

There  is  no  system  of  irrigation  in  use,  the  periodical  rains  being 
quite  sufficient.  The  ground  in  orchards  is  often  cultivated  with  rice, 
corn,  beans,  etc.,  but  more  of  them  with  grass.  The  trees  are  poorly 
attended  in  this  district,  and  in  all  the  east  end  of  the  island,  very  little 
fruit  being  raised  for  export.  In  fact,  so  little  attention  is  given  to  the 
culture  that  it  may  be  considered  that  the  orange  as  well  as  other  fruits 
are  growing  in  their  wild  state. 

In  the  west  end  of  the  island,  more  particularly  in  the  district  of 
Mayaguez,  oranges  and  pineapples  are  cultivated  for  exportation  to  the 
United  States ;  quite  a  number  of  American  schooners  come  out  during 
the  months  of  November  and  December  in  ballast  from  Boston  and 
New  York,  and  load  with  fruit.  I  can  not  state  definitely  the  yield  of 
the  trees,  but  each  tree  is  calculated  to  give  from  1,000  to  1,500  oranges, 
which  sell  readily  at  $.3.25  per  thousand.  I 

The  cost  of  cultivation  is  very  little.  The  crop  commences  in  this 
district  in  December  and  lasts  until  May.  When  proper  care  is  taken, 
however,  it  is  most  common  to  have  the  trees  with  ripe  and  green  fruit 
growing  at  the  same  time.  Oranges  are  to  be  had  all  the  year  round, 
but  from  May  to  November  in  less  abundance. 

As  this  island  is  situated  between  17°  and  18°  of  latitude  north,  there 
is  no  great  change  in  the  temperature.  During  the  winter  months  it 
rains  almost  continually,  but  the  thermometer  seldom  indicates  less  than 
75°  Fahr. ;  so  there  is  no  frost  ever  feared.  The  want  of  roads  all  over 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  PORTO  RICO.         433 

this  province  is  the  great  drawback  to  the  cultivation  of  all  fruits  that 
require  to  be  handled  with  care.  The  climate  is  fine  and  soil  very  pro- 
lific. Even  in  the  highest  points  of  the  mountains,  among  the  rocks, 
the  orange  trees  grow  wild.  Lemons  are  abundant  the  entire  year 
round,  but  the  trees  mostly  grow  without  culture ;  the  fruit  is  small, 
but  very  juicy.  None  are  exported. 

EDW.  CONROY, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

San  Juan,  Porto  Rwo,  January  28,  1884. 


CONTINENT  OP  ASIA. 

ASIA  MINOR.* 

REPORT  BY  CONSVL  EMMETT,  OF  SMYRNA. 

Varieties. — The  best  oranges  are  the  "  Parakila,"  so  called  from  the  vil- 
lage of  Mitylene  Parakila,  and  the  "  Kaw  "  trees,  so  called  from  their 
being  blood  oranges.  As  for  lemons,  the  "Ohio"  are  the  best;  none 
others*  are  cultivated. 

Situation. — Valley,  hillside,  or  table  land ;  distance  from  sea  imma- 
terial; elevation  above  sea-level  from  35  to  2,700  feet;  exposure  to 
sun  immaterial,  as  the  climate  is  very  mild  and  agreeable  here. 

They  are  grown  on  all  kinds  of  land,  but  table  land  is  preferable.  The 
soil  is  calcareous. 

Climatic  influences. — The  climate  has  great  influence  upon  the  orange 
and  lemon  trees,  which  do  not  thrive  in  the  open  air  below  43°  latitude 
and  where  the  temperature  is  lower  than  freezing  point. 

The  temperature  in  minimum  is  32°,  maximum  95°,  average  G8°  Fahr- 
enheit ;  the  atmosphere  is  very  heavy,  but  always  variable  by  winds  at 
night. 

Rain-fall. — About  25  inches. 

Irrigation. — No  system  of  artificial  irrigation  is  in  use  here.  When 
the  fruit  has  the  size  of  nuts,  water  is  necessary,  and  in  abundance, 
every  week  once  at  least. 

Cultivation. — The  working  of  the  soil  is  commenced  at  the  end  of 
March ;  they  dig  the  soil  with  a  spade  to  the  depth  of  two  to  three 
inches  in  the  clear  spots,  and  only  1  to  1J  inches  deep  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  trees. 

Fertilizers. — At  the  end  of  November  human  manure  is  largely  em- 
ployed every  two  years.  These  manures  are  buried  in  the  soil  at  a 
depth  of  from  10  to  12  inches  round  the  trees,  and  remain  buried  and 
exposed  to  the  rain  until  the  end  of  March,  when  cultivation  com- 
mences. 

Pruning. — They  prune  once  at  the  end  of  March  with  very  great  at- 
tention, and  they  give  to  the  tree  a  regular,  elegant,  and  graceful 
form. 

*  The  information  here  given  was  obtained  from  the  consular  agent  at  Mityleue, 
who  is  extensively  engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  olives  as  well  as  lemons  and  oranges, 

434 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    ASIA    MINOR.  435 

Picking  and  curing. — They  pick  two  or  three  clays  after  Christinas, 
immediately  after  ripeness,  which  takes  place  here  during  December. 
They  are  cured  by  wrapping  in  tissue  paper.  For  packing  and  ship- 
ping the  fruit  is  always  packed  in  tissue  paper,  and  in  this  manner 
packed  in  boxes  or  baskets  containing  about  one  hundred  each. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  placed  at  a  distance  of  abouv 
20  feet  from  each  other  if  the  soil  be  rich,  and  at  only  about  17  feet  if 
it  be  middling. 

The  orange  and  lemon  trees  here  are  budded  or  grafted;  the  best 
varieties  are  grafted. 

There  are  small  and  large  orchards  here. 

Maturity.— The  trees  come  into  full  bearing  the  fourth  year  and  they 
remain  fruitful  about  fifty  years,  but  the  best  crops  are  gathered  from 
the  fifteenth  to  the  thirtieth  year. 

Insect  pests. — Insect  pests  do  not  exist. 

W.  C.  EMMETT, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Smyrna,  January  18,  1890. 


MITYLENE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  FOTIION. 
(Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  4L}.) 

Every  variety  of  orange  and  lemon  tree  is  grown  here,  but  the  most 
valuable  are  the  Parakiia  orange  trees,  so  called  from  the  village  Par- 
akiia. and  the  Kan  orange  trees,  so  called  from  their  blood-red  color. 
The  Parakiia  trees  are  large,  and  produce  very  large  fruit,  while  the 
Kan  orange  trees  are  not  large,  but  their  fruit  is  very  sweet.  The 
trees  come  into  full  bearing  the  fourth  year,  and  they  remain  fruitful 
about  fifty  years,  according  to  the  climate  and  cultivation.  The  orange 
and  lemon  trees  here  are  budded  or  grafted.  The  trees  are  not  troubled 
with  injurious  insect  pests  or  fungus  growth,  but  sometimes  are  injured 
by  the  cold,  when  the  temperature  is  lower  than  0°  Ke"aurnur.  The 
trees  are  placed  at  a  distance  of  about  6  meters  from  each  other  if  the 
soil  be  rich,  and  at  only  5  meters  if  it  be  middling.  Orchards  are  found 
in  every  place,  but  they  yield  best  results  on  the  sea-coast.  The  orch- 
ards are  found  very  near  to  the  sea-coast.  No  system  of  artificial  irri- 
gation is  in  use  here.  They  prune  here  at  the  end  of  March,  with  very 
great  attention,  and  they  give  to  the  tree  regular,  elegant,  and  graceful 
forms.  As  soon  as  the  pruning  is  finished  the  working  of  the  soil  is 
commenced,  and  they  dig  the  soil  with  a  spade  to  the  depth  of  25  to  30 
milliinotors  in  the  clear  spots,  but  only  2  or  3  inches  deep  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  the  trees,  Later,  two  or  three  baskets  of  manure  are  distributed 


436  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

around  each  tree,  and  at  the  end  of  May  the  ground  is  irrigated  once 
in  every  week  or  two  weeks,  according  to  the  season,  the  position,  and 
quality  of  the  ground  in  summer.  Irrigation  is  suspended  during  the 
autumn  and  winter.  At  the  end  of  November  manure  of  human  excre- 
ment is  largely  employed  every  two  years.  These  manures  are  buried 
in  the  soil  at  a  depth  of  from  25  to  30  centimeters  round  the  trees,  and 
remain  buried  and  exposed  to  the  rain  until  the  end  of  March,  when 
cultivation  begins.  The  yield  proceeds  per  acre  per  annum  in  the  best 
orange  orchards  is  about  $80,  and  the  cultivation  costs  per  acre  per  an- 
num $15.  The  principal  portion  of  the  orange  and  lemon  product  is 
for  home  consumption  j  the  export  is  insignificant. 

M.  M.  FOTTION, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Mitylene,  March  12,  1884. 


PALESTINE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GILLHAN,  OF  JERUSALEM. 

Oranges  and  lemons  in  Palestine  are  grown  chiefly  along  the  sea- 
coast;  and  the  more  extensive  groves  are  at  Jaffa,  which  place  is  now 
celebrated  for  the  excellence  of  its  fruit.  Some  groves  on  a  smaller 
scale  are  also  found  at  Gaza.  The  orange  is  cultivated  in  other  places 
in  the  district,  and  even  in  and  around  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  but  not 
in  sufficient  amount  to  be  worthy  of  special  notice ;  the  fruit  grown  in- 
land being  generally  inferior. 

Varieties. — The  two  principal  varieties  of  the  orange  grown  at  Jaffa 
are  called  the  Shamudi  and  the  Beladi.  The  Shamudi  is  of  an  oval 
shape,  in  this  respect  somewhat  resembling  a  lemon,  and,  owing  to  its 
large  size,  fine  flavor,  and  thick  skin,  is  the  sort  best  suited  for  expor- 
tation. The  finest  of  these  are  considered  the  largest  oranges  in  the 
world.  The  Beladi  has  a  round  form,  and  is  smaller  in  circumference, 
and,  although  more  juicy  than  the  Shamudi,  is  not  so  much  in  demand 
for  exportation,  as  its  thinner  skin  does  not  enable  it  to  stand  so  well  a 
long  voyage.  The  Sidou  orange  is  a  small  round  fruit,  much  smaller 
than  the  Beladi,  than  which  it  is  also  sweeter  and  more  juicy;  while 
the  skin,  being  still  thinner,  renders  it  unsuitable  for  transportation  to 
any  great  distance.  In  flavor  it  is  considered  one  of  the  most  delicious 
of  its  species.  Its  cultivation  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  place  for  which 
it  is  named.  The  Tangerine  orange,  also  known  as  the  Mandarin,  and 
resembling  the  variety  of  the  same  name  grown  in  Florida,  is  also  culti- 
vated at  Jaffa  to  a  very  limited  extent ;  yet  it  usually  brings  a  higher 
price  than  any  of  the  other  named  varieties.  There  is  still  another  sort 
of  orange,  viz,  the  ungrafted.  This  is  produced  on  trees  raised  directly 
from  the  seed?  but  being  of  small  size  and  mediocre  as  to  q ualitv  it  can. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  PALESTINE.          437 

not  compete  with  the  fruit  of  the  budded  or  grafted  trees,  and  is  kept 
for  home  consumption, 

Of  the  lemon  there  are  two  kinds,  the  sweet  and  the  sour.  The  for- 
mer comes  into  market  in  November,  and  lasts  only  a  short  time.  Though 
quite  juicy  it  has  but  little  flavor.  The  rind  abounds  with  a  highly 
fragrant  oil,  resembling  bergarnot  in  odor.  The  fruit  is  much  appre- 
ciated by  the  natives;  but  it  is  not  exported.  The  sour  or  acid  lemon 
attains  at  Jaffa  a  very  large  size,  while  the  acid  is  less  sharp  and  of  a 
more  delicate  flavor  than  that  of  the  lemon  of  other  countries.  It  is 
more  and  more  extensively  grown  each  year,  with  the  object  of  expor- 
tation, though  in  the  past  chiefly  produced  for  the  home  market. 

xi tit (i fi  'H. — The  distance  of  the  orange  and  lemon  gardens  at  Jaffa 
from  the  sea  is  from  one-fourth  of  a  mile  te  3  English  miles.  Here 
the  trees  flourish,  and  lind  altogether  an  environment  best  adapted  to 
their  superior  development.  The  elevation  above  the  sea-level  is  from 
50  to  100  feet.  The  larger  part  of  the  environs  of  Jaffa  occupied  by 
these  gardens  must  be  considered  level,  and  only  a  small  portion  of  it 
can  be  called  slightly  rolling  land.  The  trees  seem  to  do  best  in  such 
a  situation,  and  with  sufficient  exposure  to  the  sun,  which  here  there  is 
no  lack  of. 

Soil. — The  character  of  the  soil  in  which  the  trees  best  succeed  is  a 
sandy  clay.  It  is  considered  that  a  mixture  conducive  to  the  highest 
results  would  be  75  per  cent,  of  the  beach  sand  with  25  per  cent,  of 
alluvium,  and  containing  a  good  proportion  of  alkaline  salts.  The 
subsoil  is  chiefly  clay. 

Climate. — The  average  temperature  at  Jaffa  is  in  the  daytime,  70°  to 
71°  Fahr.;  and  at  night,  55°  to  56°  Fahr.  The  minimum  temperature 
is  32°  Fahr.;  the  maximum,  107°  Fahr.  The  nights  are  usually  cool, 
while  the  days  are  warm  or  sultry.  The  ordinary  atmosphere,  affected 
by  the  sea  breezes,  is,  in  general,  inoist.  The  rain-fall  varies  from  17 
to  30  inches  per  annum.  The  growth  of  trees  and  fruits  are  accelerated 
during  the  "  rainy  season;"  but  as  irrigation  is  constantly  employed 
here  during  the  "  dry  season,"  the  difference  is  not  so  perceptible  as  it 
would  be  under  other  conditions. 

Irrigation. — Within  a  circuit  of  4  miles  around  Jaffa,  the  gardens  are 
irrigated.  The  water  is  found  at  depths  of  from  20  to  60  feet  below  the 
surface,  wells  being  sunk  to  these  depths.  The  water  is  raised  by 
water-wheels  moved  by  horse-power.  The  trees  are  irrigated  during 
the  entire  of  the  "  dry  season,"  which  generally  lasts  from  May  till 
November.  The  flowering  of  the  trees  usually  begins  by  the  middle  of 
March,  and  continues  till  the  middle  of  April.  The  trees  are  watered 
once  a  week,  and  during  the  night,  to  save  evaporation ;  the  quantity 
of  water  distributed  by  the  drains  may  be  estimated  at  about  15  cubic 
meters  to  the  acre,  per  diem. 

Cu1tivft1i<ni. — The  soil  of  the  gardens  is  dug  at  different  times ;  but 
at  least  twice  a  year,  generally  in  the  spring  and  autumn. 


438         FKUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Fertilizers. — The  fertilizers  used  are  the  dung  of  the  horse,  and  that 
of  the  mule  and  camel,  applied  mostly  in  the  winter-time. 

Pruning. — Little  or  no  pruning  of  the  orange  and  lemon  trees  is  ob- 
served at  Jaffa.  The  trunks  are  usually  left  shaded  by  the  lower 
branches. 

Picking. — Oranges  as  well  as  lemons  are  picked  from  October  till  May, 
that  is  from  green  to  fully  ripe.  The  maturity  of  the  fruit  dates  from 
January.  After  being  picked  they  are  left  two  or  three  days  in  store- 
rooms for  the  skins  to  dry.  They  are  then  wrapped  in  tissue-paper, 
and  packed  in  boxes  containing  from  140  to  200  pieces.  These  are  de- 
livered in  boats  to  the  steamers  lying  off  shore,  being  always  lowered 
into  the  holds.  To  allow  for  damage,  decay,  or  other  loss,  1,500  oranges 
or  lemons  are  counted  to  the  thousand. 

Planting  and  propagating — The  trees  are  planted  at  a  distance  of  from 
10  to  14  feet  apart. 

The  orange  tree  is  propagated  in  the  following  manner :  In  July  and 
August  suckers  or  cuttings,  18  inches  in  length  by  1  inch  in  thickness, 
are  made  of  the  sweet  lemon  tree,  and  planted  in  beds  which  are 
watered  twice  a  day.  The  second  or  third  year  the  cuttings  are  budded 
by  making  a  T  incision,  and  inserting  a  bud  from  theShamudior  Beladi 
orange.  When  it  has  taken,  the  lemon  stick  is  cut  off  a  few  inches  above 
the  bud,  which  then  grows  rapidly,  and  bears  fruit  the  third  or  fourth 
year.  Lemon  trees  are  propagated  in  the  same  way,  using  for  budding 
a  sour  lemon  bud  on  the  stem  of  the  sweet  lemon. 

The  best  varieties,  as  already  indicated,  are  budded. 

The  orchards  or  gardens  vary  in  size,  but  usually  contain  several  acres. 
About  3,000  acres  are  devoted  to  this  purpose  at  Jaffa,  which  are 
divided  into  about  600  gardens,  all  irrigated. 

Maturity. — Orange  trees  continue  to  bear  truit  from  the  fifth  to  the 
twentieth  and  thirtieth  years ;  lemon  trees  from  the  fourth  to  the 
twentieth  year.  Their  maturity  is  from  the  tenth  to  the  twentieth  year, 
when  the  finest  and  largest  crops  are  borne. 

Insect  Pests. — Until  recently,  it  was  supposed  the  trees  were  exempt 
from  insect  pests,  or  disease  of  any  description,  the  soil  and  other  con- 
ditions at  Ja,ffa  being  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  production  of  healthy 
and  vigorous  trees ;  but  closer  investigation  has  revealed  that,  in  a 
good  many  gardens,  there  is  to  be  met  with  some  diseased  trees,  which 
are  injured  by  a  little  insect  living  under  the  bark.  No  treatment, 
whatever,  has  been  adopted  to  restrain  the  propagation  of  this,  as  yet, 
nameless  enemy,  nor  is  it  known  to  have  any  parasite.  Beneficial  in- 
sects have  not  been  specially  observed. 

Miscellaneous. — There  is  no  further  particular  information  as  to  the 
picking  and  curing  lemons  before  shipping  than  that  already  given  by 
me. 

There  are  no  reports  giving  information  as  to  processes,  prices,  or 
statistics  issued  by  ggv^nirnent  or  otherwise,  Oranges,  which  have 


ORANGES   AND   LEMONS   IN    SYRIA.  439 

recently  been  damaged  by  hail,  and  will  doubtless,  therefore,  considera- 
bly advance  in  price,  are  now  selling  at  Jaffa  at  from  $9.50  to  $10  per 
thousand;  while  lemons  bring  about  half  this  price.  During  the  month 
of  January  last  oranges  were  shipped  at  the  rate  of  5,000  boxes  per 
week.  The  fruit  sent  abroad  is  generally  of  the  best,  selected  quality. 

HENRY  GILLMAN, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Jerusalem,  February  JO,  1890. 


SYRIA. 

BEIRUT  AND  VICINITY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BISSINGER. 

ORANGES. 

Varieties. — Name  of  best  variety  for  profit :  Belady  and  Khutmaly. 
Belady  is  of  two  species,  rough  and  smooth.  Names  of  other  choice 
varieties  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit:  Kose  or  Blood  orange, 
Shammooly,  Bizry. 

Location. — The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  named  above  are 
grown  on  the  sea-coast,  close  to  the  sea ;  but  in  some  sheltered  valleys 
a  few  trees  are  also  grown,  the  lower  the  better.  Exposure  to  the  sun 
is  necessary. 

Soil. — Level  alluvial  land  is  the  best.  Ked  earth  somewhat  sandy  is 
the  best ;  black  loam. 

Climate.— Temperature:  Highest,  95°  Fahr. ;  lowest,  45°  Fahr. ;  aver 
age,  70°  Fahr. ;  nights  warm ;  air  without  fogs  or  mist  5  some  dew  is 
beneficial. 

Rain-fall. — Average  32  inches.  During  rainy  season  fruit  grows,  but 
not  trees ;  these  latter  grow  in  the  fall  and  in  spring. 

Irrigation. — After  the  cessation  of  rain,  according  to  dryness  of  soil 
and  generally  about  June  1.  In  black  loamy  soil  and  red  earth  mixed 
with  sand  every  six  to  eight  days  ;  lighter  soil  every  ten  to  fifteen  days. 
The  earth  in  which  the  trees  are  embedded  is  filled  with  water. 

Cultivation. — Plowing  either  before  the  beginning  of  irrigation  or 
after  the  first  irrigation. 

Fertilizers. — Goat  manure,  the  best,  applied  either  in  the  spring  or 
after  first  irrigation  either  at  base  of  tree  or  mixed  with  the  water. 

Pruning. — Only  the  dead  wood  is  cut  off  in  spring  and  winter. 

Picking. — Picking  takes  place  from  November  1  to  May  1 ;  the  fruit 
is  picked  for  home  consumption  when  ripe,  for  export  before  it  is  ripe. 

The  oranges  are  rolled  in  paper  and  packed  in  boxes. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  planted  20  to  22  feet  apart, 
and  are  propagated  either  by  seeding  or  budded.     Bitter  orange  stock  13 
156A — -4 


440  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES, 

the  best  when  5  inches  in  circumference.  The  best  varieties  are  the 
budded.  The  orchards  are  small. 

Maturity — The  trees  begin  bearing  three  years  after  budding ; 
twenty  years  of  age,  best  crop. 

Insect  pests. — Small  scale  pest ;  not  treated  at  all. 

LEMONS. 

Varieties. — Lemons  are  of  three  varieties:  (1)  Seedlings;  (2)  grafted; 
(3)  from  shoots  of  a  grafted  tree  put  into  the  ground  ;  the  best  is  the 
grafted.  Whitish,  clayey  soil  is  suitable  for  lemons  ;  it  is  not  the  best. 
There  is  a  variety  of  lemon  called  u  sweet  lemon  w  which  has  the  color 
of  lemon  and  the  shape  of  a  medium-sized  orange,  but  has  a  sweet,  rather 
insipid  taste.  Its  cultivation  is  similar  to  that  of  the  lemon,  except  that 
it  grows  best  in  soil  free  from  sand.  Lemons  are  picked  during  all  the 
months  of  the  year.  Packed  in  paper  and  put  in  wooden  boxes.  JS"o 
information  or  statistics  published  by  the  Government. 

ERHARD  BISSINGER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  February  12,  1890. 


BEIRUT. 

REPORT  BY   CONSUL  ROBESON. 
(Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41$. ) 

There  are  three  kinds  of  oranges  grown  in  this  country :  (1)  sour 
oranges;  (2)  sweet  oranges;  and  (3)  Mandarins.  The  last  are  the  most 
valuable.  These  trees  are  mature  in  the  seventh  year,  and  remain  fruit- 
ful forty  or  fifty  years.  The  sour  oranges  are  raised  from  seedling, 
while  all  the  other  kinds  of  oranges  grow  better  by  grafting.  Two 
kinds  of  lemons  are  cultivated  near  Beirut — the  sweet  and  sour  lemons. 
The  best  results  are  obtained  from  sour  lemons  when  they  are  grafted, 
on  sweet-lemon  trees,  as  the  size  of  the  fruit  increases  with  the  age  of 
the  tree.  Lately  a  sort  of  fungus  has  appeared  on  these  trees,  and  in 
some  places  small  snails  attacked  them,  but  as  yet  no  effectuaHremedy 
has  been  found  to  prevent  or  cure  the  same.  The  orange  and  lemon 
trees  are  planted  about  20  feet  apart.  It  is  said  that  they  grow  best 
on  the  sea-coast.  Low  sheltered  places  are,  however,  to  be  preferred,  as 
much  exposure  to  the  winds  proves  injurious.  Dark  or  sandy  soil  suits 
such  trees  much  better  than  light.  Goats'  manure  is  preferable  to  any 
other. 

Orange  and  lemon  trees  require  to  be  watered  during  the  dry  season. 
The  first  irrigation  is  effected  in  June  when  the  leaves  of  the  trees  begin 
to  curl  up  from  the  dry  heat.  The  ground  of  the  orange  and  lemon  orch- 
ards is  cultivated  three  times  a  year  when  the  soil  is  thoroughly  dry. 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    SYRIA.  441 

The  annual  yield  of  fruit  per  acre  in  the  best  orange  orchards  is  about 
30,OUO  oranges,  the  average  price  of  which  may  be  estimated  at  from 
*  130  to  $140.  The  yield  and  price  of  lemons  are  nearly  the  same.  The 
k'inon  trees  last  twenty-five  years,  while  the  orange  trees,  like  olives, 
last  for  an  indefinite  period  of  time.  The  cost  of  plowing,  irrigating, 
and  manuring  per  acre  may  be  set  down  between  815  and  $18  per  annum. 
The  seeds  of  oranges  and  lemons  are  first  sown  in  a  small  tract  of  land. 
After  a  year  they  are.  removed  and  replanted  in  a  larger  piece,  and  at 
the  end  of  the  second  year  they  are  again  transplanted  into  groves. 

JOHN  T.  EOBESON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  May  3,  1884. 


HAIFA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  SCHUMACHER. 

Horticulture  is  carried  on  in  my  district  in  the  same  primitive  man- 
ner that  has  been  the  custom  for  centuries. 

Variety.— Of  oranges  and  lemons  there  are  but  a  few  groves  of  any 
account  in  my  district  in  the  neighborhood  of  Acca,  therefore  I  can 
only  answer  the  questions  in  a  general  way.  There  is  only  one  kind 
of  orange  planted,  called,  in  Arabic,  bortogan  beeladie. 

Situation. — The  groves  are  situated  3  miles  from  the  sea.  The  eleva- 
tion above  sea  level  is  from  30  to  40  meters.  The  trees  are  exposed  to 
the  sun  without  any  protection.  The  soil  is  sandy,  of  reddish  color. 

Climatic  influences. — Temperature:  minimum,  2°  to  4°  -f  Keaumur- 
maximum  33°  to  35°  -f  Reaumur;  average  20  to  25°  -f  E.  The  nights 
are  generally  warm  about  six  months;  about  three  to  four  months  a 
temperature  from  12°  to  14°  -f  Reaumur,  the  remaining  two  months 
2°  -f  (only  a  few  nights)  to  20°  -f-  K.  There  are  about  thirty  five  or 
forty  days  of  extremely  dry  atmosphere  during  sirocco.  Moist  air  pre- 
vails during  the  rainy  season,  from  December  to  April. 

Rain-falls. — The  rain-fall  varies  from  1  foot  7J  inches  to  3  feet  3 
inches  per  year;  by  1  foot  7£  inches  we  call  it  a  dry  year;  two  feet  is 
about  sufficient  rain. 

Irrigation — Irrigation  lasts  from  May  to  December.  The  water  is 
raised  by  mule-power  from  wells  from  25  to  100  feet  deep,  and  then  flows 
into  large  reservoirs,  from  whence  it  is  run  out  in  small  channels  to  the 
trees.  Irrigation  lasts  from  May,  at  which  time  the  blossom  is  past, 
and  is  carried  on  until  December,  when  the  fruit  is  about  ripe.  Each 
trn-  receives  from  40  to  50  gallons  of  water,  once  a  week. 

Cultivation. — The  soil  in  the  groves  is  thoroughly  worked  with  broad 
hoes  several  times  a  year. 


442        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Fertilisers. — Before  irrigation  commences  the  soil  is  well  manured  with 
sheep  dung.  The  manure  is  spread  over  the  whole  soil  of  the  groves  and 
then  mixed  with  the  soil. 

Priming. — There  is  but  very  little  pruning  done,  and  not  before  the 
tree  is  four  years  oid. 

Picking. — The  oranges  and  lemons  are  picked  from  November  to  April. 
Stage  of  ripeness,  January,  some  nearly,  some  entirely  ripe.  The  fruit 
in  my  district  is  not  exported,  but  consumed  by  the  home  trade. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  distance  planted  apart  is  from  20  to  25 
feet ;  trees  are  propagated  from  the  seed  and  from  cuttings.  Seedlings 
which  are  grafted  when  two  or  three  years  old  are  preferred.  The 
orchards  are  various,  from  1  to  15  acres. 

Maturity. — Age  of  fruiting  the  fifth  year,  the  largest  crop  about  in  the 
fifteenth  year.  Maturity  at  thirty-five  to  forty  years. 

Disease. — Since  a  few  years  a  disease  is  spreading  in  some  localities 
among  the  orange  and  lemon  trees,  similar  to  the  phyloxera  in  vines, 
which  threatens  to  destroy  the  groves,  as  no  remedy  has  been  found  yet 
for  this  disease,  bu  tthe  gardens  near  Acca  have  up  to  now  not  suffered 
from  this  disease. 

JACOB  SCHUMACHER, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Acca  and  Haifa,  December  5,  1889. 


HAIFA. 

REPORT  OF  CONSULAR  AGENT  SCHUMACHER. 
(Republished  from  Consuhir  Reports  No.  41£.) 

Only  one  variety  of  oranges  is  cultivated  in  my  district,  and  is 
named,  after  the  city  of  Acca,  "  Accawy."  It  has  the  form  of  the  round 
Spanish  orange,  with  reddish-yellowish  flesh ;  it  has  a  fine  flavor, 
and  is  very  juicy.  Blood  oranges  and  mandarines  are  cultivated  so 
little  here  that  there  is  no  rule  for  their  treatment.  The  orange  of  my 
district  is  about  3J  inches  in  diameter ;  the  skin  is  smooth,  thin,  and 
contains  considerable  oil. 

Several  sizes  of  lemons  grow  here ;  the  largest  is  about  4 J  inches 
long  by  3  inches  in  diameter.  The  skin  of  the  lemon  is  thick  and  con- 
tains much  oil.  At  the  age  of  four  to  five  years  both  orange  and  lemon 
trees  begin  bearing  and  remain  fruitful  thirty  to  forty  years. 

We  have  two  kinds  of  lemons,  sweet  and  sour ;  the  sour  bear  as  seed- 
lings ;  on  the  sweet  the  orange  is  grafted.  This  manipulation  of  grafting 
on  sweet  lemon  trees  has  lately  proved  to  be  the  most  profitable,  as  the 
size  of  the  fruit  increases  with  the  age  of  the  tree,  while  ttiose  grafted 
on  sour  lemon  trees  become  smaller  after  fifteen  years,  The  trees  are 


ORANGES   AND   LEMONS   IN   SYRIA.  443 

not  troubled  with  injurious  insects,  pests,  or  fungous  growth  ;  want  of 
irrigation  eherKs  tin*  growth  of  the  trees. 

Orchard  trees  aiv  planted  10  to  12  feet  apart  in  each  direction.  Both 
orange  and  lemon  trees  are  planted  as  shrubs  in  such  a  manner  that 
several  stems  come  out  of  the  ground  together,  although  there  are  some 
orchards  where  the  trees  have  but  one  stem  ;  those,  however,  planted  as 
hushes  protect  the  fruit  better  against-  the  influence  of  the  wind.  The 
orchards  are  planted,  as  a  custom,  along  the  sea-coast,  where  they  yield 
most  abundantly  on  level  land :  inland  orchards  never  do  so  well.  As  the 
orchards  require  a  sandy  soil,  they  are  planted  as  near  as  one-fourth  of 
a  mile  up  to  some  miles  distance  from  the  sea-shore.  Every  orange  or 
lemon  orchard  is  cultivated  by  a  system  of  artificial  irrigation,  irrigated 
twice  or  three  times  a  week  (in  the  evening  part  of  the  day).  The 
ground  in  orchards  between  trees  is  cultivated  twice  a  year — in  the  fall 
before  the  rain  appears  and  in  spring  when  the  rainy  season  is  over. 
The  value  of  the  yield  of  an  acre  per  annum  of  best  orchards  amounts  to 
from  $80  to  $100;  the  cost  of  cultivation  amounts  to  about  $10.  The 
returns  would  be  much  larger  if  the  orange  were  exported  to  Europe  j 
the  above  statements  therefore  relate  only  to  home  consumption. 

JACOB  SCHUMACHER, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Haifa,  February  20,  1884. 


MERSINA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  DAWSON. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  for  profit  is  the  bitter  orange  ;  the  next 
varieties  worthy  of  culture  are  lemons  and  oranges.  The  above  three 
varieties  are  grown  at  Adana,  Tarsus,  and  Mersina. 

Situation. — Distance  from  sea:  Adana,  13  miles;  Tarsus,  15  miles • 
and  Mersina  on  the  sea  shore.  Elevation  above  sea-level  from  1  to  5 
yards;  the  trees  have  full  exposure  to  sun  ;  level  land  is  the  best. 

Soil. — Rich  soil  6  feet  j  subsoil  gravel. 

Climate.—  The  frost  would  destroy  the  trees,  and  also  the  dry  winds 
in  summer,  if  not  watered.  The  trees  only  fear  the  frost,  and  the  dry-( 
ness  of  soil ;  the  heat  does  not  affect  them  when  watered.  Cold  nights 
in  winter  without  frost,  moist  atmosphere. 

Rain  fall— Rain-fall  from  18  to  20  inches  ;  the  trees  are  watered  by 
irrigation  in  the  dry  season.  Rain  falls  in  November,  December,  March, 
April,  and  May.  The  trees  get  watered  two  or  three  times  a  week  in 
.June,  July.  August,  and  September,  and  until  sufficient  rain  comes. 

Irrigation. — For  irrigation  the  water  is  taken  from  the  Sarus  river 
which  passes  through  Adana.  the  Cydnus  through  Tarsus,  and  the  Her- 


444        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

sina  river  which  runs  close  to  the  gardens.  They  irrigate  two  or  three 
times  :i  week  until  the  wet  season  coines,  at  which  time  the  fruit  is 
formed  to  about  twice  the  size  of  a  walnut.  In  the  dry  season  they 
open  a  space  of  about  3  feet  diameter  all  around  the  trunk  of  every  tree 
and  1  foot  deep,  so  as  to  allow  the  water  to  remain  in.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  wet  season  they  fill  up  these  holes  and  cover  the  trunk  with 
earth  up  to  about  a  foot  from  the  ground  with  a  slope  of  3  to  1. 

Pruning. — Very  little  pruning  is  required  or  done  here.  They  gen- 
erally clean  the  trunk  of  all  its  branches  from  the  surface  of  the  ground 
up  to  the  height  of  about  3  feet  where  the  thick  branches  start. 

Picking. — The  picking  of  the  fruit  begins  end  of  November.  About 
15th  of  December,  the  fruit  is  nearly  all  ripe,  but  they  pick  it  until  the 
end  of  February,  according  to  the  requirements  of  the  market. 

Curing. — To  get  the  fruit  to  last  the  longest  time  possible  it  must  be 
cut  with  a  little  stalk  attached  about  1  inch  long. 

Shipping. — The  bitter  oranges  are  shipped  from  Mersina  to  Liver- 
pool, each  one  wrapped  in  thin  paper,  and  they  are  packed  in  boxes 
containing  100  each,  in  two  rows,  which  are  separated  one  from  the 
other  by  a  thin  board. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  planted  from  12  to  14  feet 
apart.  They  graft  the  young  wild  trees  that  come  by  seed  about  3 
feet  off  the  ground  when  they  get  1  inch  diameter. 

The  orchards. — The  largest  orchards  here  occupy  about  20  acres  of 
ground;  the  smallest  5  acres. 

Maturity. — The  grafts  give  fruit  the  second  year,  and  the  older  they 
grow  the  more  fruit  they  give.  There  are  trees  fifty  years  old,  14  to 
20  inches  diameter  at  the  trunk. 

Insect  pests. — A  small  insect  like  a  black  ant,  with  wings,  attacks  the 
young  tips  of  the  new  branches.  They  do  not  know  of  any  remedy 
against  it.  The  ants  destroy  the  above  insect. 

Packing. — Lemons  are  picked  in  December;  packed  each  in  thin 
paper  and  shipped  in  small  boxes  of  200  each. 

Exports. — About  1 ,000  tons  of  bitter  oranges  might  be  exported  from 
Adana,  Tarsus,  and  Mersina  in  one  season. 

No  figs  are  grown  in  this  vilayet  for  export.  There  are  some  olive 
forests  in  the  vilayet,  but  in  a  wild  state. 

WM.  DAWSON,* 
Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Mersina,  December  7,  1889. 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    SYRIA,  445 

SIDON. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BISSINGER,  OF  BEIRUT. 

Varieties. — The  oblong,  thin-skinned,  most  delicate,  but  can  not  be 
transported.  The  other  variety  is  thick-skinned,  with  flat  ends,  more 
hardy. 

Situation. — On  alluvial  sea-coast  plain  of  Syria,  within  a  range  of  a 
very  lew  miles,  not  more  than  5  from  the' sea,  and  at  an  elevation  up  to 
200  feet.  Constant  sunshine,  very  few  clouds,  no  fogs. 

Soil. — Level,  flat  land  ;  sandy  soil,  the  best  and  light  earth. 

Climate. — Even,  no  sudden  changes.  Dry  and  rainy  season.  Tem- 
perature, 40°  to  98°  Falir. ;  average,  69°  Fahr.  Nights  warm.  Air 
without  fogs  or  mist  ;  some  dew  is  beneficial. 

Rain-fall. — From  34  to  40  inches  the  ordinary  range.  Trees  grow  in 
spring  and  put  forth  new  shoots  in  fall  if  watered  when  thirsty. 

Irrigation. — By  channels  of  running  water  from  river.  Irrigation  is 
used  when  after  spring  rains  the  leaf  shows  a  need.  Different  soils 
require  different  periods  of  irrigation.  From  six  to  fifteen  days  ;  when- 
ever the  soil  is  dry  then  the  trees  are  irrigated — ground  flooded. 

Cultivation — Plowed  once  a  year. 

Fertilizers.— T>est,  application  is  to  put  goat  manure  into  irrigating 
water. 

Pruning. — Varies;  low  trees  preferred;  less  injury  to  fruit  when  it 
falls;  in  fall  dry  wood  is  pruned. 

Picking. — Cheap  kinds  are  allowed  to  fall  for  home  consumption.  The 
fruit  is  picked,  for  a  near  market,  fully  ripe;  fora  distance,  while  green. 

Packing. — Wrapped  in  paper  and  put  in  wooden  boxes. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Branches  touch  and  interlock;  from  20 
to  30  feet;  some  are  propagated,  some  are  seedlings,  but  the  best 
varieties  are  budded. 

Maturity. — Differs  according  to  land ;  five  to  eight  years  they  bear 
well. 

Disease. — Only  a  small  scale  like  a  freckle  on  fruit,  which  dries  the 
tree. 

Shipping,  packing,  and  canning  goes  on  during  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
Every  week,  wrapped  in  paper  and  boxed. 


SIDON. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  ARELA. 
(Repnblished  from  Consular  Report  No.  41|.) 

Varieties. — Oranges  are  distinguished  by  their  shape  and  contour. 
Belady,  round,  flat  ends,  very  thick  peel,  hardy;  ripens  late.  Shainouty, 
long  like  an  egg,  thin-skinned;  ripens  early.  Bisry,  finest  flavor;  a 


44G        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

seedling.  All  these,  except  the  la&t,  are  grafted  upon  the  wild  or  bitter 
orange,  and  in  two  or  three  years  after  grafting  begin  to  bear  fruit.  No 
limit  is  recognized  to  the  period  of  fruit-bearing,  but  the  trees  attain  a 
very  old  age  without  deteriorating.  Only  one  variety  grows  directly 
from  the  seed ;  the  others  are  all  grafted,  which  is  considered  a  better 
method  than  budding. 

Soil. — The  order  of  the  soils  best  adapted  to  orange  culture  is  as  fol- 
lows :  the  best  being  light  red  earth,  then  dark  loam,  then  sandy,  and 
finally  clayey. 

Pests. — Until  the  past  year  nothing  had  troubled  the  trees  except  the 
attacks  of  moles  on  the  roots  of  the  trees.  But  now  a  fungus  has  ap- 
peared, which  is  spreading  rapidly,  and  seems  likely  to  do  great  damage. 
No  remedy  for  it  has  been  discovered  as  yet. 

Position. — All  the  oranges  and  lemons  of  Syria  are  grown  very  near 
the  sea-coast,  whether  at  Tripoli,  Sidon,  or  Jaffa;  and  I  know  of  no  ex- 
tensive successful  cultivation  more  than  4  miles  from  the  sea,  and  some 
of  the  orchards  are  within  20  rods  of  salt  water.  When  the  trees  are 
set  out  they  are  placed  18  feet  apart  every  way  when  the  soil  is  good, 
16  feet  when  the  soil  is  only  average ;  trees  placed  behind  a  shelter,  as 
another  line  of  trees,  prosper  better  than  those  exposed  to  severe  wind. 

Irrigation. — As  there  is  no  rain  from  May  1  till  October  1,  irrigation 
is  the  only  means  of  keeping  the  trees,  alive.  Each  tree  is  surrounded 
by  a  little  bank  of  earth  to  keep  the  water  about  the  tree.  The  trees 
are  left  without  irrigation  till  the  last  of  June,  till  the  leaves  curl  a  lit- 
tle, then  they  are  watered  three  times  for  periods  of  seven  days,  and 
after  this  every  fifteen  days.  The  irrigation  of  the  river  coming  from 
Mount  Lebanon  is  better  than  that  from  the  wells,  as  the  last  has  a  taste 
of  brackishness. 

Yield. — In  good  orchards  it  is  estimated  that  the  average  yield  is 
from  1,500  oranges  to  2,000  per  tree,  and  in  poor  orchards  about  600 
per  tree.  The  yield  is  annnal,  but  every  other  year  the  crop  is  lighter. 

SHIBLY  ABELA, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Sidon,  February  21,  1884. 


TARSUS. 

REPORT  BY  ACTING  CONSULAR  AGENT  AVANIA. 
(Republished  from  Consular  Report  No.  41|.) 

There  are  four  kinds  of  trees  more  or  less  productive :  The  sour  lemons, 
the  sweet  lemons,  the  sour  oranges,  and  the  sweet  oranges.  The  most 
yielding  of  these  trees  are  the  sweet  lemons,  but  the  most  valuable  are 
the  sour  lemon  and  the  sweet  orange  fruits,  the  usual  value  of  which 


ORANGES   AND   LEMONS   IN   SYRIA.  447 

is  from  1  to  3  cents  each.  These  trees  come  generally  to  their  full  beat- 
ing after  the  fifth  year  of  their  plantation,  which  is  first  effected  in  seeds 
and  replanted  the  next  year  at  a  distance  of  from  13  to  10  feet  between 
each  plant.  By  grafting,  these  four  kinds  of  trees  can  be  transformed 
into  one,  which  succeeds  perfectly  well.  Sour  lemons  and  sweet  oranges 
are  most  sensitive  to  a  cold  temperature,  especially  the  former,  which 
are  sometimes  completely  ruined  by  cold.  Thus  the  duration  of  these 
trees  depends  on  temperature,  and  might  be  prolonged  to  thirty  or  forty 
years.  In  this  country  such  trees  are  never  troubled  with  any  injurious 
insect,  etc. ;  severe  temperature  is  the  only  thing  that  injures  them. 
The  orange  and  lemon  groves  are  generally  situated  in  the  interior  or 
on  the  coast,  but  always  iu  the  vicinity  of  towns  in  order  to  be  sheltered 
from  cold.  The  plain  lands  are  rather  suitable  for  the  plantation  and 
conservation  of  these  trees ;  but  the  best  results  are  obtained  on  the 
coast,  where  the  soil  is  more  or  less  sandy  and  light.  Even  at  a  distance 
of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  sea  these  trees  prosper  quite  well.  The 
system  of  irrigation  used  in  this  country  is  the  running  water.  In  those 
places  where  such  water  is  lacking  wells  are  dug,  the  water  of  which  is 
used  for  watering  the  gardens  by  means  of  wheels  mounted  with  buckets. 
In  the  places  where  the  soil  of  the  groves  is  cultivated  watering  is 
necessary  in  summer  and  autumn  when  rains  are  late,  and  this  is  done 
repeatedly. 

It  is  commonly  calculated  that  the  average  yield  of  these  trees  is  worth 
from  $2.50  to  $3  each.  In  this  country  no  exportation  of  oranges  or 
lemons  is  made;  on  the  contrary,  large  importation  is  effected  annually 
from  the  coast  of  Syria  for  the  local  consumption. 

ELIE  AVANIA, 
•  Acting  Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Tarsus  and  Mersine,  March  3,  1884. 


TRIPOLI  AND  VICINITY. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BISSINGER. 

Varieties. — The  best  varieties  are,  citron,  mandarines,  the  "  belady," 
(indigenous)  and  Jaffa  oranges,  after  which  come  the  sour  and*  sweet 
lemons. 

Situation. — From  the  sea  to  10  miles  inland,  with  slight  elevations. 
The  trees  should  be  exposed  to  the  sun.  Low,  level  land  is  best.  The 
best  soil  is  red  or  black,  but  sandy. 

Climate. — The  degree  of  heat  is  moderate;  from  40°  to  90°  Fahr. 
Cold  nights  destroy  the  blossoms.  In  warm  days  and  nights  the  trees 
have  to  be  watered  ;  moist  and  ordinary  atmosphere  is  beneficial. 

The  rain-fall  is  36  inches  on  an  average  per  year.  Abundance  of  rain 
is  advantageous ;  frost  injures  the  trees. 


448        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Irrigation. — When  the  soil  is  dry,  during  the  months  of  June,  July, 
August,  and  September,  and  sometimes  October.  More  or  less  according 
to  dryuess  of  soil  and  size  of  trees — once  every  eight  or  ten  days. 

Cultivation. — In  the  spring,  when  the  soil  gets  dry,  the  ground  should 
be  plowed  to  the  depth  of  5  or  6  inches ;  this  should  be  repeated  three 
or  four  times,  i.  e.,  once  every  eight  or  ten  days  j  in  summer  every  eight 
or  ten  days  after  each  irrigation.  This  alternate  succession  of  plowing 
and  irrigation  should  occur  between  the  15th  of  June  and  15th  of  Sep- 
tember. 

Irrigation. — Goat  manure  is  the  best,  cow  dnng  ranks  second,  after 
which,  in  point  of  quality,  comes  horse  manure.  Half  of  the  quantity 
is  to  be  used  in  winter  and  the  other  half  in  summer.  The  quantity 
needed  is  about  84  pounds  for  each  large  tree.  The  first  42  pounds  that 
are  to  be  used  in  winter  should  be  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  soil,  at 
a  distance  of  about  10  to  12  inches  from  the  foot  of  the  tree,  and  the 
other  42  pounds  distributed  in  two  or  three  equal  parts,  after  being 
mixed  with  water  during  the  summer.  Small  trees  need  only  half  of 
this  quantity. 

Pruning. — Pruning  should  be  confined  to  the  lower  branches,  but  yet 
sufficiently  upward  to  leave  a  free  passage  for  a  team  of  oxen  when  till- 
ing the  ground. 

Picking. — Citrons,  sweet  and  sour  lemons,  as  well  as  oranges,  must  be 
picked  when  green,  with  a  yellowish  tint,  if  intended  for  exportation  ;  if 
for  local  consumption,  when  fully  yellow.  These  fruits  fall  to  the 
ground  as  soon  as  they  are  perfectly  ripe,  and  should  be  gathered  when 
dry  from  dew  or  moisture.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  roll  these  fruits 
in  thin  paper  before  packing  them  up  in  boxes. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  tr£es  are  planted  from  3  yards  9 
inches  to  4  yards  12  inches.  Citrons  are  propagated  by  seedlings ; 
sweet  and  sour  lemons  and  oranges  by  grafting.  Oranges  prosper  well 
when  grafted  on  sweet  lemon  trees.  Sweet  lemons  can  be  grafted  on 
sour  lemon  trees.  The  best  varieties  are  budded.  Orchards  are  gener- 
ally small. 

Maturity. — Trees  begin  to  bear  fruit  in  the  fourth  or  fifth  year  after 
being  planted.  The  largest  crops  are  from  the  seventh  year  upward. 

Insect  pests. — ISTo  insects  infest  this  kind  of  a  tree  except  a  scale  pest, 
for  vrhich  there  is  no  known  remedy ;  but  the  damage  caused  by  it  is 
slight. 

ERHARD  BISSINGER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  February  12,  1890. 


ORANGES    IN    INDIA.  449 


ADEN. 

I  bave  the  honor  to  acknowledge  receipt  of  circular  dated  28th  Sep- 
tember, relative  to  the  cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  and  olives 
in  my  district,  and  in  reply  I  regret  to  state  that  owing  to  the  barrenness 
of  Arabian  soil,  the  cultivation  of  the  above-mentioned  fruits  to  any 
extent  would  be  impossible. 

D WIGHT  MOORE, 

Consul. 
CONSULATE  OF  UNITED  STATES, 

November  29,  1889. 


INDIA. 

REJ'ORT,  PREPARED  FOR  VICE  CONSUL  BODE,  OF  BOMBAY,  BY  MR.  G.MARSHALL 
WOCDROW,  LECTURER  IN  BOTANY  AND  AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  COLLEGE  OF 
SCIENCE,  POOXU. 

ORANGES. 

Varieties. — The  best  orange  grown  in  India  is  the  Cintra,  a  name  com- 
monly assumed  to  be  derived  from  the  Portuguese  town,  but  lately  de- 
clared to  be  a  corruption  of  a  Sanscrit  word  which  should  be  pronounced 
Suntura.  The  tree  is  of  upright  habit,  rarely  exceeding  12  feet  in  height 
and  8  feet  in  expansion  of  branches.  The  leaves  measure  1 J  by  f  to  2J 
by  1 J  inches.  The  winged  joint  in  the  stalk  is  very  slightly  developed. 
The  flowers  are  three- fourths  inch  in  diameter,  have  five  petals,  twenty 
to  twenty-four  stamens  and  niue>  to  ten  carpels.  The  fruit  is  found  in 
two  varieties — one  having  the  skin  very  loose  and  the  other  having  a 
smooth,  tight-fitting  skin,  as  grown  at  Nagpur.  This  fruit  has  been 
declared  by  people  who  have  traveled  much,  to  be  the  finest  orange  in 
the  world.  The  flavor  of  the  two  varieties  is  equal  when  grown  under 
.similar  conditions,  but  the  loose-skinned  variety  has  an  imposing  appear- 
ance and  is  rather  more  easily  peeled,  consequently  it  is  the  market 
favorite.  The  inner  skin  (endocarp),  of  both  varieties  is  very  delicate 
and  the  liths  (carpels)  cohere  so  slightly  that  it  is  easy  to  break  up  for 
eating.  Ordinary  market  specimens  weigh  7  ounces,  but  examples 
weighing  10  ounces  are  common.  Well-grown  specimens  have  only  two 
or  three  seeds,  which  have  several  embryos. 

The  Mozambique  orange. — The  tree  that  bears  this  orange  is  of  a  strong 
growing  habit  and  forms  an  irregularly  globular  head.  Its  leaves 
measure  from  2J  by  1J  to  5 £  by  3£  inches,  entire,  or  very  slightly  and 
irregularly  toothed  and  the  apex  pointed  or  cut  out.  The  leaf  stalk  is 
three-fourths  inch,  the  wings  on  one  of  the  joints  attaining  one-fourth 
inch  in  width — often  less,  and  sometimes  wanting.  The  flowers  are  1£ 
inches  in  diameter;  have  five  slightly  oblique  petals  which  are  glandu- 
lar on  the  outside,  and  twenty  to  twenty-four  stamens.  Average  speci- 


450        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 

mens  of  the  fruit  grown  in  India  weigh  8  ounces,  but  specimens  im- 
ported from  Mozambique  13  ounces  in  weight  are  common.  In  shape 
it  is  globular,  slightly  compressed  vertically.  The  skin  is  medium  in 
thickness,  tight  fitting,  marked  by  numerous  small  vertical  furrows  and 
a  circular  smooth  mark  about  1  inch  in  diameter  on  the  upper  end.  The 
pulp  is  if sually  pale  yellow,  but  when  dead  ripe  becomes  of  the  brownish 
yellow  that  may  be  called  the  medium  tint  of  orange  pulp.  In  flavor 
it  is  sweet,  but  without  the  piquancy  of  the  best  varieties.  The  inner 
skin  is  tough,  so  that  the  orange  must  be  cut  up  with  a  knife  and  is  only 
fit  to  be  sucked.  Seeds  about  twenty,  with  several  embryos  in  each. 
Two  sorts  are  known,  Khaguzee,  thin  skinned,  and  Goradiya,  thick 
skinned.  Both  sorts  keep  in  good  condition  about  two  months,  although 
ripe  when  gathered.  The  imported  fruit  must  keep  in  good  condition 
longer,  as  it  is  brought  from  Mozambique  by  sailing  craft. 

Ladoo  orange  of  the  Deccan. — The  tree  that  bears  this  variety  produces 
long,  straight  branches,  apt  to  spread  out  considerably  as  the  tree  at- 
tains size,  therefore  needing  to  be  planted  18  feet  apart.  The  leaves 
are  from  1£  by  f  to  2J  by  1J  with  the  winged  joint  of  the  stalk  very 
slightly  developed.  The  open  flowers  are  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, have  five  petals,  twenty  to  twenty-four  stamens,  and  nine  to  ten 
carpels.  The  fruit  attains  8  ounces  in  weight,  is  in  shape  a  much  de- 
pressed globe  with  a  distinct  nipple  at  the  stalk,  and,  within  the  skin 
on  the  upper  end,  generally  has  an  extra  orange  about  three-fourths  of 
an  inch  in  diameter  with  five  to  seven  liths  (carpels).  The  skin  is  of  a 
dusky  yellow  color,  moderately  rough  and  loose,  and  of  medium  thick- 
ness, the  inner  skin  very  thin  and  inclosing  juicy  sweet  pulp  of  piquant 
flavor  and  medium  tint  of  color.  This  is  a  fine  orange  for  eating,  but 
it  does  not  bring  a  high  price  on  account  of  its  indifferent  appearance. 

Lull  Ladoo  of  the  Deccan. — This  fruit  I  have  identified  with  the  man- 
darin orange  of  books.  The  tree  resembles  the  Ladoo  in  habit,  leaves, 
flowers,  and  shape  of  fruit,  but  the  skin  of  the  fruit  is  of  a  deep  orange 
color,  smooth  and  loose,  and  inclosing  eleven  liths  having  a  stronger 
inner  skin  than  the  Ladoo  and  about  twenty  seeds.  It  is  a  very  hand- 
some and  attractive  fruit  of  good  flavor. 

Kowla  orange. — This  is  a  small-sized,  indifferent  orange,  which  becomes 
yellow  on  the  tree  before  it  is  sweet.  ^ 

The  Sylhet  orange. — This  variety,  which  is  very  often  to  be  seen  in  the 
Calcutta  markets,  is  grown  in  the  district  whose  name  it  bears.  It  aver- 
ages 5  ounces  in  weight,  has  a  light  skin  and  good  flavor. 

The  Malta  and  St.  Michael  oranges  have  been  introduced  and  thrive 
well,  but  are  not  greatly  valued  where  the  Cintra  can  be  grown. 

Location,  etc. — The  finest  oranges  in  India  and,  in  the  opinion  of  some — 
in  the  world — are  grown  near  Nagpur,  which  lies  in  north  latitude  21° 
9'  and  east  longitude  79°  II7,  about  350  miles  from  the  sea,  and  at  an 
altitude  of  1,025  feet  above  mean  sea-level.  The  orchards  are  fully  ex- 
posed to  the  sun,  and  the  ground  of  each  orchard  nearly  level,  as  they 


ORANGES    IN    INDIA. 


451 


are  dotted  about  at  intervals  in  a  gently  rolling  country  where  the  fine 
soil  has  been  collected  from  the  exposed  and  disintegrated  trap  rock. 
This  soil  forms  a  stiff  loam  from  2  to  3  feet  in  depth,  containing  about 
7  per  cent,  of  lime  and  1  £  per  cent,  of  vegetable  matter.  The  subsoil  is 
open,  nodular  limestone  mixed  with  clay,  and  gives  excellent  drainage. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Nagpur  is  shown  in  the  following  table, 
which  is  compiled  from  the  Government  Meteorological  Reports.  It 
may  be  described  as  comparatively  hot  and  moist  from  June  to  Septem- 
ber, cool  and  dry  from  October  to  February,  hot  and  dry  from  March  to 
May. 

It  must  be  noted  that  the  temperature  given  in  the  following  table  is 
taken  from  a  barometer  shaded  from  direct  sunshine  and  from  radiation 
at  night.  The  increase  obtained  by  exposing  the  barometer  to  the  sun 
averages  59.8°  F.,  and  the  decrease  from  exposing  the  barometer  to  the 
open  sky  at  night  varies  from  12.8°  in  January  to  2.7°  in  July. 

Table  showing  the  climate  of  Nagpur,  India,  where  very  fine  oranges  are  grown. 


Months. 

Temperature  (degrees  F.). 

Bain-fall. 

• 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

Average. 

89 
97 
105 
101 
116 
108 
94 
94 
92 
93 
88 
83 

48 
50 
59 
67 
72 
71 
71 
72 
70 
59 
50 
48 

68.6 
73.8 
81.9 
88.8 
93.1 
85.7 
79.1 
79.3 
77.2 
70.7 
67.1 
78.7 

, 
Inches. 
0.61 
0.42 
0.63 
0.45 
0.83 
•8.99 
12.94 
8.82 
7.92 
2.15 
0.41 
0.34 

February                  .  .     .   . 

March    " 

April 

M?v    " 

Juno 

Jnlv       

Auirust 

September  

October 

November 

December 

During  fiye  years  

116 

47 

79.0 

44.51 

There  are  two  distinct  seasons  in  which  the  trees  will  flower  and  ripen 
fruit,  and  to  obtain  high-class  fruit  the  cultivator  must  elect  which  sea- 
sou  he  will  work  a  particular  break  or  division  of  the  orchard,  be- 
cause the  trees  will  not  bear  properly  at  both  seasons,  and  the  attempt 
to  make  trees  bear  fruit  at  both  seasons  has  been  the  destruction  of 
many  plantations  in  other  parts  of  India.  The  finest  fruit  is  obtained 
from  flowers  that  open  in  June  and  July.  This  is  on  the  market  from 
February  to  May.  The  other  flowering  takes  place  in  February  and 
March.  This  ripens  fruit  from  December  to  February. 

Irrigation. — The  trees  are  kept  dry  during  May  or  December,  ac- 
cording to  the  season  a,t  which  fruit  is  wanted.  At  other  seasons  irri- 
gation is  carried  on  sufficient,  with  the  rain  fall,  to  provide  4  inches  of 
water  over  the  entire  surface.  The  water  is  drawn  from  wells  30  feet 
deep  by  means  of  a  leathern  bucket  which  contains  about  25  gallons, 
by  a  pair  ot'oxcn  that  walk  down  an  incline  plane,  pulling  a  rope  that 
s  over  a  pulley.  The  cost  of  drawing  water  by  this  means  is  1 


452        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

anna  (say  3  cents)  per  1,000  gallons  for  30  feet  in  depth.  The  water  is 
led  into  small  surface  channels  having  a  slope  of  1  in  1,000,  and  from 
the  channels  into  beds  extending  round  the  tree  as  far  as  the  expanse 
of  the  branches.  Into  those  beds  1£  to  2  inches  of  water  is  led  once  in 
ten  days  during  the  absence  of  sufficient  rains,  so  the  soil  is  kept  moist 
from  the  flowering  time  till  the  fruit  is  all  gathered. 

Cultivation. — The  soil  is  kept  clean  and  open  by  plowing  or  digging 
with  a  pick,  4  inches  deep,  twice  yearly.  For  the  crop  that  ripens  dur- 
ing February  —April  water  is  withheld  and  the  soil  opened  up  during 
April  and  May.  The  soil  is  at  the  same  time  drawn  away  and  the 
roots  exposed  during  fifteen  to  twenty  days.  At  this  time  the  greater 
part  of  the  leaves  fall  off,  then  100  pounds  weight  per  tree  of  old,  moist 
cow-dung  is  mixed  with  the  soil  and  the  roots  covered  up  and  watered 
heavily,  if  rain  does  not  fall  soon ;  this  causes  the  trees  to  burst  into 
bloom  and  fresh  leaves ;  thereafter  the  soil  is  kept  moist  till  the  fruit  is 
gathered.  The  same  operation  carried  on  in  December  brings  ripe  fruit 
during  December  and  February  following. 

Pruning. — This  extends  to  clearing  away  suckers  from  below  the 
graft  and  cutting  out  weakly  and  defective  shoots  only ;  excessive  prun- 
ing must  be  avoided,  as  it  tends  to  make  the  plant  run  to  wood  and  pre- 
vents flowering. 

Picking. — The  fruit  continues  to  attain  full  development  during  a 
month  from  each  break  of  trees  that  has  been  started  into  growth  to- 
gether, and  is  picked  over  at  intervals  of  a  few  days.  A  faint  trace  of 
yellow  in  the  skin  of  the  fruit  indicates  maturity.  When  fresh  from  the 
tree  this  fruit  has  a  delightful  piquancy  that  is  to  a  great  extent  lost  by 
the  fruit  being  packed  up  closely  for  a  few  weeks,  but  the  fruit  remains 
in  good  condition  about  two  months  if  not  closely  packed. 

Curing, — Xo  special  curing  is  given  unless  the  fruit  has  been  gathered 
unripe.  In  that  case  it  is  packed  with  fine  hay  and  kept  close  in  a  box 
for  a  few  days.  Such  fruit  is  always  inferior. 

Packing. — In  packing  30  to  40  pounds  weight  of  oranges  are  placed  in 
very  slim  baskets,  without  any  packing  material,  and  the  lid  tied  down. 
None  of  the  fruit  is  shipped  as  merchandise,  as  the  demand  in  the  large 
cities  exceeds  the  supply. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  planted  12  feet  apart  each 
way,  except  for  Ladoo,  which  is  given  18  feet  apart. 

Grafting  or  seedling. — Seeds  of  Citrus  medica,  (Jambooree),  a  large 
coarse  citron  of  vigorous  habit,  are  sown,  and  when  the  stocks  are  two 
to  three  years  old  are  budded.  In  budding  one  vertical  slit  in  the  bark 
only  is  made  and  the  branch  bent  towards  the  slit  so  as  to  make  it  gape 
open  5  into  the  gape  the  bud  is  inserted  and  the  branch  released ;  it 
then  springs  back  and  closes  in  the  bud  which  is  tied  with  a  strip  of 
fiber.  Occjisionnlly  the  sweet  lime  (Citrus  limetha]  is  used  as  ;i  stock, 
and  is  believed  by  some  to  insure  more  sweetness  in  the  fruit.  The 
best  varieties  jire  invariably  budded,  as  seedlings  take  so  long  to  pro- 
duce fruit  as  to  be  practically  useless  in  fruit  growing.  » 


LEMONS    IN    INDIA.  453 

Size  ofnrrJiardfi. — From  the  nature  of  the  soil  required  and  the  for- 
mation of  tiif  country  large  orchards  can  not  be  planted;  from  5  to  10 
acres  is  a  common  8ize. 

Maturity. — The  trees  begin  to  bear  at  three  years'from  the  bud,  carry 
the  heaviest  crop  between  the  sixth  and  tenth  year,  and  after  15  years 
decay  rapidly. 

Insect  peats. — An  important  insect  enemy  is  the  caterpillar  of  Erythco, 
which  strips  the  trees  of  the  young  foliage  during  July.  Hand  picking 
is  the  chief  remedy  employed.  An  undetermined  wood  boring  insect  at- 
tacks the  trees  as  soon  as  decay  sets  in,  and  is  commonly  supposed  to  be 
the  cause  of  decay.  Severe  pruning  and  burning  the  affected  branches 
is  the  most  effectual  remedy.  It  is  doubtful  whether  any  insects  are 
beneficial  except  in  distributing  the  pollen,  but  the  entomology  of  Indian 
fruit  culture  is  fragmentary  as  yet. 

LEMONS. 

Lemons  are  not  exported.  The  large  coarse  citron  called  Jambooree 
( Citrus  medica)  can  be  produced  cheaply  in  large  quantities,  but  except 
by  dyers  for  the  acid  it  is  but  little  used  and  brings  a  very  low  price. 

The  sweet  lime  (Citrus  limetha)  a  fruit  having  a  tight,  smooth,  very 
thin  skin,  ultimately  of  a  pale  yellow,  and  eleven  to  twelve  liths,  inclos- 
ing very  pale  colored  sweet  juice  without  piquant  flavor  and  about  ten 
seeds.  The  leaves  attain  3J  by  2 £  inches,  slightly  toothed,  and  thorns 
one-fourth  of  an  inch  in  length  are  developed  in  the  axiles.  This  fruit 
is  widely  cultivated,  but  not  to  any  important  extent  in  one  place.  It  is 
chiefly  grown  from  seed. 

The  common  sour  lime  (Bagdee  Limboo}. — A  globular,  smooth,  pale 
yellow  fruit  weighing  about  one-tenth  of  a  pound,  having  pale  green- 
ish yellow  acid  pulp  of  pleasant  flavor  inclosed  in  10  by  11  liths  and 
numerous  seeds  having  several  embryos. 

The  tree  is  of  a  dense  growing,  branching,  thorny  habit,  bears  leaves 
from  2  by  1  to  2 A-  by  1J  inches,  having  a  stalk  one-half  inch  in  length, 
of  which  the  winged  joint  is  one-quarter  of  an  inch.  The  flower  has  four 
petals,  is  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  has  twenty  two  to 
twenty-five  stamens. 

This  is  the  favorite  sour  lime.  It  is  used  by  all  classes  as  a  condi- 
ment and  digestive,  and  is  widely  produced  throughout  the  country. 
Tin*  trees  are  raised  from  seed,  and  when  cared  lor  properly  attain  at 
least  fifty  years  of  age. 

The  Pati  Limboo,  or  Kama,  is  a  variety  of  the  above,  3J  ounces  in 
weight,  oblong  in  shape,  and  bearing  nipples  at  both  ends. 

The  Popamus  or  Pumalo,  (Citrus  decumana),  seedlings  of  this  fruit 
vary  greatly  and  a  large  proportion  are  worthless,  but  the  grand, 
thin-skinned,  and  red-fleshed  varieties  that  are  cultivated  near  Bom- 
bay are  very  delicious  and  wholesome  if  eaten  in  the  morning  with 
salt  or  sugar.  A  well-developed  specimen  weighs  4  pounds  and  is  7 


454        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

inches  in  diameter.  It  has  fourteen  to  fifteen  liths  ;  seedd  few,  or  some- 
times none  ;  embryo  one  in  each  seed.  The  tree  thrives  in  a  hot,  moist 
climate  and  needs  the  strongest  of  nitrogenous  manures.  Near  Bom- 
bay slaughter-house* offal  is  freely  given  as  manure.  Enarching  on  to 
a  seedling  Pnmalo  is  the  means  employed  for  propagation,  and  regular 
irrigation  when  the  rain-fall  is  below  4  inches  per  month  is  provided. 

Publications. — Government  of  India  does  not  publish  prices  and  sta- 
tistics of  fruit.  The  Magpur  cultivation  of  the  orange,  which  is  by  far 
the  most  considerable  in  the  country,  was  initiated  by  a  Scottish  gar- 
dener named  Thompson,  who  was  in  the  service  of  the  local  prince 
about  thirty -five  years  ago. 

G.  MARSHALL  WOODROW. 

POONA,  March  3,  1890. 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

•» 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WEBB,  OF  MANILA.. 

As  stated  in  a  previous  report,  horticulture  is  in  a  very  backward 
condition  in  the  Philippine  Archipelago,  and,  while  there  are  five  varie- 
ties of  oranges  and  four  of  lemons  found  here,  they  are  not  cultivated 
to  an  extent  that  would  create  a  demand  for  them  for  export.  The  na- 
tive women,  who  find  the  trees  growing  wild  in  the  jungles  or  encour- 
age a  few  to  grow  around  their  huts,  bring  the  fruit  to  the  cities  and 
towns,  selling  it  about  the  streets  and  markets ;  but  there  are  no  care- 
fully kept  orange  or  lemon  groves,  as  in  other  orange-producing  coun- 
tries, and  no  interest  whatever  is  manifested  by  the  Europeans  here  in 
the  cultivation  of  the  fruit.  The  results  of  this  indifference  and  neglect 
are  apparent,  as  the  fruit  is  of  a  very  inferior  quality.  I  am  quite  sure 
there  is  n<5t  a  native  orange  or  lemon  to  be  found  that  would  compare 
at  all  favorably  with  the  ordinary  products  of  Florida  and  California. 
When  fit  to  eat  the  skin  is  green  and  has  the  appearance  of  just  begin- 
ning to  ripen,  and  when  it  reaches  the  orange  color  the  pulp  is  either 
perfectly  dry  and  tasteless  or  decayed  and  unfit  to  eat.  When  the 
pulp  is  sweet  and  juicy  the  skin  is  usually  a  deep  green. 

Varieties. — The  following  varieties  of  oranges  and  lemons  a^e  found 
here: 

Citrus  Aurantium  known  to  the  natives  as  the  "  IS  aranjita."  It  resem- 
bles somewhat  the  ordinary  Japanese  orange,  but  is  inferior  in  flavor; 
the  pulp  is  of  a  rich,  pinkish  color,  separates  readily,  and  when  ripe  is 
quite  juicy.  It  usually  measures  at  maturity  about  2£  to  2J  inches  in 
diameter  and  is  slightly  flattened  at  the  stem  and  bud  ends. 

Citrus  Aurantium,  known  to  the  natives  as  the  "  Cajel ; n  it  is  the 
juiciest  and  most  palatable  variety  found.  It  has  a  yellow  pulp  which 
clings  tenaciously  together  and  is  difficult  to  separate  from  the  skin 
and  the  fruit  is,  therefore,  never  peeled  for  the  table.  The  only  method 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  THE  PHILIPPINES.      455 

of  eating  it  is  to  cut  away  pieces  of  tbe  pulp  with  the  riud  adhering  to 
them,  leaving  the  core  with  the  seeds  in  it  in  an  oblong  square  piece. 
The  outside  pieces  are  then  taken  in  the  fingers  and  the  juice  squeezed 
into  the  mouth.  As  a  rule  the  juice  has  a  watery  taste  although  one  is 
occasionally  found  that  yields  rich  and  deliciously  flavored  juice. 

Citrus  Aurantium  or  "Pisong"  resembles  in  shape  and  flavor  the 
Mandarin  or  *•  Kid-glove"  orange  of  China  and  Japan,  but  unlike  the 
latter  the  skin  is  always  green  ;  it  can  be  easily  peeled  with  the  fingers, 
and  the  pulp  separates  freely  and  without  breaking ;  it  grows  plentifully 
and  is  very  cheap. 

Citrus  Decumana,  called  by  the  natives  "  Lucban,"  is  generally  from  4 
to  6  inches  in  diameter,  with  skin  an  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  and 
closely  resembles  the  "  Pomals,"  brought  here  from  China,  except  in 
the  color  of  the  skin.  The  pulp  is  white  and  separates  readily,  and  the 
juice  is  quite  tart. 

Citrus  Madurensis,  called  by  the  natives  u  Sua,"  is  an  exact  counter- 
part of  the  Lucban  except  that  the  pulp  is  red  and  the  juice  sweet,  with 
a  suggestion  of  tartness. 

Citrus  Medica  or  "Limon  Eeal"  (royal  lemon)  is  shaped  like  the  Mes- 
sina lemon  but  is  very  much  smaller  and  less  juicy.  The  skin  is  of  a 
yellowish  green  color  when  ripe  and  the  juice  is  very  sharply  acid.  It 
is  excellent  fruit  for  lemonade,  for  which  it  is  used  almost  exclusively. 

Citrus  Medica  or  "  Limon  "  is  seldom  more  than  an  inch  or  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  is  nearly  round,  and  its  flavor  closely  resembles 
that  of  the  lime.  The  skin  is  quite  green  until  it  begins  to  decay. 

Citrus  Medica  or  "  Limoncito  n  (little  lemon)  is  seldom  more  than  half 
or  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and,  when  ripe,  has  a  yellow- 
ish green  skin.  It  is  slightly  sweetish  and  is  used  only  by  the  natives 
io  making  preserves. 

Citrus  Medica  or  "  Calamondin,"  when  ripe,  is  usually  about  an  inch 
in  diameter,  almost  perfectly  round,  and  has  a  very  thin  bright  yellow 
skin,  and  red  pulp.  The  juice  is  very  sour  and  is  used  for  flavoring 
sauces  and  for  lemonade. 

Situations. — The  orange  and  lemon  trees  are  seldom  found  at  a  dis- 
tance of  less  than  100  meters  from  the  sea  and  they  thrive  best  at  about 
200  on  high  ground  and  in  dry,  sandy  soil.  They  are  most  productive 
on  the  higher-level  lands  where  they  are  partially  in  the  shade  of  larger 
trees,  although  they  seem  to  do  fairly  well  even  under  the  blistering 
rays  of  the  tropical  sun. 

Climate. — The  temperature  of  the  best  producing  districts  varies  but 
little.  Last  year,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  year,  the  maxi- 
mum temperature  was  765.33,  the  minimum  755,  and  the  average  759.35. 

The  average  annual  rain-fall  is  about  3,000  millimeters.    The  greatest 
rain-fall  since  1865  occurred  in  1876  when  it  reached  3,072.8  and  the  least 
was  in  1885  when  905.5  millimeters  fell.    In  September,  1867, 1,110  milli- 
meters fell  in  three  days,  being  the  heaviest  continuous  rain-fall  ever 
156A 6 


456        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

known  here.  The  atmosphere  is  humid  at  all  times  and  is  very  moist 
at  night,  so  much  so  that  in  Manila  the  belief  prevails  that  a  foreigner 
is  almost  sure  to  contract  rheumatism,  neuralgia,  or  a  low  type  of  fever 
if  he  sleeps  near  the  earth.  Residences  for  foreigners  are,  therefore, 
usually  built  with  the  sleeping  rooms  from  10  to  12  feet  above  the 
ground.  The  nights  are  damp  and  cool  and  the  days  warm  and  sultry 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year.  During  January,  February,  and 
March  rain  rarely  falls,  and  frequently  December  is  also  a  dry  month; 
the  rainy  season  sets  in  fairly  in  June,  and  for  six  mouths  drizzling  rains 
prevail  with  occasional  drenching  showers. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  never  necessary  except  for  the  rice  fields. 

The  orange  and  lemon  trees  develop  more  rapidly  during  the  rainy 
than  the  dry  season,  and  the  fruit  is  gathered  eight  months  in  the  year. 
Under  proper  cultivation  oranges  and  lemons  could  probably  be  had  the 
year  round. 

Propagation. — Nature  is  generally  allowed  to  take  its  own  course  in 
regard  to  fruits  of  all  kinds,  but  occasionally  an  unusually  enterprising 
native  will  undertake  to  propagate  a  few  orange  trees  from  the  seeds 
or  by  the  following  method : 

A  strong  hemp  cord  is  wound  several  times  around  a  flourishing 
branch,  2  or  3  feet  from  the  end,  and  a  section  of  bamboo  4  or  5  inches 
long  and  about  2  inches  in  diameter,  is  split  in  halves  and  bound  around 
the  branch,  the  lower  end  resting  on  the  cord.  Into  the  bamboo  cup  is 
placed  some  moist  earth,  which  is  frequently  watered,  and  into  which 
the  branch  sends  small  shoots.  When  these  have  developed  sufficiently 
the  branch  is  severed  from  the  tree  just  below  the  cord,  and,  after  the 
latter  and  the  bamboo  cup  have  been  removed,  it  is  planted  in  light, 
sandy  earth,  which  is  kept  loose  and  well  broken  until  the  tree  fairly 
takes  root ;  after  this  its  owner  pays  no  further  attention  to  it  except 
to  gather  the  fruit.  No  fertilizing  material  is  used,  nor  is  any  regular 
system  of  pruning  followed.  A  tree  thus  propagated  will  bear  fruit 
the  following  year,  while  a  tree  grown  from  the  seed  requires  four  years 
or  more  in  which  to  develop  into  fruition.  When  trees  are  planted 
they  are  usually  placed  about  8  yards  apart.  There  are  no  insects  that 
are  known  to  either  injure  or  benefit  the  trees. 

CONCLUSION.  4 

The  principal  orange-producing  districts  are  the  provinces  of  Batan- 
gas,  Bulacau,  and  Laguna,  on  the  island  of  Leuzon,  but  they  are  found 
in  almost  every  province  of  the  archipelago. 

One  reason  why  the  natives  neglect  to  cultivate  the  fruit  of  the  isl- 
ands is  that  all  who  are  willing  to  work  can  find  more  profitable  em- 
ployment in  the  cultivation  of  hemp,  sugar  cane,  and  tobacco,  and  the 
care  of  the  orange  trees  and  the  picking  and  selling  of  the  fruit  are  left, 
to  the  women  and  children.  The  foreigners,  too,  find  more  profit  in 
hemp,  sugar,  and  tobacco  than  they  could  possibly  realize  from  fruit, 
with  a  corresponding  investment  of  time  and  money. 


ORANGES   AND    LEMONS   IN   NEW   SOUTH    WALES.  457 

My  limited  knowledge  of  horticulture  leads  me  to  confidently  believe 
that,  under  a  proper  system  of  grafting,  pruning,  and  fertilizing,  tbe 
oranges  of  the  Philippine  could  be  made  to  rival  those  sent  herein  large 
quantities  from  China  and  Japan,  which  command  a  much  higher  price 
and  are  bought  in  preference  to  the  native  fruit  by  those  who  can 
afford  to  pay  for  them. 

Neither  figs  nor  olives  are  found  here,  but  I  am  told  that  a  few  trees 
of  both  kinds  have  been  raised  in  the  door-yards  of  Europeans  from  the 
seeds,  yielding,  however,  very  inferior  fruit. 

ALEX.  E.  WEBB, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Manila,  December,  23, 1889. 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 

REPORT  ST  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  DAWSON,  OF  NEWCASTLE. 

Referring  to  circular  on  the  cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  olives, 
and  figs,  I  beg  to  state  that  I  have  written  to  several  parties  in  regard 
to  the  matter,  but,  thus  far,  I  am  able  to  make  only  a  very  meager  and 
unsatisfactory  report. 

In  answer  to  the  questions  put  in  the  circular,  I  will  take  an  orangery 
on  the  Allyu  River  as  the  locality,  about  60  miles  north  of  Newcastle. 
Almost  any  variety  grows  well  there,  and,  after  deducting  expenses, 
leaves  a  medium  profit  in  fairly  paying  seasons.  Mandarins,  Emperor, 
thorny,  and  almost  any  of  the  larger  sorts  are  favorites.  This  is  about 
0  miles  from  Vacy,  near  Patterson,  and  about  20  or  30  miles  from  the 
sea-coast.  The  elevation  is  about  100  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and 
the  trees  are  grown  in  the  open  hilly  country  around.  But  the  orangery 
in  question  is  situated  in  an  elbow  of  the  Ally  River,  the  ground  hav- 
ing evidently  been  formed  from  time  to  time  by  sediment,  sand,  etc. 
The  country  above  this  point  is  very  ridgy  and  hilly — the  hills,  in 
some  instances,  being  of  limestone  formation,  and  probably  on  this  ac- 
count the  orange  flourishes,  the  deposit  naturally  containing  a  certain 
amount  of  lime  subsoil.  About  20  feet  deeper  the  soil  is  of  a  clayey 
nature.  Other  orangeries  are  in  the  neighborhood,  some  of  which 
are  on  the  hills,  and  all  are  in  a  bearing  condition  ;  but  in  the  opinion 
of  most  people  the  flavor  is  not  so  rich  as  that  of  those  grown  on  the 
alluvial  soil,  and  the  rind  of  the  latter  is  thinner. 

The  bark  disease  has  lately  attacked  the  trees  in  this  vicinity.  The 
trees  grow  better  in  fairly  dry  seasons  with  occasional  showers,  but  of 
course  droughts  will  kill  them,  or  partly  so.  Very  wet  weather  causes 
the  fruit  to  drop  off  or  split. 

No  irrigation  is  used,  and  it  is  questionable  if  the  increase  in  the 
yield  would  compensate  for  the  extra  cost.  The  trees  are  in  all  stages 


458        FEUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

of  growth,  from  one  to  twenty  and  thirty  years,  owing  to  new  trees 
being  planted  in  the  place  of  old  ones  which  have  died  from  the  bark 
disease.  This  disease  attacks  the  roots  and  the  foot  of  the  tree.  The 
bark  at  that  place  splits  and  decays,  after  which  the  branches  die. 
Trees  are  plowed  between  about  3£  inches  deep.  The  trees  are  not 
pruned  very  much.  They  are  merely  thinned.  When  in  full  bearing 
the  foliage  nearly  reaches  the  ground.  The  oranges  are  picked  about 
from  July  to  September  and  sold  to  dealers  from  the  tree,  not  cured. 
The  dealers  cart  them  in  teams  to  Maitland,  about  20  miles  north  of 
here,  and  then  re-sell  in  smaller  quantities. 

The  trees  are  planted  from  20  to  30  feet  apart,  from  seedlings,  bitter 
orange  or  lemon  butts  grafted  or  budded.  There  are  from  10  to  30 
acres  to  a  grove,  and  the  crop  generally  increases  with  the  age  and 
size  of  the  trees. 

This  district  is  free  from  insect  pests.  Nut  grass,  or  Townshend's 
curse,  is  the  greatest  nuisance  in  the  flooded  and  alluvial  soil. 

THOMAS  M.  DAWSON, 

Commercial  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  COMMERCIAL  AGENCY, 

Newcastle,  N.  8.  W.,  March  24, 1890. 


AUSTRALASIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GRIFFIN,  OF  SYDNEY. 

It  is  perhaps  not  generally  known  that  citrus  fruits,  and  especially 
oranges  and  lemons,  will  grow  to  perfection  through  the  whole  of  the 
southern  part  of  this  great  island  continent,  on  the  table-lands  in  the 
interior  and  along  the  sides  of  the  mountain  ranges  in  the  far  north. 
In  portions  of  Queensland  and  of  south  and  western  Australia,  where 
the  climate  resembles  that  of  Spain  and  Italy,  the  trees  grow  luxu- 
riously and  bear  most  delicious  fruit.  In  no  portion  of  Australasia  is 
the  cultivation  of  citrus  plants  looked  upon  as  a  profitable  industry, 
except  in  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales,  and  there  only  in  one  or  two 
counties. 

The  are.a  of  orangeries  in  New  South  Wales  at  the  end  of  $!arch, 
1889,  is  given  by  the  Government  statistician  as  10,857  acres,  against 
8,875  acres  in  1888.  The  attention  given  to  the  export  of  oranges  dur- 
ing the  last  few  years  has  led  to  extensive  orange-planting.  The  de- 
mand for  young  trees  has  been  such  that  it  has  been  found  difficult  to 
obtain  plants  of  good  varieties,  and  the  price  has  more  than  doubled. 

AREA  OF  ORANGERIES  AND  PRODUCTION. 

The  only  colonies  which  prepare  statistics  to  show  the  area  of  land 
under  cultivation  with  oranges  are  New  South  Wales,  Queensland,  and 
Victoria. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA. 


459 


The  following  returns  are  extracted  from  the  latest  Government  sta- 
tistical tables  published  in  those  colonies : 

Area  under  crop,  gross  produce,  and  average  produce  per  acre  of  oranges,  in  New  South 
Wales,  Queensland,  and  Victoria. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 


Years. 

Area  un- 
der crop. 

Gross 
produce. 

Average 
produce 
per  acre. 

Year  ended  March  31— 

Acres. 

4,287 

Dozen. 
3,  398,  455 

Dozen. 
792.73 

5,106 

2,763,811 

541.28 

5,939 

3,  810,  356 

641.58 

6,301 

5,  164,  134 

819.  59 

6,716 

4,  978,  829 

741.34 

7,268 

8,  102,  658 

1,  101.  08 

6,911 

4,  097,  666 

592.90 

7,733 

8,  749,  256 

1,  131.  50 

^gg7 

7,920 

6,  376,  868 

805.16 

1888              

8,875 

8,704,677 

980.80 

1889                                                               

10,851 

19,  693,  880 

1,722.78 

NOTE.— Returns  of  oranges  for  years  prior  to  1889  are  understated. 

QUEENSLAND. 


Year  ended  December  31— 
1879                                

219 

92,140 

420.73 

253 

199,  461 

791.  51 

1881                                     

252 

141,  910 

561.  13 

1882.                          

383 

164,  616 

429.  53 

1883                                                       

399 

489,  344 

1,227.93 

1884       

457 

141,  285 

309.16 

633 

658,549 

1,  040.  36 

1886                 

751 

451,777 

601.57 

1887                                                                                   

992 

772,380 

778.61 

1888                                   

1,068 

742,  417 

695.15 

VICTORIA. 


Years  ended  March  31— 

Area  under  crop. 

Gross  produce. 

Olives. 

Oranges 
and 
lemons. 

Olives. 

Olive 
oil 

Oranges 
and 
lemons. 

1878 

Acre  a. 
10 
20 
10 
17 
10 
2 
15 
13 
14 
1 
18 

Acres. 

Owt. 

QaUons. 

Oases. 

1879 

6 
2 

20 
5 

9 

1880 

30 
6 

1881 

17 

15 

1882                

1883 

35 

1884 

4 
2 
6 

34 

1885 

1886 

1887 

1888    

It  is  probable  that  when  the  returns  for  1889  for  Victoria  are  avail- 
able they  will  show  a  very  large  increase,  for  since  the  inauguration  of 
irrigation  colonies  there,  large  areas  of  orangeries  have  been  planted  at 
Mildura  and  elsewhere.  The  orange  and  lemon  tree  is  also  being  planted 
on  a  large  scale  at  the  newly  established  irrigation  colonies  in  South 


460        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 

Australia.  Much  attention  is  being  paid  to  citrus  culture  in  New  Zea- 
land, where  the  soil  and  climate,  particularly  in  the  north  island,  are 
well  adapted  to  the  industry.  The  oft-repeated  statement  that  only 
sour  oranges  mature  in  that  colony  is  due  to  the  fact  that  heretofore  the 
oranges  were  pro  luced  from  the  seedling  and  that  the  best  grafted  vari- 
eties have  only  been  recently  introduced. 

The  orange  was  first  planted  in  New  South  Wales  by  Captain  Hun- 
ter, who  accompanied  Capt.  Arthur  Philip  and  the  early  settlers  to 
Australia  in  1788.  The  ship  which  conveyed  them,  while  on  the  voy- 
age stopped  at  Rio,  where  orange  plants  and  seed  were  obtained.  I 
learn  from  Captain  Hunter's  journal  of  transactions  at  Port  Jackson 
(Sydney)  that  some  of  these  plants  were  taken  to  Norfolk  Island.  There 
is  a  reference  to  the  latter  fact  in  the  journal  of  Lieutenant  King,  R. 
N.,  who  says : 

Two  orange  trees  which  I  brought  with  me  from  Sydney  were  kept  in  tubs  until 
I  could  find  a  sheltered  situation  in  which  I  could  plant  them. 

In  another  part  of  the  same  journal  it  is  recorded  that  "  the  orange 
trees  were  in  a  thriving  state."  The  fine  appearance  of  the  orange 
groves  and  the  superb  flavor  of  the  fruit  in  new  South  Wales  are  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  early  records  of  the  colony. 

Flourishing  orange  groves  are,  in  the  present  day,  to  be  found  almost 
everywhere  within  a  radius  of  50  miles  from  the  city  of  Sydney,  the 
oldest  trees  being  found  about  Parramatta,  Lane  Cove,  and  Central 
Cumberland;  while  in  the  valleys  of  the  Hunter,  the  Hawkesbury,  Man- 
ning, Nepean,  Richmond,  and  Clarence  Rivers  are  flourishing  groves. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  find  in  any  part  of  the  world  groves  more  beau- 
tiful or  luxuriant  than  those  around  Parramatta.  There  can  be  seen 
trees  laden  with  blossoms  and  fruit  in  every  stage  of  growth. 

BEST  VARIETIES  FOR  PROFIT. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  oranges  and  lemons  in  New  South  Wales, 
all  of  which  are  more  or  less  profitable.  Every  grower  has  his  favorite, 
and  it  would  be  difficult  to  select- any  particular  kind  as  yielding  larger 
profit  than  another. 

It  is  probable,  however,  if  a  census  of  opinion  were  taken  that  there 
would  be  a  majority  in  fa vor  of  the  Parramatta  orange  (citrus  aur&ntium 
variety)  brought  originally  from  Brazil  in  the  early  days  of  the  colony. 
This  kind  is  met  with  in  the  markets  more  often  and  in  greater  number 
than  any  other  variety  of  orange.  The  skin  is  usually  thick,  but  there 
is  nothing  coarse  about  the  fruit.  Many  of  Ihe  oranges  are  said  to  be 
fruits  of  seedlings,  and  I  am  informed  by  Mr.  Charles  Moore,  the  direc- 
tor of  the  Sydney  botanic  gardens,  that,  as  a  rule,  seedlings  do  not  pro- 
duce the  same  quality  of  fruit  as  that  from  which  the  seeds  were  taken; 
also,  that  resort  must  be  had  to  budding,  grafting,  or  layering  in  order 
to  produce  really  good  fruit. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA.         461 

There  is  a  great  deal  said  about  thin-skinned  oranges,  but  in  reality 
the  quality  of  the  soil  has  most  to  do  with  the  texture  of  the  skin.  New 
land  produces  coarse  fruit,  but  as  the  soil  becomes  somewhat  impover- 
ished by  the  action  of  the  roots  the  skin  becomes  finer.  Any  grower  can 
produce  thin  skinned  oranges  by  allowing  his  land  to  become  exhausted, 
but  he  soon  finds  out  that  it  will  not  pay  to  do  so.  The  most  experi- 
enced growers  pursue  a  medium  course.  Thick-skinned  oranges,  being 
more  porous,  are  not  suitable  for  export. 

The  Australian  navel  or  Bahia* — This  is  a  remarkably  fine  orange 
It  often  measures  from  15  to  16  inches  in  circumference.  It  is  rich, 
juicy,  and  delicious;  it  is  seedless,  or  nearly  so,  and  commands  a  high, 
price.  The  tree  is  liable  to  become  a  shy  bearer.  It  likes  a  deep,  loamy 
soil,  and  plenty  of  water.  The  best  specimens  are  grown  on  the  Hun- 
ter, Manning,  and  Richmond  Rivers.  Great  care,  however,  is  necessary 
with  its  culture.  In  my  report  on  fruit  transmitted  in  June,  1887,  I 
mentioned  that  this  orange  was  identical  with  the  Washington  Navel 
in  California,  and  that  it  came  originally  from  Brazil,  and  was  intro- 
duced into  California  from  Australia.  Since  the  publication  of  my  re- 
port W.  B.  M.  Lelong,  secretary  of  the  State  Board  of  Horticulture, 
has  expressed  the  opinion  that  the  Australian  tree  does  not  resemble 
the  Washington  Navel  in  its  habit,  and  that  the  resemblance  in  foliage 
has  led  to  its  mistaken  identity.  In  a  work  entitled  "A  Treatise  on 
Citrus  Culture  in  California,"  published  in  1888,  Mr.  Lelong  thus  de- 
scribes the  Australian  Navel : 

The  fruit  varies  greatly  in  size,  all  sizes  generally  being  found  on  the  same  tree. 
A  very  shy  bearer;  blooms  profusely,  but  very  few  of  the  blooms  set ;  often  the  trees 
are  loaded  with  fruit,  and  after  having  attained  the  size  of  marbles  drop  to  the  ground 
without  an\  apparent  cause  whatever;  it  also  has  a  tendency  to  split  at  the  navel. 
The  navel  is  usually  large  and  prominent,  unlike  that  of  the  Washington  Navel, 
which  is  round  and  generally  small.  This  variety  was  first  introduced  into  Califor- 
nia by  the  late  Lewis  Wolfskill.  The  trees  were  imported  from  Australia  in  1874. 

It  is  maintained  here  that  the  Australian  Naval  was  introduced  into 
California  at  a  much  earlier  date  than  1874.  Both  the  tree  and  fruit  are 
easily  recognized  by  Mr.  Leloug's  description,  but  the  difference  in  the 
so-called  varieties  is  not  so  marked  as  Mr.  Lelong  states.  The  truth  is 
the  fruit  varies  greatly  even  in  the  same  orange  groves.  Trees  planted 
at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  kind  of  soil  often  differ  materially. 
Some  of  these  will  be  prolific,  while  others  will  bear  scarcely  any  fruit. 
This  peculiarity  has  led  many  to  believe  that  there  are  two  varieties  of 
the  Australian  Navel,  one  a  prolific  and  the  other  a  shy  bearer.  Closer 
observations  on  the  part  of  experts  to  this  delicious  fruit  would  soon  en- 
able them  to  settle  the  question. 

According  to  Mr.  H.  E.  Van  Deman,  Chief  of  Division  of  Pomology, 
Washington,  the  trees  known  as  the  Washington  Navel 

were  first  imported  by  Mr.  William  Saunders,  of  the  United   States  Department  of 
Agriculture,  from  Bahia,  Brazil,  in  1670.     They  were  twelve  in  number,  supposed  to 

*  See  report  of  Consul  Burke  of  Bahia  relative  to  this  orange. 


462  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

be  all  alike,  having  been  propagated  and  grown  in  Brazil  especially  for  the  Depart- 
ment and  under  the  direction  of  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture.  They  were  named 
by  Mr.  Saunders  Bahia,  in  honor  of  the  place  from  which  they  came.  Two  trees  prop- 
agated from  these  were  sent  to  Mrs.  S.  C.  Tibbetts,  of  Riverside,  Cal.,  in  1873.  When 
these  trees  fruited  and  their  superior  quality  was  ascertained  they  were  called  by  the 
orange-growers  of  California  the  Washington  or  Riverside  Navel,  to  distinguish,  the 
variety  from  the  Australian  Navel,  then  commonly  grown. 

Mr.  Van  Deman  also  mentions  that  this  variety  of  orange,  bearing  ex- 
cellent fruit,  has  been  growing  for  several  years  in  Florida.  He  has  de- 
voted much  study  to  the  origin,  manner  of  introduction  etc.,  of  the  navel 
orange,  and  he  states 

that  most  of  the  oranges  named  constitute  distinct  varieties,  although  some  still  hold 
to  the  opinion  that  these  differences  are  in  a  great  measure  caused  by  peculiarities 
of  soil,  climate,  and  treatment. 

He  further  says : 

After  examining  specimens  of  fruit  from  many  places  in  Florida  and  California 
under  all  of  these  synonyms  and  those  grown  on  the  original  trees  hero,  and  having 
read  what  has  been  published  in  the  papers  on  the  subject,  I  see  no  reason  for  believ- 
ing that  all  of  the  twelve  trees  imported  from  Brazil  are  not  all  of  one  variety. 

M.  J.  Harold,  agricultural  and  horticultural  reporter  for  the  "  Syd- 
ney Town  and  Country  Journal,"  who  has  had  much  experience  with 
citrus  fruits  both  in  California  and  Australia,  is  of  opinion  that  the 
Australian  Navel  and  the  Washington  or  Eiverside  Navel  are  essen- 
tially the  same.  In  a  recent  interview  with  me  he  said  he  had  com- 
pared very  carefully  the  variety  grown  in  each  country,  and  that  he 
was  fully  satisfied  there  was  no  difference  between  them.  In  regard  to 
the  statements  made  by  certain  pomologists  that  the  navel  or  central 
depression  on  the  Australian  variety  was  larger  and  not  so  round  as 
that  on  the  California  orange,  he  said  such  statements  could  only  have 
been  made  after  imperfect  observation  or  from  the  examination  of  one 
or  two  specimens. 

There  is  no  decided  difference  in  the  size  or  shape  of  the  navel,  and  the  difference, 
if  any,  is  only  what  might  be  expected  in  oranges  of  different  size  even  off  the  same 
tree.  The  fruit  grows  alike  in  both  countries  and  is  apt  to  split  in  the  same  way. 
When  the  trees  are  nine  or  ten  years  of  age  the  fruit  often  grows  to  about  the 
size  of  a  small  marble  or  hickory-nut  and  then  falls  off. 

Mr.  Uarrold  further  said  that  he  would  be  very  glad  to  knfw  that 
the  California  nurserymen  possess  a  new  variety  of  Navel  or  Bahia 
orange,  but  his  experience  and  that  of  his  friends,  both  in  Australia  and 
the  United  States,  will  not  warrant  any  such  conclusion.  No  harm, 
however,  can  result  from  experimenting  in  this  direction  with  the 
Navel  orange. 

Mr.  J.  Beresford  Cairnes,  vice-president  of  the  Fruit  Growers'  Union 
of  New  South  Wales,  informs  me  that  he  has  imported  from  California 
a  large  number  of  the  best  varieties  of  orange  trees  on  account  of  fruit- 
growers near  Parramatta.  The  Messrs.  Chaffy  Brothers  have  also 
planted  a  considerable  area  with  California  orange  trees  at  their  irriga- 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA.         463 

tioi)  colonies  on  the  banks  of  the  Murray  River,  several  hundred  miles 
inland,  and  all  their  trees  are  in  a  flourishing  condition,  thus  disprov- 
ing the  contention  that  the  orange  will  not  grow  away  from  the  influ- 
ence of  the  ocean. 

Mr.  Angus  McKay,  agricultural  and  horticultural  instructor  at  the 
Tecnological  College,  Sydney,  says  that  the  best  results  are  obtained 
on  laud  from  10  to  20  miles  from  the  coast,  and  Mr.  D.  A.  C  rich  ton  states 
that  the  orange  thrives  and  bears  excellent  fruit  in  the  inland  districts. 
He  says  in  a  pamphlet  published  at  Melbourne  during  the  last  year: 

Having  had  an  extensive  experience  in  the  cultivation  of  citrus  fruits  in  Australia 
I  can  say  there  is  no  foundation  for  the  belief  that  the  orange  will  not  grow  and  do 
well  away  from  the  influence  of  the  ocean.  I  am  certain  that  both  the  orange  and 
lemon  may  be  grown  successfully  in  many  districts  north  and  south  of  the  Mnrray, 
provided  the  trees  receive  the  attention  they  require.  In  fact  I  believe  that  the 
cultivation  of  the  citrus  fruit  will  rank  among  the  most  profitable  of  our  industries, 
as  there  is  a  rapidly  expanding  home  market  for  them  and  any  surplus  that  can  be 
produced  can  be  sold  to  advantage  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 

The  Siletto  (or  cluster  orange).— 7X11  is  variety  is  much  liked  in  Australia 
and  is  a  great  favorite  with  gro  wers.  The  fruit  is  fine,  large  and  deli- 
cious, and  is  something  like  the  Mediterranean  sweet,  but  better  suited 
to  the  soil  and  climate  of  Australia  than  the  latter  variety.  The  Siletto 
as  its  name  implies,  grows  in  clusters  and  some  of  the  longest  and  finest 
1  have  ever  seen  may  be  found  in  the  orange  groves  of  New  South 
Wales. 

The  St.  Michael. — This  orange  is  also  a  great  favorite  both  with  grow- 
ers and  consumers.  It  is  sweet  and  thin-skinned  when  grown  under 
proper  conditions.  It  is  said,  however,  not  to  be  a  hardy  tree  and  to 
require  very  great  attention  and  experience  to  cultivate  it  properly. 
Mr.  D.  A.  Crichton  says  that  it  should  have  a  sheltered  situation,  for, 
like  the  Navel,  if  circumstances  are  not  favorable,  it  is  a  shy  bearer  and 
the  fruit  is  apt  to  lose  its  high  character. 

The  hardier  varieties  of  the  orange  wili  ripen  at  an  elevation  from  50 
to  2,000  feet  above  the  sea,  but  they  must  be  kept  from  frost.  The 
Navel,  St.  Michael,  and  some  other  varieties  are  more  easily  injured  by 
the  hot  winds  than  the  Paramatta,  Rio,  or  common  orange. 

The  Seville,  or  bitter  orange  (citrus  vulgaris),  is  also  grown  in  this 
colony,  but  only  to  a  limited  extent.  It  is  one  of  the  best  varieties  for 
marmalade  and  for  the  manufacture  of  perfume. 

The  Mandarin  orange  (citrus  nobilis}. — This  forms  an  interesting  group 
in  Australia.  The  group  embraces  the  Canton,  the  Emperor  of  China, 
the  Thorny,  and  the  Kumquat.  The  first  three  are  valuable,  and  es- 
pecially the  Canton.  The  fruit  is  thin-skinned,  sweet,  and  delicious. 
The  Emperor  is  equally  sweet,  juicy,  and  fine  flavored,  but  smaller  in 
size  than  the  Canton.  The  Thorny  is  also  a  sweet  and  juicy  fruit,  but 
is  smaller  than  the  Emperor.  Mr.  S.  W.  Pye  cultivates  with  fair  suc- 
cess two  new  varieties,  the  Capera  and  the  Ruby. 

Of  the  different  varieties  of  the  lemon  (Citrus  lemonium)  grown  in 


464  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIG!ST    COUNTRIES. 

Australia,  tbe  Lisbon  is  the  most  popular ;  but  there  are  several  kinds  of 
Lisbons,  the  best  known  of  whi.^h  are  the  variegated  and  the  thoruless. 
The  common  lemon  is  also  cultivated,  but  the  fruit  is  small  and  interior, 
when  compared  with  the  Lisbon.  Mr.  George  W.  Knight,  whose  testi- 
mony was  taken  by  the  Royal  Commission  of  Victoria  on  vegetable 
products,  states  that  the  lemon  will  not  stand  the  warm,  dry  climate 
of  the  northern  part  of  Victoria  and  that  its  leaves  do  not  attain  half 
the  ordinary  size  there. 

The  lime  (Citrus  limetta)  is  cultivated  more  or  less  in  various  parts 
of  Australia,  and  will  thrive  almost  anywhere  when  the  thermometer 
does  not  fall  lower  than  20  degrees  above  zero.  The  best  kinds  are  the 
Lemon  lime,  the  Bergamot,  the  Mela  Rose,  and  the  small  Naples  lime. 
All  these  will  grow  luxuriantly  over  a  large  extent  of  country.  They 
are  found  on  the  Blue  Mountains  and  on  the  table  lands  of  the  New 
England  district  in  New  South  Wales.  They  are  not  partial  to  a  high 
temperature  and  especially  where  the  sun  is  hot  enough  to  scorch  them. 
They  like  a  little  frost  and  what  is  called  a  dormant  climate.  In  Queens- 
land both  the  orange  and  lemon  trees' have  an  inclination  to  form  into 
a  crown  at  the  surface  and  branch  out  in  long  luxuriant  branches  like 
the  bamboo. 

The  largest  orange  and  lemon  trees  in  Australasia  are  to  be  found  in 
the  county  of  Cumberland,  in  Mr.  S.  N.  Pye's  grove  at  Rocky  Hall,  Par- 
amatta. They  are  the  oldest  trees  in  this  part  of  the  world,  having 
been  planted  nearly  a  century  ago.  Some  of  the  trees  are  over  40  feet 
in  height  and  have  a  diameter  of  22  inches.  They  have  been  mentioned 
in  various  reports  I  have  made  as  yielding  as  many  as  10,000  oranges 
per  tree  in  a  single  season. 

SOIL  FORMATION. 

The  soil  in  the  orange-growing  district  about  Paramatta  consists 
principally  of  Wianainatta  shales  overlying  sandstone.  The  soil  around 
Lane  Cove,  also  in  the  Paramatta  district,  has  been  carefully  analyzed 
by  Mr.  W.  A.  Dixon,  F.  I.  C.,  P.  C.  S.,  instructor  in  chemistry,  Sydney 
Technical  College,  for  Mr.  Angus  McKay,  instructor  in  agriculture  at 
the  same  college. 

Mr.  Dixon  remarks  with  reference  to  soil  analyses  : 

It  may  be  sai<l  with  truth  that  the  greater  number  by  far  of  the  soil  analyses  which 
have  been  published  are  of  little  value,  for  these  reasons:  (1)  Sufficient  care  has  sel- 
dom been  takt-n  to  obtain  uniform  samples  of  the  soil  for  analyses;  and  (2)  the  analy- 
ses have  nofc  been  conducted  with  sufficient  refinement  to  secure  the  object  in  view 
The  former  condition  can  be  easily  attained,  but  the  latter  can  only  be  secured  by 
years  of  practice,  which  is  often  wanting  in  those  to  whom  the  work  is  relegated. 

I  have  not  been  able  to  obtain  analyses  of  the  soils  in  the  different 
orange-growing  parts,  but  such  as  I  have  obtained  have  been  made  by 
Mr.  W.  A.  Dixon,  and  it  is  worthy  of  note  to  quote  his  explanation  of 
the  manner  in  which  his  analyses  are  made : 

In  select  ing  a  sample,  it  i.s  commonly  the  practice  to  dig  up  some  soil  in  one  place  and 
mix  up  ten  or  twelve  pounds  of  it  for  a  sample.  If  we  consider  that  the  excrement  of 
a  bird  containing  ten  grains  of  nitrogen  mixed  with  a  sample  so  taken  would  be 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA.         465 

equal  to  0.014  per  cent,  of  nitrogen  or  1,568  pounds  per  acre,  and  that  the  urine  of  an 
animal  spent  a  year  before  might  similarly  increase,  not  only  the  nitrogen  but  the 
phosphates  and  otln-r  ash  constituents  of  plants  gathered  from  far  and  wide,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  such  a  mode  of  sampling  is  liable  to  error  and  stands  condemned. 

The  samples  of  soil  analyzed  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Dixou  were  taken  as  fol- 
lows: 

A  piece  of  sheet  iron  was  bent  into  a  tube,  1|  inches  in»  diameter,  leaving  a  slit 
oue-quarter  of  an  inch  wide  down  one  side,  and  one  end  of  this  was  fastened  to  a 
convenient  handle.  The  ground  was  gone  over,at  regular  intervals  of  about  a  chain 
apart,  when  the  tube  or  scoop  was  screwed  into  the  soil,  and  this  being  relieved  by  a 
spade  the  section  of  soil  could  easily  be  removed  by  passing  a  knife  through  the  slit. 
The  different  sections  allowed  to  dry  and  thoroughly  mixed  and  sifted  must  give  a 
tolerably  average  sample  of  the  soil  of  the  area  operated  on.  This  may  seem  a  tedi- 
ous operation,  but  without  this  preliminary  care  the  work  of  analysis  is  not  only  use. 
less  but  often  misleading — which  is  worse. 

To  arrive  at  the  degree  of  exactitude  which  is  required  in  soil  analyses  to  be  of 
value,  we  should  consider  the  quantities  of  concentrated  manures  which  are  found 
practically  of  value  in  agriculture  and  determine  the  quantity  of  the  same  constit- 
uents in  the  soil  to  within  such  limits  at  least.  If  we  take  the  weight  of  an  acre  of 
soil  at  1  foot  deep  as  5,000  tons,  it  will  not  be  far  from  the  truth  as  an  average,  and 
this  depth  may  be  taken  as  that  at  which,  being  subjected  to  tillage,  crops  derive  the 
bulk  of  tht-ir  nutriment.  On  this  basis  0.001  per  cent,  of  any  ingredient  would  rep- 
resent 112  pounds  per  acre.  Again,  if  we  take  the  quantities  of  concentrated  arti- 
ficial manures  which  are  applied  as  top  dressing  and  otherwise,  we  find  that  a  soil 
analysis  requires  to  be  carried  to  the  Ihird  place  of  decimals  with  certainty  to  be 
comparable  with  practical  results,  for  some  substances  at  all  events.  For  my  part  I 
think  that  this  third  place  is  about  the  limit  to  which  analyses  can  be  carried  with 
any  degree  of  certainty,  and  to  do  this  it  is  necessary  to  carry  out  to  the  fourth  and 
take  the  nearest  number  in  the  third,  and  this  requires  that  large  quantities  be 
operated  on,  which  require  much  care  and  patience. 

The  constituents  determined  are  those  soluble  in  cold  concentrated 
hydrochloric  acid  by  agitation  during  forty-eight  hours,  and  this  solution 
may  be  fairly  assumed  to  contain  all  the  constituents  of  the  soil  at  all 
readily  available  as  plant  food.  Ordinary  commercial  hydrochloric  acid 
was  used  containing  already  iron  and  sulphuric  acid,  and  to  it  were 
added  small  quantities  of  bone  ash  dissolved  in  acid  sulphate  of  magnesia 
and  chloride  of  potassium.  A  similar  quantity  of  this  prepared  acid 
was  put  through  all  the  processes  used  in  each  determination,  and  the 
quantities  present  weighed,  so  that  the  numbers  obtained  for  the  soil 
are  the  differences  between  it  and  the  hydrochloric  acid  used.  This,  to 
a  great  extent  at  all  events,  eliminates  errors  due  to  the  solubility  of  pre- 
cipitates in  water  and  the  re-agents  used. 

The  first  soil  dealt  with  was  taken  from  Mr.  H.  Hoard's  property, 
where  the  agricultural  classes  had  been  taken  for  the  purpose  of  study- 
ing how  well  ordered  orcharding  can  be  carried  on  with  profit. 

The  soil  on  Mr.  Heard's  property  is  typical  of  a  very  large  area  of  the 
shale  series.  It  is  described  by  Mr.  McKay  as  of  a  decided  red  color, 
due  to  the  presence  of  iron.  It  is  a  good,  sound  loam,  seeming  to  be 
more  clayey  in  composition  than  the  analysis  actually  shows.  It  is 
the  virgin  soil.  The  geological  formation  here  is  Hawkesbury  sand- 
stone, under  shale  beds,  which  vary  in  quality. 


466        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.  ' 

The  following  is  the  first  analysis : 

No.  1. 

Combined  water  and  organic  water 13.560 

Silica  arid  silicates,  etc 79.647 

Alumina  and  oxide  of  iron 5. 393 

Lime 0.023 

Magnesia , 0.012 

Potash 0.072 

Soda 0.020 

Chloride  of  sodium 0.047 

Phosphoric  oxide 0.042 

Sulphuric  oxide 0.024 

Moisture...  1.160 


100. 000 

Nitrogen = ammonia  0. 163. 
Capacity  for  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture 7 

Mr.  McKay  states  that  the  small  proportion  of  lime  in  this  soil  is  its 
greatest  defect,  and  that  it  would  require  to  be  enriched  with  bone  ma- 
nures. 

The  next  analysis  is  from  the  same  property,  but  from  garden  land, 
where  cultivation  has  been  carried  on  during  many  years  and  which 
had  received  careful  manuring  in  a  manner  suitable  for  shale  soils : 

No.  2. 

Organic  matter  and  moisture  (of  the  whole  bulk) 14. 50 

Sandy  matter  or  silica  (of  the  whole  bulk) 75.00 

Clay,  or  alumina,  and  iron  (of  the  whole  bulk) 6.60 

Carbonic  acid Traces. 

Lime  (of  the  whole  bulk)  0.04 

Magnesia Traces. 

Chloride  of  sodium  (of  the  whole  bulk) 0.02 

Phosphoric  acid  (of  the  whole  bulk) 0.01 

Sulphuric  acid : Traces. 

Loss  by  water,  etc.,  (of  the  whole  bulk) 3.72 

Nitrogen  =  ammonia  0. 25. 
Capacity  for  absorbing  and  retaining  water 8 

With  reference  to  this  analysis  Mr.  McKay  remarks  that  the  soil  could 
be  limed  heavily,  with  advantage. 

The  next  analysis  is  from  the  old  orange  country,  natural  soil  forma- 
tion, from  location  about  3  miles  northerly  from  the  town  of  Paramatta : 

No.  3. 

Organic  matter  and  water 14. 00 

Sand  or  silica 74.50 

Clay,  or  alumina 10.00 

Carbonic  acid Trace. 

Lime Trace. 

Magnesia 0.05 

Potash Trace. 

Phosphoric  oxide Trace. 

*  Capacity  for  absorbing  and  retaining  moisture 6 

*  All  the  foregoing  soils  are  absorbent  of  water  and  retentive  of  it,  in  proportion  to 
the  .state of  cultivation.  The  cultivated  land  No.  2  stands  best  in  this  respect  and  is 
rated  as  8,  as  a  standard  for  the  analyses. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA. 


467 


Mr.  McKay  says  of  this  soil : 

It  is  richer  in  organic  matter  than  No.  1.  The  formation  is  the  same.  It  needs 
liine,  or  marked  falling  off  in  crops  must  follow  as  the  land  is  worked. 

Mr.  S.  W.  Pyc,  to  whom  I  sent  a  series  of  interrogatories  in  regard 
to  the  soil  in  the  orange  districts  is  of  opinion,  that  a  rather  poor,  loamy, 
sandy  soil  is  best  suited  to  the  citrus  fruits,  but  fully  3  inches  of  the 
seed-bed  should  be  very  tich  in  compounds  of  light  nature  to  prevent 
the  surface  becoming  compressed  by  constant  watering.  The  sub- 
stances most  suitable  for  this  purpose  are  thoroughly  decayed  bush 
leaves,  especially  those  of  the  forests,  rotten  grass,  roots,  the  surface  of 
virgin  soils,  and  well-rotted  manure.  Fresh  manure  is  objectionable. 
If  the  soil  is  of  virgin  nature  it  should  have  a  dressing  of  lime,  to  en- 
courage the  decomposition  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  and  to  destroy 
all  insect  life. 

The  largest  orange  and  lemon  grove  in  Australia  is  located  at  Seven 
Hills,  in  the  county  of  Cumberland,  it  being  a  little  over  200  acres  in 
extent.  The  soil  there  is  of  a  rich  black  and  brown  color,  from  12  to 
24  inches  deep.  The  subsoil  is  principally  clay.  The  water  in  the  creeks 
is  slightly  brackish.  This  district  produces  the  finest  Navel  oranges  in 
Australia. 

CLIMATIC  INFLUENCES. 

The  climatic  influences  are  exceedingly  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
fruit.  The  highest  range  of  the  thermometer  in  the  Cumberland  dis- 
trict is  106°  and  the  lowest  is  42°. 

The  editor  of  The  Year-Book  of  Australia — a  most  valuable  publica- 
tion— Mr.  Edward  Greville,  has  favored  me  with  the  following  tables 
relating  to  the  temperature  and  rain-fall  of  the  six  chief  cities  in  these 
colonies.  It  is  around  these  cities  that  the  chief  fruit-growing  districts 
are- to  be  found: 

SYDNEF,  NEW  SOUTH  WALES. 
[146  feet  abore  sea-lereL] 


Month. 

Barometer  (reduced 
to  32°  Fan.). 

Temperature  (in 
shade). 

Rain-fall. 

Mean. 

Highest 
reading. 

Lowest 
reading. 

Mean- 

Extremes. 

Total 
fall. 

No.  of 
days. 

Greatest 

fall. 

Date. 

Max. 

Min. 

October,  1888  

Inchc*. 
29.  931 
29.831 
29.  806 
29.  802 
29.803 
29.  953 
30.  012 
29.  982 
29.  702 
30.  070 
29.975 
29.885 

Inches. 

30.  260 
30.  276 
30.  130 
30.  122 
30.145 
30.348 
30.  345 
30.454 
30.  065 
30.  377 
30.488 
30.  210 

Inehet. 
29.  426 
29.  371 
29.270 
29.  360 
29.365 
29.  413 
29.  521 
29.553 
29  1«0 
29.  702 
29.401 
29.  410 

0 

62.6 
69.0 
70.4 
71.9 
71.3 
69.9 
65.4 
61.1 
65.9 
52.5 
54.7 
57.4 

o 
85.5 
92.9 
85.8 
102.8 
96.6 
91.5 
77.0 
75.8 
68.0 
64  4 
69.7 
83.7 

0 

49.6 
56.8 
57.8 
58.3 
57.6 
59.2 
53.6 
49.4 
44.1 
41.6 
42.2 
44.1 

Inche*. 
1.613 
0.529 
7.089 
2.098 
2.696 
1.128 
3.578 
20.868 
1.128 
8.9i4 
4.113 
4.3iJ 

12 
10 
18 
16 
9 
17 
13 
17 
12 
20 
18 
19 

Inche*. 
0.815 
0.  123 
2.751 
0.556 
2.196 
0.275 
1.487 
8.  H63 
0.380 
2.237 
0.905 
0.916 

Oct  8 

iS'ov.  29 
Dec.  1 
Jan.  4 
Feb.  8 
Mar.  10 
Apr.  1 
May  28 
Jane  25 
July  26 
Aug.  6 
Sept.  19 

November,  1888  
December,  1888  
January,  1889  
February,  1889  
March,  1889  

April,  1889 

May,  1889   

Jane,  1889 

July,  1889    

Aupuft,  1889 

September,  1889  
Sams  or  means  . 

29.896 

30.  268 
30.488 

29.413 
29.160 

63.5 

82.8 
102.8 

51.2 
41.6 

58.081 

181 

8.363 

May  28 

468 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 
BRISBANE,  QUEENSLAND. 


Month. 

Barometer  (reduced  and 
corrected). 

Temperature  (in 
shade). 

Rain-fall. 

Mean. 

Highest 
reading 

Lowest 
reading. 

Mean. 

Extremes. 

Total 
fall. 

No.  of 
days. 

Greatest 
fall. 

Date. 

Max. 

M^n. 

October  1888 

Inches. 
30.  lOii 
30.  015 
30.  001 
29.  900 
29.  989 
JtO.  065 
30.  16> 
30.  129 
29.  983 
30.  142 
30:  125 
30.  060 

Inchest. 
30.  335 
30.329 
30.214 
30.  255 
30.  189 
30.  348 
30.  349 
30.  538 
30.  250 
30.  .'{83 
30.517 
30.  283 

Inches. 
29.  804 
29.713 
29.  550 
29.  567 
L>9.  624 
29.  772 
20.  851 
U9.714 
29.  580 
29.  654 
29.  623 
29.  781 

0 

69.2 
73.4 
75.3 
76.5 
77.7 
74.6 
6!).  9 
65.7 
59.  1 
f>8.  9 
60.  5 
65.1 

o 
90.4 
99.3 
94.5 
96.  0 
94.6 
91.5 
85.9 
82.8 
75.5 
76.0 
78.6 
85.7 

o 
54.6 
5ti.  9 
59.4 
61.8 
61.8 
61.8 
55.6 
53.  0 
41.6 
37.2 
41.5 
45.5 

Inches. 
0.771 
3.  485 
6.008 
1.232 
2.  002 
4.  288 
6.047 
3.346 
0  717 
8.464 
3.832 
3.307 

10 
9 

13 
5 
8 
19 
21 
17 
3 
12 

10 

Inches. 
0.  248 
1.560 
1.  482 
0.  430 
0.940 
1.113 
2.  940 
0.  638 
0.498 
3.  542 
0.367 
1.603 

Oct.    17 
Nov.  28 
Dec.   14 
Jan.    21 
Feb.   23 
Mar.  25 
Apr.  17 
May    7 
Juiie    6 
July  16 
Aug.  14 
Sept.  21 

November.  1888  
December,  188*  
January  1  8^9  

February.  1.-89  
March.  l'8H9  

April   18o9 

May,  1889  
June,  1889    
Julv,  1889 

August,  1889  

September,  1889 

Sums,  means,  or 
extremes  ...... 

30.  056 

30.538 

29.  550 

68.8 

99.3 

37.2 

43.  499 

139 

3.542 

July  16 

MELBOURNE,  VICTORIA, 
[91  feet  above  sea-level.] 


Month. 

Barometer  (reduced 
to  320  Fah.). 

Temperature  (in 
shade). 

. 

Rain-fall. 

Mean. 

Highest 
reading. 

Lowest 
reading. 

Mean. 

Extremes. 

Total 
fall. 

No.  of 

days. 

Greatest 
fall. 

Date. 

Max. 

Min. 

October  1888  

Inches. 

3(».  046 
29.  911 
29.  8>-4 
29.  862 
29.  887 
30.015 
30.  042 
30.  082 
29.  758 
30.158 
30.  020 
29.937 

Inches. 
oO.  371 
30.  349 
30.  196 
30.  191 
30.  237 
30.  389 
30.  450 
30.  540 
30.  246 
30.  473 
30.  582 
30.  329 

Inches. 
29.  483 
29.  507 
29.  374 
29.  413  - 
29.  570 
•29.  439 
1-9.501 
29.  547 
29.218 
29.  656 
29.  403 
29.  461 

0 

56.1 
62.7 
66.7 
67.7 
65.9 
64.4 
60.5 
55.6 
52.5 
47.8 
50.1 
52.3 

o 
86.0 
102.  0 
!»6.  4 
99.2 
96.0 
96.0 
87.9 
78.1 
66.0 
62.1 
68.0 
74.5 

o 
35.1 
38.1 
47.2 
49.7 
45.5 
43.0 
37.2 
39.4 
37.6 
31.3 
32.1 
32.1 

Inches. 
1.35 
0.62 
2.72 
4.22 
1.50 
0.24 
3.60 
0.94 
2.78 
1.64 
2.06 
1.51 

8 
6 
9 
11 
7 
5 
7 
11 
16 
8 
15 
14 

Inches. 
0.54 
0.20 
1.10 
1.80 
0.78 
0.12 
1.63 
0.32 
0.65 
0.52 
0.31 
0.25 

Oct.  7 
Nov.  12 
Dec.  31 
Jan.  3 
Feb.  6 
Mar.  18 
Apr.  7 
May  13 
June  13 
July  2 
Aug.  31 
Sept.  23 

November  1888 

December,  188*  

January,  1^89  
February.  U8.1  
March,  1  889  
April,  188!>  
May,  1889  

June  1889 

Julv,  1889  

August,  1889  
September,  1889  .  =  

Sums,  means,  and 
t           extremes  

29.  967 

30.  582 

29.218 

58.5 

102.0 

31.3 

23.18 

117 

1.80 

Jan.  3 

Average  yearly  rain-fall  for  the  last  thirty-one  years,  25.75  inches.  Average  number  of  rainy  days  for 
the  last  thirty-one  years,  135. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA. 


469 


ADELAIDE,  SOUTH  AUSTRALIA. 
[From  October  1,  1888,  to  September  30.  1889.] 


Month. 

Barometer  (reduced  to 
32°  Fall,  nieansi-a-level). 

Temperature  (in 
shade). 

Rain-fall. 

Meau. 

Highest 
reading. 

Lowest 
Tending. 

Meau. 

Extremes. 

Total 

fall. 

No.  of 
days. 

«~F*;    Date. 

Max. 

Min. 

October  1888  .     ... 

Inches. 
30.  181 
30.011 
29.  972 
29.  9X4 
30.  004 
30.  100 
30.  144 
30.174 
29.938 
30.  274 
30.134 
30.066 

Inches. 
30.  500 
30.  361' 
30.256 
?0.  268 
30.  :i(i5 
30.4'6 
30.  643 
30.610 
30.  507 
30.  685 
30.  662 
30.  479 

Inches. 

l'9.72l 
29.610 
•JO.  tii:. 
•29.  5l'0 
I'll.  57(1 
29.640 
29.  4.V2 
29  654 
29.387 
29.  760 
20.572 
29.5tiO 

0 

62.8 
71.4 
74.8 
75.2 

73.  4 
70.9 
63.0 
57.0 
53.8 
.'0.  5 
5X1 
55.2 

o 
91.9 
105.8 
107.5 
109.0 
100.4 
102.0 
82.5 
75.5 
68.3 
65.9 
71.3 
76.7 

o 
41.5 
4(5.4 
48.9 
54.1 
53.5 
49.6 
49.6 
37.5 
38.5 
36.3 
38.0 
38.5 

Inches. 
0.  3(.0 
0.  655 
0.  278 
2.084 
0.231 
0.813 
5.654 
4.0*6 
4.  752 
1.211 
3.589 
1.504 

5 
8 
8 
8 
2 
8 
15 
14 
22 
14 
20 
16 

Inche*. 
0.229     (Vt.      4 
0.156     Nov.  13 
0.  1.4      Dir.    '29 
2.2JI9     Jan.      2 
0.1:8      l-rl>.     -' 
0.  1'1'f)      Mar.     7 
2.207      Apr.     2 
1.643  '  Ma\    -0 
1.362     Juno  13 
0  210     July   31 
0.915      AuL'.     7 
0.  226     Sept.  27 

November,  18J-8  
IVrember,  1888    ... 

J.uiuarv  188S» 

February,  18$9  
March,  1881  ... 
April,  1889 

May,  1889  

June,  1889    ... 

July,  1889.    

Auirnsts  1889  
September,  lt-89  

Sums  or  means  .  . 

30.  083     30.  685 

29.387 

63.4 

109.0 

3C.3 

26.063 

140 

2.299  i  Jan.     2 

Average  yearly  rain-fall  for  last  thirty-two  years,  20.083  inches.    Average  number  of  rainy  days  fo 
ast  thirty-two  years,  128. 

PERTH,  WESTERN  AUSTRALIA. 

fLat.,  31°  57'  10"  S.;  Long.,  115°  52'  E.    Altitude,  57  feet.] 


Month. 

Barometer  (reduced  to 
32°  Fah.). 

Temperature  (in 
shade). 

Rain-fall. 

Mean. 

Highest 
reading. 

Lowest 
reading. 

Mean. 

Extremes. 

Total     NO.  of 
fell-    'days. 

i 

Greatest 
fall. 

Date. 

Max. 

Mm. 

October  1888 

Inche*. 
30.112 
29.984 
29.  990 
29.923 
29  991 
30.  076 
30.  122 
30.  110 
30.  095 
3Q.  231 
30.  191 
3Q.  128 

Inches. 
30.438 
30.  303 
30.230 
30.  205 
30.  170 
30.319 
30.  397 
30.447 
30.  426 
30.518 
30.  478 
30.572 

Inches. 
29.  909 
29.  725 
29.  773 
29.  580 
29.778 
29.848 
29.  825 
29.  839 
29.  Gil 
29.812 
29.662 
29.704 

0 

64 
69 
72 
73 
74 
76 
67 
59 
67 
54 
54 
58 

o 
95 
97 
102 
105 
101 
104 
91 
79 
75 
70 
73 
84 

o 
45 
46 
55 
f-2 
56 
5G 
47 
41 
39 
38 
34 
38 

Inches.  ' 
3.  05          12 
1.  37          lo 
1.11            6 
0.00             0 
0.01  ,          1 
0.68             3 
1.72           10 
4.02           15 
4.87           18 
3.23           17 
5.  G9           14 
2.08           11 

Inches. 
0.27 
0.  3-2 

1.72 
0  00 
0.01 
0.47 
0>8 
0.81 
0.74 
0  87 
1.69 
0.72 

Oct.  3 
Nor,  8 

Doc.  1 

Feb."  19 
Mar.  23 
Apr.  16 
May  2 
June  27 
July  6 
Aug.  15 
Sept.  16 

November,  1888  
December,  1888  
January,  1889  
February,  1889  

March.  1889  
April  1889 

Mav,1889  

June,  18*9  

July   1889 

August,  1889         
September  1889 

Sums  or  means 



Barometer  mean  for  twelve  previous  years,  30 inches.    Average  yearly  rain-fall  for  twelve  previous 

years, inches.    Average  number  of  rainy  days  for  twelve  previous  years,  — .    Average  temperature 

for  twelve  previous  years,  — °. 

HOB  ART,  TASMANIA. 


October.  1888... 

Inches. 

29.985 

Inches. 
30.  393 

Inches. 
29.  420 

0 

52.7 

0 

80.3 

0 

34.0 

Inches. 
1  59 

19 

Inches. 
0  -28 

Oct.      6 

November,  1888      
December,  1888  
January,  1889 

29.871 
29.947 
29  875 

30.441 

3d.  r;47 
30  370 

29.082 

29.  4-> 
29  298 

57.4 
61.7 
63  3 

98.0 
91.3 
91  5 

39.7 
39.0' 
44  0 

2.23 
1.45 
2  36 

10 
6 
13 

0.84 
0.54 
0  75 

Nov.  15 
Dec.   20 
Jan     14 

February,  1889  

29  854 

30  340 

29  348 

62  5 

95  0 

44  7 

1  57 

12 

0  48 

Feb.     5 

March   1889     . 

29  991 

30  452 

28  960 

60  1 

89  0 

42  2 

0  72 

12 

0  25 

Mar     8 

April  188i) 

30  043 

30  474 

•JQ  595 

57  3 

77  7 

36  8 

2.78 

14 

1  r>7 

Apr     8 

May  1889   

HO  100 

30  630 

29  48~? 

5°  6 

72  0 

36  2 

0  96 

15 

0  32 

May   22 

June  1889 

'29  698 

30  293 

29  107 

48  4 

60  0 

33  8 

8.  15 

01 

4  11 

July,  1889 

30  136 

30  50) 

29  425 

47  3 

60  3 

33  5 

1  99 

7 

0  93 

July     2 

A.igimt.  1889    
September,  1889  

29.  976 
29.880 

30.716 
30.  375 

•29.  370 
29.264 

4H.4 
49.9 

66.8 

70.2 

32.2 

»3.7 

0.96 
1.13 

13 

16 

0.24 
0.18 

AUK.  13 
Sept    1 

Sums  or  means  

29.942 

30.716 

28.960 

55.  13 

98.0 

32.2 

25.89 

158 

411 

June  14 

early  rain-fall  for  47  years,  29.26  inchen.     Average  number  of  rainy  day§  for  47  years.  162. 


470        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

PLANTING. 

Planting  in  New  South  Wales  generally  takes  place  between  the 
middle  of  March  and  the  end  of  April,  although  it  may  be  done  at  other 
times.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  seasons  here  are  the  opposite 
to  those  in  America.  Trees  planted  early  in  the  Australian  autumn  (in 
March)  begin  quickly  to  take  root,  as  the  ground  at  that  period  contains 
considerable  warmth.  The  plants  soon  recover  from  the  check  caused 
by  removal  and  are  fairly  established  before  the  winter  sets  in.  If  trees 
are  planted  in  the  Australian  winter,  say  in  June  and  July,  the  growth 
is  necessarily  less  active  and  the  plants  are  liable  to  suffer  from  the 
effects  of  the  winds  and  frosts,  where  frost  occurs.  When  it  is  not 
convenient  to  plant  in  autumn  the  leading  authorities  say  it  is  better 
to  wait  until  spring  (September)  rather  than  put  the  trees  in  during  the 
winter  months.  As  a  rule  trees  should  not  be  shifted  after  their  spring 
growth  has  fairly  started  or  before  their  summer  growth  has  matured. 
Mr.  D.  A.  Crichton,  in  urging  this  plan,  says : 

It  must  be  clearly  understood,  however,  that  though  I  advocate  autumn  planting 
where  practicable,  it  is  essential  that  the  trees  are  in  a  fitting  condition  for  shifting. 
As  a  matter  of  fact  the  summer  growth,  very  frequently,  does  not  mature  early 
enough  for  the  trees  to  be  shifted  in  the  autumn. 

The  same  authority  is  very  averse  to  planting  trees  close  together. 
He  says  that  the  intervening  space  ought  to  be  fully  24  feet  from  tree 
to  tree,  except  in  the  case  of  the  smaller  varieties.  The  Mandarin,  be- 
ing less  robust  than  other  kinds,  may  be  planted  out  at  distances  from 
15  to  18  feet  apart,  according  to  growth  or  variety. 

PROPAGATION. 

Opinion  is  divided  here  as  to  the  best  method  of  propagation,  but  the 
most  successful  growers  prefer  grafting  to  budding.  Most  of  the  trees 
sold  by  nurserymen  are  raised  by  grafting,  but  some  cultivators  mention 
that  the  budding  process  is  the  best,  as  grafted  trees  go  off  through  the 
bark,  decaying  at  the  place  where  the  scion  was  united  to  the  tree.  As 
to  the  best  kind  of  stock,  many  favor  the  lemon  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
not  only  more  vigorous  and  hardy,  but  less  apt  to  be  injured  by  re- 
moval. 

The  late  James  Pye,  who  had  more  than  fifty  years7  experience  with 
Citrus  fruit  cultivation  at  Paramatta,  preferred  to  graft  on  the  orange 
stock  instead  of  on  lemon  stocks.  He  was  also  a  strong  advocate  for 
cultivating  seedlings  and  grafting  upon  them  instead  of  the  lemon  stocks. 
He  said : 

I  commenced  grafting  upon  the  bitter  orange  stocks  about  five  years  ago.  I  find 
them  free  from  all  insects  and  looking  healthier  than  any  other  kind. 

Mr.  Charles  Moore,  director  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  Sydney,  when 
he  visited  the  orange-growing  countries  some  years  ago,  observed  that 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  AUSTRALASIA.         471 

this  method  was  used  by  the  orange  growers  in  Spain  to  propagate  their 
trees.     Mr.  James  Pye,  in  connection  with  this  matter,  said  : 


I  have  110  objection  to  one  cross  \vith  the  common  lemon  ;  but  if  you  j£o  ou 
year  after  year,  it  deteriorates  the  quality  of  trie  fruit  (more  j>;irticulaily  the  keeping 
quality)  as  well  as  increases  the  red  scale.  There  is  no  tree  so  subject  to  the  red  scale  as 
the  lemon  tree,  and  there  ia  none  of  the  orange  family  so  free  from  it  as  the  bitter 
orange. 

IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation,  for  fruit-raising,  has  not  been  sufficiently  tested  in  Aus- 
tralia to  enable  an  opinion  to  be  given  as  to  its  effect  by  any  well-de- 
fined results  so  far  as  orangeries  are  concerned.  *  The  t  nil  h  is,  irrigation 
is  not  practiced  systematically  in  New  South  Wales.  In  Victoria,  and 
South  Australia,  where  irrigation  colonies  have  been  started,  the  trees 
are  too  young  to  bear  fruit;  -but  their  healthy  condition  is  au  evidence 
of  what  may  be  expected  in  the  near  future.  It  is  very  generally  un- 
derstood by  farmers  that  no  other  class'  of  fruits  require  irrigation  so 
much  as  those  of  the  Citrus  family.  Crops  can  not  be  depended  upon 
during  seasons  of  dry  weather  unless  supplied  with  water  by  artificial 
means.  The  trees  are  always  in  au  active  state  of  growth  and  require 
a  great  deal  of  moisture  ;  therefore  this  moisture  must  be  supplied  from 
some  source  or  otherwise  root-action  is  interfered  with  more  or  less  and 
the  trees  will  suffer.  Mr.  D.  A.  Crichton  poiats  with  pride  to  what  has 
been  done  by  the  irrigationists  in  Victoria.  He  does  not,  however, 
propose  any  precise  rules  to  be  followed  other  than  not  to  allow  the  trees 
to  flag  through  lack  of  moisture  at  .the  roots.  Care  must  also  be  taken 
not  to  supply  water  too  freely,  as  that  will  make  the  fruit  coarse,  want- 
ing in  flavor,  and  too  tender  for  packing  and  keeping.  The  best  land 
is  drained  and  trenched,  and  by  the  time  the  trees  come  into  bearing, 
the  expenses  have  often  amounted  to  considerably  over  £100  ($487)  per 
acre.  The  fertilization  at  Paramatta  consists  principally  in  the  use  of 
nitrogenous  substances. 

PRUNING. 

Many  growers  recommend  great  care  to  be  taken  in  pruning,  from  the 
fact  that  it  is  often  productive  of  more  harm  than  good.  No  more  cut- 
ting ought  to  be  done  than  circumstances  render  necessary.  In  the 
case  of  trees  which  have  arrived  at  full  bearing  age  little  is  required  in 
the  way  of  pruning.  The  removal  of  rank  shoots,  dead  or  diseased  wood, 
and  the  thinning  out  of  branches  when  overcrowded,  so  to  allow  the  air 
to  circulate  freely,  are  about  all  that  is  necessary.  The  case  is  different 
with  young  trees,  for  there  the  object  of  the  cultivator  is  the  develop- 
ment of  a  strong  growth  of  wood  in  a  particular  direction.  The  knife 
in  that  case  must  be  used  pretty  freely.  Young  trees  should  have  suffi- 
cient, lateral  shoots  left  to  balance  the  plants  in  each  direction  and  form 
the  heads.  Shoots  not  required  for  the  development  of  the  tree  should 
be  cut  away.  It  is  better,  however,  to  leave  a  few  more  shoots  than 
those  which  will  b^  ultimately  required  to  form  the  trees,  in  order  to 
156A  -  6 


472        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

afford  the  stems  the  necessary  protection  from  the  sun,  removing  them 
as  the  trees  increase  in  size.  In  training  trees  of  the  citrus  family,  it 
is  desirable  that  the  branches  hang  to  witlr.u  about  2  feet  of  the  ground, 
so  as  to  protect  the  trunks  from  the  heat  of  the  sun  in  summer.  It  is 
not  an  uncommon  thing  for  trees  to  be  trained  high,  so  that  horse-power 
cultivators  can  be  used  close  to  the  stem,  but  Mr.  Oichton  says  the 
practice  is  bad,  and  he  is  of  opinion  that  the  cracking  or  discoloration 
of  the  bark,  which  is  so  common  in  this  part  of  the  world  in  orange  and 
other  fruit  trees,  is  caused  by  the  sap  fermenting  through  the  action  of 
the  sun.  By  training  the  head  low  there  will  be  no  trouble  caused  by 
the  exposure  of  the  trunks.  Besides,  trees  with  low  heads  are  less 
liable  to  suffer  from  high  winds.  It  is  not  advisable  to  let  young  orange 
trees  bear  too  freely.  The  growth  of  wood  in  young  trees  is  the  chief 
consideration.  Trees  should  be  five  years  'old  before  they  are  allowed 
to  bear  heavy  crops,  as  by  that  time  they  will  have  attained  a  fair 
amount  of  growth. 

It  is  said  to  be  highly  important  that  the  trees  should  be  placed  in  a 
position  where  their  roots  will  not  be  subject  to  extremes  of  drought  or 
excessive  moisture  or  to  sudden  changes  in  temperature.  The  remedy 
for  this  is  first  by  trenching  and  draining  the  ground  thoroughly  so  as 
to  secure  the  most  perfect  root  bed,  and  then  by  mulching  the  surface 
soil,  so  as  to  shelter  it  from  the  full  power  of  the  sun  and  drying  winds. 
The  temperature  in  deeply- worked  and  well-drained  land  is  higher  in 
winter  and  lower  in  summer  than  in  shallow  or  undrained  soil.  Nor  is 
the  land  so  readily  affected  by  atmospheric  changes. 

PICKING  AND  PACKING. 

Oranges  and  lemons  are  picked  from  April  to  November.  The  plan 
is  to  leave  them  on  the  trees  until  they  arc  ripe,  or  nearly  so.  The  most 
experienced  growers  cut  them  from  the  stems  instead  of  pulling  them, 
although  the  latter  method  is  mostly  pursued.  Care  is  taken  not  to 
pick  the  fruit  in  damp  or  wet  weather,  and  not  to  put  them  in  boxes 
until  they  are  free  from  moisture.  The  oranges  packed  by  Mr.  E.  B. 
Cairnes  at  Paramatta  for  the  London  market  turned  out  very  well  for 
trial  shipments.  The  fruit  was  wrapped  in  tissue  paper,  put  in  boxes 
of  uniform  size,  and  subjected  to  but  little  pressure  in  nailing  on  the 
covers. 

Mr.  Cairnes  states  that  before  the  export  of  fruit  can  prove  a  profit- 
able industry  for  long  distances  better  provisions  than  exist  at  pres- 
ent will  have  to  be  made  for  the  care  of  the  fruit  during  the  voyage. 
Even  temperature  is  required  while  in  transit,  and  the  fruit  ought  not 
to  be  subjected  to  either  extreme  of  heat  or  cold. 

CURING. 

Very  little  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  curing  citrus  fruits  in  Aus- 
tralia. Citron  is  not  put  up  for  sale,  and  the  small  quantities  made  are 
only  for  families  for  their  own  private  use. 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    AUSTRALASIA.  473 

SIZE  OF  ORANGERIES. 

The  orange  groves  in  Australia  vary  in  size  from  1  to  200  acres. 
Orange  and  lemon  trees  are  seldom  however  planted  so  as  to  form 
groves  of  either  of  these  trees  exclusively  other  fruit  trees  are  inter- 
spered,  called  here  "  summer  fruits,"  such  as  peaches,  apricots,  passion, 
and  other  fruits.  The  average  holdings  vary  from  6  to  20  acres  in  extent. 

AGE  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

It  is  said  orange  and  lemon  trees  do  not  come  into  full  bearing 
until  ten  or  twelve  years  after  they  are  planted,  although  they  may 
commence  bearing  in  the  fifth  year. 

INSECT  PESTS. 

Mr.  Charles  Moore,  director  of  the  Botanic  Gardens,  Sydney,  informs 
nit'  "  that  the  insects  that  attack  the  orange  tree  are  the  common  small 
white  scale,  the  brown  scale,  and  the  smooth  surface. white  coccus." 
These  insects  have  at  times  made  great  ravages  among  the  orange 
groves  and  orchards.  Experienced  growers  keep  their  trees  compara- 
tively free  from  these  insects.  It  is  very  generally  believed  that  the 
ravages  of  these  pests  are  due  to  defective  cultivation.  Mr.  C.  Moore 
states  that  various  remedies  have  been  employed  in  Australia  to  get 
rid  of  the  attacks  of  insects, 

The  principal  remedy  being  Fishursfs  compound,  but  the  results  have  not  been 
commensurate  with  the  cost  attending  the  use  of  such  compounds.  There  is  no 
doubt  many  of  the  compounds  will  destroy  the  insects,  but  their  use  in  a  large  way 
is  impracticable.  The  best  remedy  in  my  opinion  is  to  improve  the  cultivation,  as 
healthy  plants  will  throw  off  all  pests. 

Mr.  Crichton  recommends  that  care  be  exercised  in  preparing  and 
draining  the  ground  before  planting  the  trees.  His  experience  is  that 
when  this  is  done  and  the  trees  are  fed  well  and  mulched  before  dry 
weather  sets  in  disease,  insects,  and  fungoid  pests  seldom  cause  trouble 
in  an  orangery.  According  to  the  same  authority  the  remedies  gener- 
ally employed  for  scale  are  lime,  sulphur,  soft  soap,  whale-oil  soap,  kero- 
sene, tobacco  water,  and  various  patent  insecticides;  also  quassia  water 
is  safe  and  good. 

He  recommends  the  following  remedies  as  affording  better  results 
than  any  others  hitherto  tried:  (1)  Arsenical  compounds;  (2)  petroleum, 
and  (3)  pyrethrum,  and  says: 

The  first  acts  through  the  stomach,  and  is  effectual  chiefly  against  mandibular  in- 
sects; the  second  and  third  act  by  contact,  and  are  therefore  of  more  general  appli- 
cation. 

Mr.  Charles  Moore  does  not  think  that  the  fluted  or  cottony  cushion 
scale,  which  has  proved  so  destructive  to  orchards  in  California,  has 
attacked  the  orange  and  lemon  trees  to  any  great  extent  in  this  colony, 
and  this  opinion  he  also  expressed  in  1886,  and  which  was  reported  by 


474        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

ine  to  the  Department  of  State  in  my  dispatch  No.  89,  of  23d  January, 
1886.  Prof.  F.  M.  Webster  and  Mr.  Albert  Koebele,  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture.  Washington,  D.  C.,  who  visited  Australia  during  the 
year  1888,  are  of  opinion  that  the  absence  of  the  cottony  cushion  scale, 
Icerya,  is  due  to  the  prevalence  of  the  Australian  lady-bird,  Vedolia 
cardinalis,  which  not  only  feeds  upon  the  scale  itself,  but  deposits  its 
eggs  beneath  them,  and  the  young  Iarva3  of  the  lady-bird  burrow  into 
the  egg  masses  from  below  and  feed  upon  the  eggs  of  the  leery  as  ; 
later  they  attack  the  Iceryas  of  all  sizes. 

During  the  last  two  years  a  number  of  Australian  lady-birds  have 
been  introduced  into  infected  orchards  in  California  with  the  most 
gratifying  results.  Prof.  D.  W.  Ooquillett,  of  Los  Angeles,  Gal.,  has 
very  carefully  studied  the  life-history  of  the  lady-bird,  and  an  account 
of  them  is  contained  in  Professor  Riley's  Annual  Report  for  1888.  In 
Insect  Life,  volume  2,  No.  3,  1889,  page  70,  published  by  authority  of 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  Prof.  D.  W.  Coquillett 
states  that  the  Australian  lady-birds  have  been  distributed  through 
many  orchards *on  the  Pacific  slope  of  the  United  States,  and  that  they 
have  spread  very  rapidly.  Mr.  J.  R.  Dobbin,  of  St.  Gabriel,  Gal., 
stated,  in  July,  1889,  that  the  Australian  lady-bird  had  multiplied  and 
spread  over  3,200  trees  in  his  orchard,  and  that  the  cottouy  cushion  scale 
was  rapidly  disappearing.  He  says  : 

I  made  a  public  statement  that  my  orchard  would  be  free  of  Icerya  by  the  first  of 
November,  but  the  work  has  gone  on  with  such  amazing  speed  and  thoroughness  that 
I  am  to-day  confident  that  the  pest  will  have  been  thoroughly  exterminated  from  my 
trees  by  the  first  of  August.  As  the  lady-bird  has  been  extensively  distributed,  I  feel 
positive  from  my  own  experience  that  the  entire  valley  (San  Gabriel)  will  be  prac- 
tically free  from  the  Icerya  before  the  advent  of  the  new  year. 

Citrus  trees  are  affected  with  what  is  called  the  lemon-tree  borer, 
jffimona  hirta,  in  both  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  In  some  districts 
the  trees  are  completely  riddled  by  this  pest.  Mr.  A.  T.  Urquard 
of  the  Karaka  in  New  Zealand,  forwarded  specimens  of  these  insects 
to  Prof.  T.  Kirk,  F.  L.  S.,  of  New  Zealand,  in  the  pupa  state,  enabling 
the  professor  to  identify  them  with  the  dEmona  hirta  of  Captain  Brown's 
"  Manual  of  the  New  Zealand  Coleoptera."  Mr.  Urquhard  stated  that 
he  had  observed  this  insect  for  several  years  in  connection  with  the 
fertilization  of  the  Yucca  fiber  plant,  but  its  identity  with  tht  lemon- 
tree  borer  has  not  hitherto  been  suspected. 

Professor  Kirk  says  that  the  best  way  to  stop  the  inroads  of  the 
borer  is  to  prevent  the  deposition  of  eggs ;  this  he  says,  however,  can 
not  be  done  effectively  until  its  habits  are  more  widely  known.  He 
recommends  that  all  wounds  should,  as  far  as  possible,  be  covered  with 
tar  or  some  substance  calculated  to  prevent  the  deposition  of  eggs ; 
also,  probing  the  galleries  with  a  wire  and  perforating  the  larva  would 
be  found  effective.  Soft  soap  dissolved  in  boiling  water  containing  a 
little  carbolic  acid  injected  into  the  galleries  by  means  of  a  syringe  is 
said  to  dissolve  the  larva.  Professor  Kirk  says  a  weak  solution  of 
caustic  potash  would  prove  equally  effective. 


CHANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    AUSTRALASIA.  475 

FRUIT   TRADE. 

The  seasons  in  Australia,  as  stated  before,  being  directly  opposite  to 
tlio.se  in  California,  there  is  of  course  a  strong  demand  for  fruit  in  one 
country  when  most  abundant  in  the  other.  The  want  of  quick  and  fre- 
quent steam  service  between  the  two  countries  is  the  principal  obstacle 
in  the  way  of  the  development  of  the  fruit  trade;  at  least  that  is  the 
case  as  far  as  the  imports  of  American  fruits  into  this  country  are 
concerned.  There  is  only  one  steamer  per  month  plying  between  the 
cities  of  Sau  Francisco  and  Sydney  and  there  is  no  direct  steam  com- 
munication between  Melbourne  and  Sau  Francisco,  while  no  steam 
service  exists  between  these  Australian  cities  and  New  York  or  other 
cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States. 

The  voyage  from  Sau  Francisco  to  Sydney  occupies  twenty-five  days. 
The  revolution  which  has  taken  place  in  steam-ship  construction  within 
the  last  decade  has  rendered  the  vessels  at  present  plying  between 
the  two  ports  obsolete,  so  far  as  cool  storage  accommodation  is  con- 
cerned. The  owners  of  the  line,  Messrs.  Spreckels  &  Co.,  have,  however, 
expressed  their  determination  to  replace  the  Alameda,  Mariposa,  and 
Zcalandia  by  vessels  of  the  most  modern  build.  When  this  is  accom- 
plished, as  a  natural  result  the  fruit  will  always  be  in  the  best  condition 
when  it  arrives.  The  weather,  especially  when  crossing  the  equator,  is 
extremely  hot,  and  without  cool  chambers  and  other  modern  facilities 
for  properly  storing  fruit  it  is  hardly  to  be  expected  that  it  could  make 
so  long  a  transit  without  injury. 

At  present  the  trade  is  small  and  is  confined  principally  to  the  im- 
ports of  fruits  from  California.  The  fruit  export  to  San  Francisco  thus 
far  has  been  only  a  few  trial  shipments.  The  truth  is,  the  cost  of  get- 
ting the  fruit  from  the  country  districts  to  Sydney  is  too  great  to  induce 
the  farmers  even  to  bring  it  to  market  except  in  small  quantities,  much 
less  to  think  of  exporting  it  to  America. 

The  railway  freights  from  the  fruit-growing  centers  to  Sydney  are 
from  75  to  100  per  cent,  higher  than  in  the  United  States.  There  is  a 
strong  agitation  on  the  part  of  the  public  press  and  people  to  have  these 
high  charges  reduced. 

G.  W.  GRIFFIN, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Sydney,  N.  8.  W .,  January  21, 1890. 


476  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


FIJI. 

Very  few  oranges  are  grown,  and  those  only  by  occasional  planters, 
who  plant  a  few  trees  for  their  own  use  j  no  particular  variety  is  sought 
after.  The  tree  is  grown  as  much  for  the  shade  it  affords  as  for  the  fruit 
it  bears. 

Lemons  are  not  cultivated.  There  is  a  lemon  or  citron  that  grows 
wild  in  the  bush,  but  as  yet  is  not  considered  of  importance  enough  for 
export.  It  is  a  prolific  bearer,  and  grows  abundantly  everywhere  in 
this  colony.  Were  it  properly  developed  by  scientific  cultivation,  I 
think  it  would  prove  a  valuable  addition  to  the  varieties  grown  in  our 
own  country. 

ANDREWS  A.  ST.  JOHN, 

Commercial  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  COMMERCIAL  AGENCY, 

Levuka,  January  10, 1890. 


CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 
FRANCE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BRADLEY,  OF  NICE. 
ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  THE  RIVIERA. 

Varieties. — Among  the  hundred  and  over  varieties  of  citrus  grown  on 
the  Riviera,  it  is  impossible  to  specify  any  one  or  two  as  most  profitable. 
The  oranges  are  not  only  exported  as  fruit,  but  orange-flower  water  is 
distilled  from  large  quantities  of  their  flowers  (one  firm  alone  using 
700,000  pounds  of  flowers).  Tons  are  candied  green.  Neroli,  so  much 
used  by  the  perfumer,  is  extracted  from  other  varieties,  and  from  the 
dried  peel  cura^oa  is  manufactured. 

From  recommendations  given  I  have  'selected  eight  varieties  of 
oranges  as  among  the  most  useful. 

ORANGES. 

Orange  franc  (Citrus  aurantium  vulgare). — Stem  straight  and  vigor- 
ous, bark  gray,  head  hemispheric,  whose  branches,  numerous  and  con- 
fused, are  covered  with  thorns.  The  young  sprouts  are  angulous  and  of 
tender  green  color.  The  lower  leaves  thick,  oVal,  lightly  notched,  light 
green  ;  upper  leaves  oblong,  darker  green,  glossy,  entire,  on  along  stem, 
less  winged  than  the  under  leaves.  Flowers  axillary  and  terminal,  white 
petals,  ovary  often  striated  at  the  base.  Fruits,  average  size,  rounded, 
globulous,  sometimes  slightly  concave  at  top,  where  the  place  that  the 
style  occupied  is  always  apparent.  The  stem  end  frequently  shows  the 
striae  noticed  in  the  ovary.  Skin  golden  yellow,  slightly  rough,  and  cov- 
ered with  vesicles.  The  pulp  is  divided  into  eight  or  ten  compartments, 
full  of  large  vesicles  nearly  as  yellow  as  the  skin,  which  hold  a  juice 
abundant,  palatable,  and  sweet.  Seeds  large,  oblong,  unequal,  each 
inclosing  three  or  four  perfect  germs.  The  tree  grows  here  to  be  24 
feet  high,  its  head,  say,  27  feet  in  circumference;  in  warmer  climates 
a  little  larger.  It  commences  bearing  at  eighteen  or  twenty  years  of 
age.  The  fruit  grows  sweeter  as  the  tree  grows  older.  It  ripens  early 
and  resists  cold  better  than  any  other  variety ;  not  much  cultivated  on 
account  of  slow  growth,  and  because  the  fruit  is  much  of  it  spoiled  for 
transportation  by  the  thorns,  but  the  stocks  are  much  used  for  grafts  of 
other  varieties. 

477 


478  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Orange  de  Nice  (Citrus  aurantium  niceme). — Differs  but  slightly  from 
the  above  ;  it  is  a  favorite  because  of  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  fruit, 
and  the  readiness  with  which  a  graft  from  it  starts. 

Orange  de  Malte  (Citrus  aurantium  Melitense). — Skin  dark  yellow, 
shading  into  red ;  the  pulp  may  be  red  in  part  or  wholly.  It  is  consid- 
ered to  be  a  hybrid  between  the  Franc  and  some  East  Indian  species. 

Orange  a  pulp  rouge  (Citrus  aurantium  Hierochunticum). — The  skin  of 
this  orange  is  always  yellow,  never  red,  but  the  pulp  is  dark  red.  This 
variety  differs  little  from  the  preceding  in  appearance  and  form. 

Mandarin  (Citrus  madurensis  or  Citrus  deliciosa) — Already  well 
known  in  California.  Here  it  is  one  of  the  hardiest  varieties. 

Orange  bigaradier  Franc  (Citrus  bigaradia) — Root  long,  branchy, 
bearded,  light  colored  outside,  yellowish  within.  Trunk  straight,  gray, 
ish,  branches  bushy,  covered  with  long  greenish  thorns.  Young  sprouts 
are  pale  green,  angulous,  like  most  of  the  genus;  leaves  elliptic  or  ob- 
long, narrow,  acuminate,  lightly  notched  in  the  upper  part,  wavy,  a  tine 
green,  and  carried  on  stems  more  or  less  winged.  Flowers  in  clusters, 
have  calix  angulous,  five  petals,  taste  slightly  bitter,  from  thirty  to 
thirty-five  stamens  partly  adherent  at  the  base.  Ovary  round  or  stri- 
ated, surmounted  by  a  style,  terminated  by  a  tuberculous  stigma.  The 
fruit  is  of  average  size,  round  or  slightly  elongated,  smooth  or  some- 
times rough,  flattened  at  the  end,  yellow  to  reddish  orange  color.  The 
peel  is  bitter,  very  fragrant,  clinging  to  the  pulp,  which  is  yellow  and 
divided  into  twelve  or  fourteen  parts ;  its  juice  is  not  very  palatable, 
bitter  acid  taste.  The  seeds  are  oblong,  sharp,  and  yellow.  The  tree 
grows  here  to  the  height  of  about  27  feet ;  flowers  in  May  and  some- 
times in  autumn  ;  fruit  ripens  slowly.  Neroli  is  distilled  from  its 
flowers,  and  from  its  dried  peel  the  liquor  cura9oa  is  made. 

Orange  de  Chine,  bigaradier,  or  Chinois  (Citrus  bigaradia  sinensis). — A 
valuable  dwarf  variety,  about  12  feet  high  ;  resists  the  cold  well.  The 
orange  is  used  for  preserves  or  candied  fruit  and  a  water  is  distilled 
from  its  flowers. 

Bergamotier  ordinaire  (Citrus  Bergamia  vulgaris). — The  bergamotier 
is  naturally  lofty,  plenty  of  branches,  but  the  branches  are  so  brittle  that 
the  head  of  the  tree  is  rarely  well-filled  out  or  regular.  Its  leaves  'are 
oval,  oblong,  some  pointed,  others  obtuse,  average  size,  green,  th^  lower 
surface  whiter  than  any  other  orange  leaf,  leaf  stems  long  and  winged. 
Flower  white,  small,  fragrant,  scattered  or  united  in  clusters,  borne 
on  very  short  stems.  Fruit  good  sized,  usually  pyramidal,  rarely  round, 
yellow,  smooth,  glossy.  It  has  an  agreeable  fragrance  peculiar  to 
itself,  peel  thin, 'pulp  yellowish  green.  This  variety  is  chiefly  valuable 
for  the  essential  oil  obtained  from  its  flowers  and  peel. 

LEMONS. 

Lemons  being  generally  seedlings,  a  very  large  number  of  varieties 
are  produced,  which  even  proprietors  of  orchards  do  not  try  to  distin- 
guish. Twenty  or  thirty  varieties  have  been  classified. 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN   THE    RIVIERA  479 

The  following  are  said  to  be  among  the  most  valuable:  Lemonier 
ordinaire  (Citrus  limonum)  vulture ;  lemonier  imperial  (Citrus  limonum) 
imperial;  lemonier  bignette  (Citrus  limonum)  bignetta ;  lemonier  per- • 
ette  spatafore  (Citrus  limonum)  peretta  spatafora.     This  last  excellent 
in  damp  situations. 

The  lemons  thrive  only  in  the  sheltered  nooks  within  a  mile  or  two  of 
the  sea,  where  every  deep  warm  valley  has  its  small  orchard  ripening, 
not  only  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  but  from  the  warmth  thrown 
back  by  the  cliffs  around  them.  The  oranges  more  hardy  can  be  found 
10  miles  from  the  coast  among  the  mountains  as  high  as  200  or  300 
yards  above  the  sea.  Our  only  level  land  is  in  small  valleys  among  the 
Alpes  Maritimes  which  cover  all  this  district.  It  is  generally  noted  that 
this  fruit  ripens  earlier  on  hill-sides  where  water  can  be  brought  to  it. 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  them  here  is  a  silico-argilaceous  or  argilo- 
calcareous  soil,  the  latter,  when  not  too  damp,  but  any  good  mixed  soil 
seems  to  answer,  as  they  are  not  difficult. 

In  regard  to  temperature  M.  J.  Tesseare  gives  observations  taken  by 
him  covering  twenty  years.  The  minimum  during  that  time  being  26°, 
maximum  92.5,  average  60°  Fahrenheit  in  the  shade.  These  observations 
were  taken  three  times  daily,  sunrise,  2  p.  m.,  and  at  sunset.  In  the 
sun  at  2  p.  m.,  the  thermometer  marked  minimum  99°,  maximum  135°.5, 
averaging  112.1.  Lowest  night  temperature  26°,  highest  79°.  There 
are  but  few  sultry  days.  During  the  twenty  years  there  were  4,385 
days  almost  or  entirely  cloudless,  1,547  cloudy  days,  1,348  days  more  or 
less  rainy,  28  days  without  observation.  This  would  give  in  one  year 
219  sunny  days,  77  cloudy,  67  rainy.  The  hygrometer  of  Saussure 
gives  minimum  of  23,  maximum  77,  .average  C1.4. 

For  the  five  years  1870-'74,  the  minimum  rain-fall  was  in  1874,  24.3 
inches  ;  the  average  for  the  five  years  was  35.1  inches.  The  peculiarity 
of  the  rain- fall  is  the  tropical  intensity  of  each  shower  and  its  short 
duration ;  so  that  while  we  have  actually  more  rain  than  London,  Eng- 
land, we  have  very  much  fewer  rainy  or  cloudy  days.  During  the  long 
summer,  from  June  to  September,  the  trees  are  irrigated  with  water 
brought  in  canals  from  mountain  streams,  which  is  generally  tempered 
by  storing  in  large  private  tanks  for  some  time  before  being  applied, 
which  it  is  at  intervals  of  one  or  two  weeks.  This  is  done  in  summer, 
between  sunset  and  sunrise ;  if  necessary  in  autumn  it  is  done  in  the 
morning.  Gardeners  watch  the  leaves  of  the  tree  for  indications  of 
need  of  water.  The  orange  needs  less  water  than  the  lemon. 

The  earth  is  worked  over  twice  a  year.  In  the  spring  after  pruning, 
at  least  a  foot  deep,  again  in  the  autumn  not  quite  so  deep.  The  tool 
used  for  this  work  is  always  tined,  as  a  blade  might  injure  the  smaller 
deep  roots.  It  is  considered  desirable  to  cut  away  the  roots  which  lie 
near  the  surface,  as  they  are  injured  by  becoming  too  dry  and  the  tree 
suffers.  The  deeper  growing  roots  are  better  for  the  tree  to  draw  sus- 
tenance from,  as  they  keep  moist  longer. 

Fertilizers  are  used  for  two  definite  purposes  and  at  two  different 


480         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

epochs :  First,  to  press  the  growth  of  the  young  tree  with  manure 
speedily  decomposed,  which  will  furnish  strong  nutriment  at  once  to 
the  roots,  such  as  oil-meal  cakes,  guano,  dried  blood,  stable  manures. 
Second,  for  the  support  of  the  mature  tree  with  manures  of  slower  de- 
composition, such  as  horn  shavings,  bones,  woolen  rags,  hair,  hide,  and 
even  leather.  These  are  placed  around  the  tree  as  far  from  the  trunk  as 
the  roots  extend  during  the  autumn,  and  covered  with  earth  to  the 
depth  of  a  foot. 

The  object  aimed  at  in  pruning  is  to  bring  the  greatest  surface  pos- 
sible of  the  tree  to  direct  action  of  air  and  light.  The  spherical  form 
is  considered  best.  To  keep  this  form  shoots  are  pinched  off  in  June 
each  year.  In  the  early  spring  weak  and  dead  wood,  forgotten  useless 
shoots,  are  cut  out  to  let  light  and  air  in  among  the  branches;  a  sharp 
knife  must  be  used. 

Oranges  are  picked  first  when  just  beginning  to  turn  yellow,  in  Oc- 
tober, for  distant  shipment,  next  in  December  for  a  nearer  shipment 
when  half  yellow,  finally  in  the  spring  when  fully  ripe  for  home  mar- 
ket. They  are  sold  by  the  thousand,  the  caisse  or  patronue.  The  best 
are  wrapped  in  gray  paper  and  packed  360  in  a  box,  and  called  caisses 
flandrines.  The  second  quality  are  packed  in  the  same  way,  500  to  the 
box,  and  called  simply  caisse.  The  third  quality  packed  the  same  way 
is  called  caisse  de  Menton.  The  fourth  quality  are  called  Patronnes  de 
Magasin,  and  the  fifth  Patronne  de  barque.  These  latter  are  shipped 
by  boat  in  bulk.  Those  poorer  than  the  above  five  qualities  have  no 
commercial  value,  excepting  for  the  peel,  which  is  taken  off  and  dried. 
Oranges  as  a  rule  grow  sweeter  with  the  age  of  the  tree. 

Lemon  trees  blossom  from  the  earliest  spring  to  late  fall,  and  even 
during  the  winter.  From  the  few  fertile  flowers  of  late  winter  comes  a 
large  thick-skinned  fruit  with  but  little  juice,  called  Testassa.  The 
early  spring  flowers  from  which  good  fruit  ripens  in  about  six  mouths 
or  in  October  and  November  are  the  ones  most  depended  on  for  a 
crop.  These  lemons  are  called  here  Primo  Fiore  or  Maraviglia.  The 
next  flowers  of  May  and  June  only  ripen  their  fruit  after  ten  months 
which  are  called  Secundo  Fiore  or  Granetta.  These  are  generally 
inferior  to  the  primo  but  if  for  any  reason  those  fail,  nature  tries  to 
make  up  for  it  by  putting  all  the  good  qualities  lost  with  primo^  into 
the  secundo,  The  flowers  of  July  and  August  mature  the  following 
April  and  produce  the  Verdame  which  is  said  to  keep  well  for  ship- 
ment. After  the  rain  of  September  and  October,  a  few  flowers  are  fer- 
tile and  give  a  coarse  fruit  called  Septembrine. 

The  fruit,  carefully  picked,  is  spread  on  straw,  where  the  different 
commercial  qualities  are  selected.  They  are  wrapped  in  absorbent 
paper  and  packed  according  to  size  and  given  the  following  commercial 
names  :  Caisse  Flandrine,  400  of  the  best  size  in  a  box  ;  Caisse  Lyon- 
naise,  500  in  a  box,  and  Petites  Caisses,  where  three  boxes  hold  1,000 
of  the  smaller  ones.  The  lemons  of  the  first  class  in  size  must  be  at 
Least  55  millimeters  in  diameter. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  THE  RIVIERA.        481 

The  plants  are  propagated  by  seed,  grafting,  cuttings,  and  layering, 
principally  by  the  two  first  methods.  When  planted  in  the  orchard  the 
distance  apart  is  modified,  first,  by  the  kind  of  culture  whether  in  large 
orchards,  when  other  plants  are  to  be  cultivated  between  the  rows  and 
nature  allowed  to  take  its  course,  or  in  small  gardens,  where  a  system 
of  forcing  is  used  ;  second,  the  quality  of  the  soil,  and,  finally,  the  form 
m  which  they  are  to  be  set  out,  whether  in  one  row,  in  squares,  etc. 
In  a  general  way  from  15  to  24  feet  is  near  enough  for  trees  of  standard 
size. 

The  trees  begin  to  bear  flowers  and  fruit  at  five  years,  give  a  reason- 
able crop  at  fifteen,  but  increase  in  productiveness  up  to  forty  years. 

INSECT  PESTS. 

The  following  insects  are  hurtful  to  both  orange  and  lemon  trees,  but 
as  the  lemon  tree  is  always  in  flower  and  is  more  frequently  watered, 
the  Lepidoptera  in  the  larva  state  is  more  injurious  to  it  than  to  the 
orange : 

Coccides. — Dactylopius  citri  (BoisDuval). — This  insect  with  soft  tegu- 
ment is  very  common  on  both  orange  and  lemon  trees  of  the  Riviera. 
Its  body  is  a  red  brown;  about  it  are  numerous  cottony  appendices, 
17  on  each  side;  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen  are  two  much  longer  than 
the  others.  The  insect  is  entirely  covered  with  white  dust.  Its  length 
is  0.^03  to  O.m004,  breadth  O.m002.  The  antenna  of  the  female  are  8- 
jointed.  The  tarsis  is  half  the  length  of  the  tibia  ;  the  thread-like  feet 
are  very  long.  Web  pores  are  plenty ;  the  genito-anal  ring  large,  with 
6  bristles ;  the  larva  has  antenna}  6-jointed ;  the  abdominal  web  pores 
are  less  numerous  than  in  the  perfect  insect.  The  male  is  long,  brown 
on  head  and  thorax,  abdomen  yellowish  ;  the  feet  and  antennae  darker 
in  color ;  these  latter  have  10  articulations.  Thorax  narrow ;  elytron 
very  long,  grayish  white ;  abdomen  very  long,  with  web  pores  on  the 
edges ;  sexual  organs  tuberculous  in  form,  quite  large,  terminated  in  a 
rounded  point ;  feet  long ;  tarsis  longer  than  the  thighs. 

This  insect,  a  veritable  scourge,  forms  upon  the  young  fruit  and  leaves 
cottony  and  sticky  heaps,  contrasting  strongly  by  its  whiteness  with 
the  color  of  the  fruit  and  the  black  layer  of  the  "  Morphe'e,"  which  al- 
ways surrounds  them.  Breaking  off  these  living  heaps,  some  of  the 
insects  will  be  crushed,  yielding  a  reddish  liquid;  in  them  will  be  found 
insects  in  different  stages  of  development,  and  besides  this  the  larv® 
of  the  coccinella  and  the  caterpillar  of  a  little  Lepidoptera,  the  EpUestia 
gnidiella. 

The  Dactylopius  citri  seeks  sheltered  spots  where  the  trees,  too  closely 
planted,  lack  air  and  light.  It  hurts  the  growth  of  the  trees  by  stop- 
ping the  leaf  pores.  It  unites  with  the  Lecanides  and  the  Aphides  to 
propagate  "  Miellat"  and  "Morphe"e." 

Aspidiotus    limonii  (Signoret). — This  Coccus    with  hard  tegument, 


482         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

which  is  found  particularly  upon  the  young  branches,  has,  according  to 
M.  Signoret,  the  lobes  at  the  abdominal  extremity  detached  and  appar- 
ent and  the  finabriate  scales  long ;  the  last  abdominal  segment  is  elon- 
gated. The  shell  of  the  adult  female  is  spherical,  yellowish  white  in 
color,  with  internal  organs  yellow,  and  a  large  quantity  of  eggs.  The 
shell  of  the  male  is  more  elongated.  Raising  the  shell  of  the  mother 
when  the  little  ones  are  being  hatched,  numerous  small  white  larvae 
running  quite  fast  among  the  eggs,  yet  unopened,  can  be  seen.  These 
resemble  the  Phylloxera,  excepting  in  color.  The  male  is  quite  com- 
mon, his  head  is  notched  in  front,  the  antennae  are  long,  thorax  rounded 
and  broad. 

Lecanium  flesperidum  (Auctorum). — This  insect  is  clothed  with  a  solid 
cuirass.  It  is  elongated  in  form ;  its  color  a  yellow  brown.  It  adheres 
firmly  to  the  leaves  and  is  difficult  to  distinguish  from  them.  Its  an- 
tenna have  six  articulations,  legs  slender,  claws  very  long,  genito  anal 
ring  surrounded  by  six  bristles.  Larvae  long,  with  six  articulations  in 
each  of  antennae.  The  male  has  not  been  described.  Examinations  of 
the  female  show  embryo  but  no  eggs,  which  gives  rise  to  suggestion  that 
she  may  be  viviparous. 

Lecanium  olece  (Bernard). — Brown,  with  deep  body  and  two  raised 
transverse  lines  on  the  back,  almost  heart-shaped ;  the  antennae  have 
eight  articulations;  yellow  at  first,  they  become  black.  The  female  lays 
her  eggs  and  shelters  them  under  herself  in  great  quantities. 

The  methods  in  use  by  the  best  gardeners  for  the  destruction  of  this 
form  of  pest  is  to  powder  the  tree  with  a  mixture  of  sulphur  and  plas- 
ter from  April,  and  to  brush  trunks,  branches,  and  fruit  during  the  win- 
ter. Washing  with  waters,  saline,  alkaline,  or  acid,  which  might  harm 
the  plant,  are  given  up ;  syringing  with  medicinal  liquids  is  also  dis- 
couraged. Carbolic  acid,  turpentine,  or  petroleum  dilutions  are  pre- 
ferred for  brushing  on,  the  latter  as  the  cheapest  with  water  in  propor- 
tions of  1  to  30.  These  should  be  applied  at  night  in  spring.  It  is  also 
recommended  to  wash  the  trunk  with  lime  water  and  to  cut  off*  and 
burn  on  the  spot  at  night  the  small  branches  too  much  attacked  to  be 
cured.  Another  author  advises  the  use  of  nitrobenzine,  but  the  essen- 
tial things  seem  to  be  plenty  of  light  and  air  through  and  among  the 
trees,  and,  above  all,  protection  from  wild  birds. 

Lepidoptera. — Acrolepea  citri  (Millere). — Tincidae  described  bV  Mil- 
liere  and  Eangouet.  The  female  probably  lays  her  eggs,  which  are 
round  and  of  a  bright  yellow  color,  near  the  bud.  The  young  larva  soon 
hatches;  it  is  at  first  to  the  naked  eye  a  yellowish  white,  and  retains 
this  color  some  time :  at  the  moment  of  its  final  transformation,  when  it 
is  largest,  its  body  is  yellowish  green  in  color,  which  is  particularly 
noticeable  in  the  hollow  of  each  ring  and  on  the  under  parts.  The  head, 
dark  brown,  has  antennae,  or  horns.  The  eyes  are  very  apparent.  A 
marked  distinction  between  this  insect  and  the  Prays-oleellus  is  that  the 
latter  has  upon  the  first  thoracic  ring  two  bright  black  spots,  which  are 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  THE  RIVIERA.         483 

wanting  in  the  Acrolepea  citri,  whose  first  ring  is  simply  a  darker  shade. 
The  body  of  the  larva  is  a  yellowish -green  color,  and  has  six  brown  feet 
armed  with  little  claws  darker  brown.  The  false  feet  to  the  number  of 
eight  are  placed  under  the  sixth,  seventh,  eighth,  and  ninth  ring.  They 
are  provided  with  an  apparatus  with  short  filaments,  which  allows  them 
to  adhere  or  cling  strongly  to  any  object.  The  last  abdominal  segment 
is  conical  and  notched  at  the  anal  extremity ;  it  is  provided  with  the 
same  apparatus  as  the  false  feet,  commencing  with  the  first  thoracic 
ring;  the  covering  is  delicately  marbled  with  a  reddish  color.  Pre- 
served in  alcohol  the  larva,  which  has  lost  its  greenish  tints,  becorres 
yellow,  the  back  a  darker  shade,  the  eyes  and  mandible's  are  very  black. 
Very  lively,  it  burrows  in  the  bud  whose  covering  it  has  pierced,  and 
leaves  a  round  hole  very  apparent.  Once  settled  in  the  bud  it  com- 
mences by  devouring  the  base  of  the  stamens,  then  it  attacks  the  em- 
bryo of  the  fruit.  It  is  found  sometimes  at  the  bottom  of  the  calyx  en- 
veloping the  base  of  the  fruit,  still  very  small,  with  its  rings,  trying  to 
get  into  it;  moving  from  place  to  place,  it  emits  thread,  which  binds  the 
stamens  together  and  encloses  its  excrements.  When  the  flower  at- 
tacked opens,  the  stamens  are  seen  to  be  upset  and  the  young  fruity 
pierced  at  several  points,  soon  blackens  and  dries  up,  even  before  it  is 
as  large  as  a  grain  of  wheat.  If  the  larva  is  disturbed,  it  quickly  leaves 
the  inside  of  the  flower  and  crawls  about  the  outside  of  it ;  then  if  there 
seems  to  be  danger  it  tries  to  reach  another  branch  or  the  ground,  drop- 
ping down  by  the  thread  spun  from  itself,  by  which  it  climbs  up  again 
when  the  danger  seems  past,  absorbing  the  thread  into  itself  as  it  goes 
up.  The  larva  being  fully  developed,  it  prepares  to  spin  its  cocoon  in 
the  calyx  of  the  flower. 

The  cocoon  is  a  gray-brown,  meshes  so  loose  that  the  phases  of  trans- 
formation can  be  easily  followed ;  once  really  shut  in,  the  caterpillar 
shrinks  rapidly.  Larvae  commencing  their  cocoons  20th  and  21st  of 
September  yielded  a  butterfly  the  26th  or  27th  following.  Its  sleep 
then  lasts  but  six  or  seven  days.  At  first  the  little  chrysalis,  in  its  co- 
coon, is  a  greenish  color  on  its  under  parts,  the  upper  parts,  and  a  line 
upon  its  front  red.  After  this  the  green  and  red  fade  and  it  becomes  a 
light  brown,  verging  toward  green,  which  darkens  more  and  more.  At 
its  birth  the  butterfly  is  almost  black ;  it  is  only  later  that  it  pales  and 
the  varied  designs  appear  upon  its  dress.  It  is  motionless,  antennas 
stuck  to  its  body,  legs  drawn  up  under  it,  looking  like  a  small  black 
spindle ;  when  well  dried  it  straightens  its  antennae,  which  it  carries 
pointing  forward,  and  always  in  motion.  It  raises  its  head,  stretches  out 
its  legs,  and  makes  its  toilet ;  at  the  slightest  alarm  it  changes  its  place 
with  a  jerky  little  flight.  The  designs  on  the  wings  of  these  butterflies 
vary  much  and  sometimes  disappear  completely  to  give  place  to  a  gen- 
eral mouse-gray  color,  more  or  less  silvery. 

A  general  description  of  a  good  specimen  of  this  insect  would  be  as 
follows  : 


484  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  body  mouse-gray,  under  part  silvery  ;  head  the  same  color,  eyes 
are  large,  the  dark  antennae  half  the  length  of  the  body. 

Examining  with  care,  a  black  line  forming  a  half  crescent  is  apparent, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  prothorax,  near  the  center  of  the  folded 
wings,  or  in  the  front  third ;  a  second  black  spot  appears  resembling 
the  letter  A,  with  top  flattened  and  lacking  the  transverse  bar.  The 
top  points  toward  the  head  of  the  insect,  the  sides  are  on  the  two  wings. 
Further  back  is  a  third  black  spot  similar  to  the  second,  bat  very  much 
fainter,  and  the  final  point  of  the  wings,  a  darker  gray  than  the  rest, 
makes  a  last  noticeable  spot.  The  specks  on  the  wings  are  too  small 
to  be  called  spo'ts.  The  three  pairs  of  legs  are  of  different  lengths;  the 
second  pair  has  one  spur,  the  third  has  two.  In  color  they  are  gray, 
with  black  rings. 

I  have  only  studied  these  insects  during  the  blossoming  season  of 
August.  Professor  Penzig,  who  has  made  longer  studies  of  them,  says 
that  there  are  three  generations  in  each  year ;  the  first  in  April  and 
May,  the  second  in  August,  and  the  third  in  October  and  Novem- 
ber 5  according  to  him  the  winter  is  passed  as  an  egg  from  this  last 
generation.  The  first  generation  in  the  spring  from  these  eggs  is  not 
strong  or  prolific,  and  not  so  harmful.  The  August  generation  is  the 
most  mischievous.  They  were  first  noted  as  hurtful  in  Corsica,  later  in 
Sicily  by  M.  Panizzi.  The  methods  of  destruction  used  against  this 
insect  and  the  next  two  are  to  pick  up  and  burn  the  flowers  attacked 
and  to  gather  all  grass  and  weeds  growing  near  the  trees,  dry  them  and 
burn  them  in  heaps  under  the  trees  at  night-fall.  A  great  many  butter- 
flies attracted  by  the  light  are  destroyed,  besides  other  forms  of  insect 
life,  under  the  burning  heaps. 

Epliestia  guidiella  (MilUere). — A  Phycide  described  by  M.  Milliere,  of 
Cannes,  who  gave  it  this  name  because  he  first  found  it  upon  a  Daphne 
gnedium,  a  shrub  quite  common  on  the  hills.  It  seems  to  be  polypha- 
gous,  however,  as  it  is  found  on  many  plants;  besides  this  they  are 
found  under  the  whitish,  sticky,  cottony  heaps  deposited  on  fruit  and 
leaves  by  the  Dactylopius  citri. 

It  has  the  form  but  is  a  little  larger  than  the  Acrolepia.  It  differs 
from  the  latter  in  color,  being  blackish,  with  a  band  of  darker  shade 
on  each  side,  dotted  or  marbled.  The  larva  is  hairy ;  there  are  hairs  even 
around  its  eyes.  Its  head  and  first  thoracic  ring  are  a  brighter  color. 
Placed  in  alcohol  it  is  a  lighter  shade,  becoming  a  chestnut,  the  band 
on  the  sides  very  marked.  It  is  very  lively,  seems  to  flee  the  light  and 
is  longer  in  preparing  for  its  transformation  than  the  Acrolepia.  It 
first  makes  a  loose  shelter,  in  which  it  spins  a  cocoon  impenetrable 
and  whiter  than  that  of  the  other,  and  while  longer  in  preparing  the  co- 
coon, it  is  at  the  same  time  longer  in  changing  from  chrysalis  to  but- 
terfly, nine  days  instead  of  six.  The  butterfly  is  larger  and  a  dark 
gray.  Its  wings,  instead  of  being  folded  in  a  spindle-shape,  are  folded 
more  in  the  shape  of  an  acute-angled  triangle.  The  body  is  mouse- 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    THE    RIVIERA,  485 

gray  beneath,  a  little  darker  above,  the  abdomen  is  well  furnished 
with  hairs,  tin*  under  part  of  the  wings  is  a  brilliant  ash-gray.  The 
upper  wings  are  fringed  only  at  their  extremity  and  on  the  inner  side. 
Their  general  shade  is  lees  of  wine,  with  metallic  luster,  two  light  de 
signs  cross  them.  When  its  wings  are  spread  this  color  is  brighter, 
but  the  design  fades  and  nearly  disappears  if  the  insect  is  long  on  the 
wing.  The  under  wings  have  a  darker  shade  above  than  below,  their 
fringe  is  long,  especially  the  outer  edge,  a  dark  lineseparates  the  fringe 
from  the  rest  of  the  wing.  The  legs  are  an  even  gray,  something  the 
shade  of  the  under  part  of  body  and  wings;  with  wings  spread  the 
Kphestia  gnidiella  measures  about  Om.015,  while  the  Acrolepia  citri 
measures  but  Om.010  or  ()m.012.  Professor  Penzig  thinks  it  has  but 
two  generations.  The  discovery  of  the  larvas  of  these  insects  in  the 
heaps  made  by  the  cocei  raises  the  question,  yet  unsettled,  whether 
they  feed  upon  the  latter,  and  so  are  not  wholly  harmful. 

Eup ithccia pumUaia  (H.  G.). — A  geometride  larger  than  the  Ephestia. 
As  the  butterfly  varies  in  its  markings  so  the  Iarva3  of  this  insect  vary 
so  much  as  to  make  detailed  description  difficult  Its  body  is  cylindri- 
cal; six  true  legs  appear,  but  those  on  the  tenth  ring  and  on  the  twelfth 
and  last  are  false.  The  body  is  yellow-green,  with  black  lines  on  the 
sides.  In  the  middle  of  the  back  a  long  tndinal  line  from  which,  on  each 
ring,  a  line  runs  at  right  angles  down  the  sides;  the  body  is  covered 
with  thinly-scattered  hairs.  The  chrysalis,  yellow-brown,  is  quite 
slender. 

The  specimens  of  the  butterfly  that  I  have  laised  are  a  grey-yellow 
color,  brighter  beneath  than  above.  The  eyes  are  large  and  greenish. 
The  under  wings  are  marbled, with  little  irregular  blackish  spots.  They 
are  notched  in  the  back  part  and  have  a  darker  line  serving  as  base  to 
the  fringe.  The  upper  wings,  larger  and  darker,  have  the  same  dark 
line.  On  their  field  there  are,  besides  the  spots  which  the  under  wing 
bears,  designs  lighter  and  darker. 

The  diptera  are  represented  by  one  small  fly,  in  color  blue,  striped 
with  yellow,  which  lives  in  its  larva  state  in  the  pulps  of  the  oranges. 
It  is  the  cerutitis  hispanica  (B).  M.  Peragallo  could  find  nothing  more 
detailed  than  this  fact  noted  by  Colonel  Goureau. 

Of  coleoptera,  the  curculio-otior-hynchus  meridionalis,  which  attacks 
the  young  shoots  of  the  olive,  is  equally  fond  of  the  orange  tree,  and 
all  lemons  which  fall  on  the  ground  in  damp  places  are  pretty  sure  to 
ccntain  more  or  less  of  the  dark  yellow  carpophilus  mntilatus,  and  to 
show  the  small,  round  hole  in  its  skin  by  which  entrance  was  effected. 
To  obtain  a  specimen,  it  is  only  necessary  to  squeeze  the  lemon,  and  the 
carpophilus  comes  out  with  the  juice,  but  not  wet  by  it. 

The  Morphee  or  Fumagine. — After  years  of  study  and  discussion  of 
this  disease,  which  gives  the  leaves  of  a  grove  the  appearance  of  being 
coated  with  soot,  scientists  have  united  in  the  belief,  well  founded,  that 
it  is  due  to  the  liquid  excrement  of  one  ol  the  cocci  in  which  germs  of 


486  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

mushrooms  find  congenial  soil  for  growth  and  do  grow  very  rapidly. 
To  prove  the  power  of  this  insect  to  eject  to  some  distance  its  excre- 
ment, M.  Peragallo  confined  in  a  glass  insect-case  several  live  speci- 
mens of  the  cocus  on  orange  tree  leaves  already  affected  with  fumagiue. 
Within  twenty-four  hours  the  glass  was  sprinkled  with  tiny  drops  of 
a  viscous  liquid,  white  and  transparent,  which  had  evidently  been  pro- 
duced by  the  insects,  and  which  were  soon  covered  with  fumagine  from 
germs  in  the  air.  For  its  cure,  the  abbe"  Loquez  says : 

Havevno  excess  of  humidity,  plant  ftirther  apart,  give  the  trees  air,  lot  them  grow 
tall,  be  moderate  with  irrigation — water  gives  fruit  but  is  liable  to  injure  the  tree — 
finally,  burn  the  infected  branches. 

M.  Riviere  suggests  lime-water  washes,  fumigating  with  tobacco, 
washing  and  brushing  the  leaves,  branches,  and  fruit.  Dr.  Signorel 
adds  hanging  wisps  of  straw  soaked  in  coal-tar  under  the  trees.  At 
Mentone  petroleum  and  vinegar-water  are  both  used  as  washes. 

Two  methods  are  given  in  the  record  of  the  Entomological  Society  of 
France  for  1883 ;  the  first  from  Greece,  the  second  from  Sicily : 

(1)  Prune  well  and  syringe  the  trees  with  the  following  mixture : 
Eight  parts  water  with  one  each  of  petroleum  and  quick  lime  finely 
powdered. 

(2)  Powder  the  trees  while  damp  with  dew  with  fresh  or  uu leached 
wood  ashes. 

To  sum  up,  keep  the  trees  healthy,  do  not  plant  in  low  places  or 
where  th<-re  is  much  fog,  cut  off  sickly  branches,  and  destroy  by  hand  as 
many  insects  as  possible. 

u  Gum  "  shows  great  weakness  and  probable  death  of  the  branch  on 
which  it  appears ;  it  is  considered  to  be  a  cryptogamic  disease.  M. 
Peragallo  gives  the  following  insects  which  seem  to  be  friends  of  the 
orange  and  lemon  trees : 

Syrphus  hyalinatus  (de  Fallen). — From  larvae  found  at  Mentone  and 
Eoqueburue,  in  whose  neighborhood  were  quantities  of  the  larvae  of 
Acrolepia  citri,  black  and  dried,  were  developed  in  his  breeding  cases  a 
diptera  already  known  as  destructive  to  the  coccide,  identified  as  the 
Syrphus  by  alinatus  (de  Fallen).  This  insect  is  considered  by  M. 
Peragallo  as  one  of  the  most  useful  parasites  of  the  lemon  trees,  living 
as  it  does  on  different  kinds  of  insects  hurtful  to  the  tree  and  being 
quite  common  in  some  sections.  He  has  found  also  in  the  chrysalides 
of  Microlepidoptera  larvae  which  gave  birth  to  tiny  Hymenoptera  as 
yet  unnamed,  and  in  one  case  records  the  birth  of  a  Hemerobius 
chrysops  from  the  chrysalis  of  a  Eupithecia  pumilata;  these  latter 
cases  being  more  truly  in  the  nature  of  parasites  than  the  Syrphus 
hyalinatus. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 

Besides  personal  observation  I  am  indebted  to  the  following  works 
for  information  on  the  subject.  In  some  cases,  particularly  concerning 
the  insects,  I  have  made  free  translations : 


ORANGES    AND    LKMONS    IN    TIIK    RIVIERA. 


4*7 


Histoire et  Culture  des  Oranges.     A.  Risso,  A.  Poiteau,  revised  by  M.  A.  du  Breuil. 
Nice  pratique,  etc.,  A.  La  Costa. 
Lea  Primes  d'honneur.     Ministtre  de  1' Agriculture. 
Statistique  Agricole.     Ministere  de  1'Agriculture. 
Arbres,  etc.,  dans  la  region  comprise  entre  Cannes  et  Menton.     F.  Forckel, 

li««ad  garduer  at  Monte  Carlo. 

K i  udos  sur  les  Insectes  nuisibles  a  PAgriculburo.     M.  A.  Peragallo. 
M.  (ros.  Chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Agriculture  for  the  Department. 

List  of  oranges  and  lemons  grown  on  the  Riviera. 


Citrus  Aiiruntiuw  — 

Citrus  Bigaradia  — 

Pomum  Adami. 

Vulgare, 

Corniculata, 

Citrus  PompelmoB  — 

Sineuse, 

Sulcata, 

Decumanus, 

Depressum, 

Fetifera, 

Vulgaris, 

.      Pyrainidale, 

Canaliculata, 

Crispatus, 

Ilicifolium, 

Cyathifera, 

Chadock, 

Crispum, 

Caliculata, 

Ragemosus. 

Pi  ri  forme, 

Crispifolia, 

Citrus  Lumia  — 

Latifolium, 

Multiflora, 

Dominica. 

Genuense, 

Violacea, 

Rhegiua. 

Duplex, 

Duplex, 

Conica. 

Nicense, 

Spatafora, 

Ollulsb  formis. 

Microcarpum, 

Marnillata, 

Valentina. 

Miniitissimum, 

Longifolia, 

Gallitia. 

Gibbosum, 

Volcameriana, 

Dulcis. 

Corniculatum, 

Racemosa, 

Saccharina. 

Melitanse, 

Neapolitans, 

Aurantiaca. 

Ilierochnnticum 

,                     Asperma, 

Rubescens, 

Balearicnm, 

Itan, 

Limeta. 

Sigillatum, 

Sallesiana, 

Citrus  Limonum  — 

Mammifernm, 

Macrocarpa, 

Sylvaticum, 

Limetiforme, 

Hispanica, 

Incomparabile, 

Oblongum, 

Florentina, 

Tenue, 

Ellipticum, 

Coronata, 

Striatum, 

Olivo3forme, 

Glaberrima, 

Pusillnm, 

Torulosum, 

Dulcis, 

Calabrinum, 

Carnosum, 

Salicifolia, 

Caly, 

Rugosum, 

Simensis, 

Bignetta, 

Ruginosum, 

Myrtifolia, 

Bignetta  magua, 

Pomum  Adami 

Parisio-        Fasciata, 

Hardouium, 

rum, 

Bizarria. 

Rosolinum, 

Nobile, 

Citrus  Bergamia  — 

Aspermum, 

Lougifolium, 

Vnlgaris, 

Ponzinnm, 

Multiflorum, 

Torulosa, 

Duplex, 

Angnstifolium, 

Parva, 

Ligusticum, 

Tardum, 

Mellarosa, 

Rosenm, 

Aspermum, 

Mellarosa  Plena. 

Barbadorus, 

Grassense, 

Citrus  Limetta  — 

Neapolitanum, 

Couiferum, 

Vulgaris, 

Globosum, 

Imbigum, 

Parva, 

Parvum, 

Lusitanicum, 

Acris, 

Hispanicum, 

Otaitense, 

Hispanica, 

Balotiuum, 

Mutabile, 

Romana, 

Mellarosa. 

Lunatum, 

Tuberculosa, 

Peretta, 

Loursiro. 

Auraria, 

Peretta  Spatafora, 

156A  7 

488        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

List  of  oranges  and  lemons  grown  on  the  Bivicra — Continued. 

CiiruH  Limonum— Continued.        Sancti  Reini,  Cornuta, 

Peretta  Striata,                        Nicense,  Salodiana, 

Peretta  Florentina,                  Paradisi,  Plena, 

Peretta  Longa,                         Ferrari,  Dnlcis, 

Vulgaris,                                    Amalphitaiinin,  Florentina, 

Ceriescura,                                 Chalcedonicuin,  Elougata, 

Cajetanuni,                                Bimamillatuin,  Rugosa, 

Fusiforme,                                 Digitatum.  Roniana, 

Oblongum,                         Citrus  Medica —  Sulcata, 

Canaliculatum,                       Vulgaris,  Costata, 

Iruperiale,                                  Cucurbitiua,  Glabra, 

Lauras,                                       Tuberosa,  Siinoniformis, 

Racemosum,                             Maxima,  Parvra. 
Rheginum, 

WILLIAM  HARRISON  BRADLEY, 

•  Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Nice,  May  5,  1890. 


CORSICA.* 

REPORT  EY   CONSULAR   AGENT  DAMIANI. 

Situation. — Trees  of  the  orange  species  thrive  in  Corsica  if  cultivated 
at  an  altitude  of  200  to  400  meters  above  the  sea-level ;  below  that  they 
are  dwarfed  in  their  growth,  and  above  400  metervs  they  are  affected 
by  the  cold.  The  tree  requires  a  deep,  fertile,  and  pervious  soil,  irriga- 
tion during  the  heat  of  summer,  and  shelter  from  high  winds.  Damp 
and  compact  soil  does  not  suit  5  but  it  thrives  best  in  a  clayey  siliceous 
clay  limestone,  or  a  pervious,  siliceous,  clayey  soil.  On  a  damp  soil  the 
roots  are  soon  injured.  The  ground  must  not  only  be  wholesome  and 
pervious  to  water,  but  it  must  also  be  rich  in  mold. 

Cultivation. — Both  the  orange  and  lemon  trees  require  much  atten- 
tion if  they  are  to  yield  abundant  fruit  every  year.  If  planted  on  ground 
exposed  to  the  north  wind,  they  must  be  sheltered  by  triple  rows  of  the 
pyramidal  Cyprus  or  the  Eucalyptus  globulus.  Twice  a  year,  in  spring 
and  autumn,  the  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  tree  is  dug  up,  and  in  Sep- 
tember and  October,  or  in  February  and  March,  well  manured  with  all 
kinds  of  manure,  according  to  the  season;  generally,  before  winter,  veg- 
etable manure,  more  or  less  decomposed,  and  the  refuse  of  farms  is 
used. 

Pruning. — The  cutting  or  pruning  does  not  differ  from  that  of  other 
fruit  trees.  It  is  done  at  the  end  of  the  winter  when  it  is  dry ;  the  top 
is  rounded  ami  the  inside  is  carefully  exposed  to  the  influences  of  the 
sun  and  air. 

Climatic  influence. — The  orange  tree  can  not  support  cold  beyond  5°  or 
0°  centigrade  below  zero.  The  lemon  is  even  more  delicate  and  will  only 

*  Translated  at  the  Marseilles  CQLtuilatc. 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    CORSICA    AND    MARSEILLES.       489 

thrive  in  localities  where  the  thermometer  does  not  fall  below  li°  or  3° 
centigrade.  It  must  be  planted  on  hills  exposed  to  the  south  and  well 
sheltered  against  north  and  northeast  winds  by  elevations  or  artificial 
means.  It  must  be  irrigated  by  running  water,  by  trenches,  every  four- 
teen or  twenty  days  and  must  be  placed  in  holes  having  1  meter  or 
l..'>()  centimeters  square  in  depth,  or  the  ground  must  be  dug  to  a  depth 
nf  IK)  centimeters,  which  is  preferable.  The  trees  must  be  5  or  7  meters 
distant  from  one  another,  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

Insect  pests. — The  lemon  is  also  liable  to  be  injured  by  winter  frosts, 
ityjaunisse  or  chlorose,  or  by  excessive  humidity.  It  is  also  attacked  by 
kermes  or  the  white  louse  (Dorthesia  citris),  the  cochineal  (Cocus  citris), 
and  byfumagine.  Thejaunisse  and  decay  of  the  roots  is  arrested  by 
draining  the  ground,  the  multiplication  of  insects  and  fumagine  is 
stopped  by  syringing  the  branches  and  leaves  with  hyposulphate  of 
lime  in  March  and  April. 

Maturity. — The  lemon  and  orange  begin  to  bear  fruit  the  third  year 
after  grafting,  but  do  not  produce  abundantly  till  the  fourth  or  fifth 
year.  They  are  generally  best  from  the  ninth  to  the  twelfth  year 
and  yield  on  the  average  3,000  fruit.  The  lemon  tree  yields  even 
more.  The  fruit  is  gathered  with  much  care  and  after  the  disappear- 
ance of  the  dew.  They  are  packed  in  cases  and  in  rows,  after  being 
wrapped  in  thin  paper.  Each  case  contains  about  500  or  380  to  400 
oranges. 

Varieties. — The  kinds  cultivated  in  this  locality  are — 

Oranges:  The  Sweet  Fruit  of  Brazil  (Brasiliculis),  the  Blood  Eed 
(Hiero  chuntisum),  the  Sweet  Portugal  (Lusitanirum),  the  Sweet  Malta 
(Meliteuse),  the  Otaite  (Otaiteuse),  and  the  Mandarins  (Nobilis.)  . 

Lemons:  Bignette  of  Genoa,  the  most  productive;  Biguette  of  Va- 
lence, without  pippins  (Citrus  aspernum);  Bignette  of  Spain  (G.  his- 
l>anium)-j  Bignette  of  Malta  (G.  melitcuse) ;  Bignette  of  Vulgare  (ordi- 
naire). 

*  SIMON  DAMIANI, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Bastia,  February  6,  1890. 


MARSEILLES. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  TRAIL. 

In  this  consular  district  orange  and  lemon  trees  are  only  cultivated 
to  any  extent  in  Corsica. 

The  climate  in  the  region  around  Marseilles  itself  is  not  temperate 
enough  for  these  two  trees.  Up  till  about  thirty  years  ago  there  were 
plantations  still  in  the  plains  of  Toulon  and  Hyeres,  but  even  these 
have  long  since  been  converted  into  market  gardens. 


490        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

They  are  now  only  to  be  found  towards  the  eastern  boundary,  and  here 
only  chiefly  orange  trees  that  are  cultivated  more  for  their  blossom  than 
for  their  fruit,  orange  blossom  being  used  in  large  quantities  in  the  dis- 
tilleries in  Grasse,  Cannes,  Nice,  and  other  centers  of  the  perfumery 
industry. 

CHARLES  B.  TRAIL, 

Consul. 
MARSEILLES,  April  30,  1890. 


MENTONE. 
REPORT  SI  CONSULAR  AGENT  CLERIOT. 

Varieties. — The  names  of  the  best  qualities  are  (1)  Fleurs,  (2)  C6- 
riesche,  (3)  Granetti,  (4)  Verdame. 

Situation. — There  is  not  any  special  situation  for  those  qualities;  they 
are  corresponding  to  the  four  blossomings  of  the  tree.  Orange  and 
lemon  trees  grow  near  the  sea  as  well  as  upon  the  hills,  but  exposition 
to  the  sun  is  to  be  preferred ;  so  also  is  hilly  ground  when  there  is 
water,  but  level  ground  is  good  too. 

Soil. — Calcareous  and  permeable  soil  is  best. 

Climatic  influence. — A  mild  and  temperate  climate  has  a  great  influ- 
ence on  the  growth  of  the  trees. 

Temperature. — They  grow  well  in  a  high  temperature,  32°  centigrade; 
they  freeze  under  3°  centigrade.  Cold  and  damp  nights  are  injurious ; 
those  warm  and  with  an  ordinary  atmosphere  are  favorable. 

Rain-fall. — In  Mentone  the  rain  is  generally  calculated  at  about  85 
cubic  centimeters  per  year.  Spring  and  autumn  rains  are  the  best. 

Irrigation. — One  irrigates  in  summer  from  June  21  until  August  30 
with  water  gathered  in  the  hills  and  kept  for  the  purpose ;  alter  the 
i  blossoming  and  three  times  during  the  summer  at  intervals  of  a  month, 
500  liters  every  time.  .  ^ 

Cultivation. — The  orchards  are  plowed  twice  a  year. 

Pruning. — The  trees  must  be  pruned  every  year  and  according  to  the 
plantation. 

Picking  and  curing. — Lemons  are  gathered  in  Mentone  four  .times  a 
year;  oranges  twice,  January  to  April.  Lemons  and  oranges  must  be 
firm  and  not  too  ripe  when  they  have  to  be  exported. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  planted  at  a  distance  of  5 
or  0  yards  to  have  a  regular  plantation.  Lemon  trees  are  propagated 
by  grafts  on  bigaradiers  or  bitter  lemon  trees.  Orange  trees  from  seeds 
are  better  but  less  resistant. 

Maturity. — The  trees  are  grafted  when  four  years  old  j  they  do  not 
give  a  very  good  gathering  before  being  fifteen  years  old. 

Insect  pests. — The  morphe"e  and  the  fumee  are  the  two  diseases  of 
the  orange  and  lemon  trees ;  .the  former  is  an  insect,  the  latter  a  mush- 


OKANGKS  AND  LEMONS  IN  CARRARA.          -l!)l 

room  ;  no  remedy  has  yet  been  found.     All  birds  destroy  the  injurious 
insects. 

Fertilizers. — Farm  manure  is  the  bent;  it  lasts  two  years.  Rags, 
horn  scrapings,  and  sesamum  are  also  used.  The  manure  is  placed  at 
the  foot  of  the  tree  in  November;  100  kilos  of  dung,  30  kilos  of  rags,  15 
kilos  of  sesamum  or  horn  scrapings  ;  the  quantity  of  manure  is  accord- 
ing to  the  strength  of  the  trees. 

AUGE  CLERICY, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 
Mentone,  May  15,  1890. 


ITALY. 

CARRARA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  RIOE. 
[From  statistics  supplied  by  the  consular  agent  at  Carrara.] 

ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  CARRARA. 

Varieties. — There  is  no  special  nomenclature  for  the  oranges  grown 
within  this  district;  the  only  ones  differing  from  the  common  ones  are 
the  red  ones  called  sanguigni.  The  mandarins  and  citrons  are  raised 
but  on  a  limited  scale. 

The  lemons  grown  within  this  district  are  divided  into  two  classes — 
the  sweet  lemons  with  the  thick  rind,  and  the  bitter  ones  with  a  thin 
one ;  the  latter  are  much  smaller,  but  contain  more  juice  and  are  better 
for  preserving,  therefore  more  in  demand. 

Situation. — Lemons  and  oranges  are  produced,  but  not  extensively  ; 
generally  cultivated  about  4  kilometers  from  the  sea,  with  about  50  to 
100  meters  elevation,  the  most  preferable  position  being  one  with  a 
southern  warm  aspect,  but  bearing  in  mind  that  there  is  always  an 
undersoil  of  gravel. 

Climate.— The  maximum  temperature  is  30  degrees  centigrade,  mini- 
mum, .05.  Medium  annual  fall  of  rain,  395  millimeters,  the  greater  part 
of  which  falls  durirg  the  months  of  October,  November,  December, 
and  January. 

Irrigation. — The  irrigation  is  done  two  or  three  times  a  year,  from 
July  to  September,  that  is,  during  the  ripening  of  the  first  crop  of  lem- 
ons and  when  the  second  crop  is  in  blossom. 

Fertilizers. — The  plants  are  manured  and  hoed  once  a  year,  usually 
during  the  winter.  The  manures  used  are  generally  stable  manures,  and 
in  the  spring  they  are  also  enriched  with  liquid  sewage. 

Pruning. — The  plants  are  pruned  almost  to  the  very  top  every  two 
years. 

Picking. — Lemons  are  gathered  at  various  turns  during  the  year  and 


402  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES 

on  an  average  every  three  months.  Oranges  are  gathered  daring  the 
months  of  December  and  January.  After  gathering  they  are  placed 
in  baskets  and  sent  to  the  different  markets  in  Tuscany  either  by  rail 
or  by  wagon  ;  none  are  exported. 

Propagation. — Plants  are  propagated  from  the  seed  of  the  bitter 
oranges  or  lemons,  and  are  after  grafted  by  the  usual  process.  For 
the  oranges  the  sweet  seed  is  preferred,  it  giving  finer  plants,  bearing 
better  fruit;  these,  however,  bear  much  later  and  are  more  liable  to  be 
attacked  by  the  disease  called  "gommosi"  or  "gummy." 

Maturity. — The  plants  bear  fruit  when  about  seven  to  ten  years  old 
and  live  for  many  years — some  plants  have  record  of  one  hundred  years. 

Insect  pests. — The  only  insect  which  damages  the  orange  plant  is  a 
sort  of  black  ant,  which  breeds  an  insect  that  sucks  the  juice  of  the 
tender  sprigs,  thereby  impoverishing  the  parent  plant. 

WILLIAM  T.  RICE, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Leghorn,  May  23,  1890. 


GENOA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FLETCHER. 

[Reprinted  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41^.] 

ORANGES  AND  LEMONS. 

The  genus  Citrus  for  economical  cultivation  is  divided  into  three 
classes — the  orange,  citron,  and  lemon. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  of  oranges  generally  cultivated  in  this  prov- 
ince are : 

(1)  Citrus  Bigaradia  dulcis,  or  sweet  orange. 

(2)  The  Melangolo  of  China,  or  Citrus  Bigarradia  cenensis. 

(3)  Citrus  deliciosa,  or  Mandarin  orange,  aromatic  and  saccharine. 
Two  kinds  of  citron  are  cultivated : 

A,  Citrus  medica  rugosa,  wrinkled  fruit,  very  good  candied  or  other- 
wise preserved. 

B.  Citrus  medica  cedrato,  a  very  precious  and  aromatic  fruit,  the 
shell  of  which  is  also  candied.  4 

The  following  are  the  varieties  of  lemon  raised  here : 

A.  Citrus  limonum  j  a  lemon  very  good  for  its  acid  and  medicinal 
virtues. 

B.  Citrus  limonum  tenno,  a  lemon  of  gentle  rind,  fruit  rich  in  acid, 
but  too  tender  to  stand  transportation. 

C.  Citrus  limonum  oblongum,  an  oblong  lemon,  considered  very  val- 
uable on  account  of  the  quantity  of  acid  it  contains. 

These  three  varieties  are  ranked  as  the  best,  and  therefore  are  cul- 
tivated the  most  in  this  vicinity. 

Productive  age. — Sharp  fruit  trees  gives  full  crops  when  about,  say, 
from  sixteen  to  twenty  years  old,  and  they  keep  yielding  excellent  crops 


ORANGES    AND    LKMOXS    IN    GENOA.  493 

for  many  years  afterwards.     It  is  not  often  that  these  varieties  become 
very  old,  say,  not  over  one  hundred  years.     The  foliage  expands  to  a . 
remarkable  degree,  and  an  average  plant  will  usually  produce  5,000  fruit 
per  annum ;  especially  can  this  be  said  of  the  lemon  tree. 

Planting. — Before  the  malady  gomma(  gum)  manifested  itself  it  was  pre- 
ferred to  multiply  the  trees  by  burying  the  ends  of  shoots  in  the  ground  at 
pro  per  distance;  these  shoots  soon  took  root,  but  now  the  seed  of  Melau- 
golo  is  planted,  into  which,  when  grown  to  a  certain  size,  the  qualities 
desired  are  grafted.  The  Melangolo  tree  up  to  the  present  time  is  in 
a  very  healthy  state  and  forms  a  good  trunk  in  which  to  graft  all 
varieties  required.  Sharp  fruit  trees  are  planted  at  a  distance  of  about 
17  feet  apart  on  flat  land  and  from  13  to  14  feet  apart  on  hill-sides. 
The  shade  of  one  tree  on  another  is  injurious  to  the  blossoming  of  the 
latter,  therefore  care  should  be  taken  that  fair  space  be  given  all  tbe 
plants  in  order  to  have  nature  do  its  best  for  man.  The  average  num- 
ber of  trees  in  a  hectare  of  land  (or  2.471  acres)  is  490,  and  with 
this  number  as  a  basis  from  which  to  calculate  it  gives  a  space  of 
about  20  square  meters  for  each  tree. 

Situation  of  orchards. — Orange  and  lemon  orchards  in  Liguria  are  all 
on  the  sea-coast.  Flat  and  hilly  lauds  in  orchard  are  alike  protected 
by  lofty  mountains  from  northern  wjnds.  This  state  of  affairs  appears 
necessary ;  the  temperature  must  be  constant,  for  even  the  slightest 
frost  damages  the  lymph  of  the  plant  and  juice  of  the  fruit.  Orange 
and  lemon  groves  can  be,  and  are,  cultivated  inland,  but  the  tempera- 
ture in  such  places  must  not  reach  higher  than  40°  centigrade  and  not 
lower  than  2°,  or  by  Fahrenheit  scale,  104°  and  32°.  Inland  orchards 
usually  do  well  around  lakes  on  account  of  the  constant  climate.  Groves 
are  also  to  be  seen  on  table-lands,  but  always  on  the  south  side  of  mount- 
ains ;  in  such  localities  the  temperature  is  as  given  above.  Sharp  fruit 
trees  need  a  damp  soil,  and  if  the  land  does  not  contain  sufficient  moist- 
ure it  is  impossible  to  obtain  a  good  crop.  On  naturally  dry  soil,  there- 
fore, water  near  by  is  of  great  value. 

Orchards  in  this  province  and  in  all  Liguria  are  near  the  sea  and  pro- 
tected from  the  cold  northern  winds  by  mountains.  Many  small  groves 
can  be  seen  beside  stone  walls,  to  which  the  branches  cling,  particularly 
the  lemon.  The  land  throughout  this  province  being  so  mountainous, 
it  must  be  taken  for  granted  that  but  few  orchards  can  be  seen  on  so- 
called  flat  lands. 

Cultivation. — Orange  and  lemon  groves,  on  account  of  the  irregular 
formation  of  the  surrounding  country,  are  necessarily  small,  and  they 
are  owned  by  about  as  many  people.  On  account  of  this  natural  ab- 
ruptness and  irregularity,  added  to  the  fact  that  the  orchards  are  not 
large,  it  is  the  opinion  of  the  owners  that  irrigation  is  too  expensive. 
Further,  the  soil  on  which  groves  are  planted  is  what  the  Italians  term 
strong,  and  it  is  claimed  for  it  that  it  retains  moisture  for  a  long  time. 
Again,  an  idea  prevails  among  the  people  that  springs  are  of  no  great 
depth  here,  and  consequently  the  water  therefrom  courses  through  the 


494        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

earth,  and  at  no  great  distance  from  the  surface,  and  that  such  an  ex- 
istence waters  the  roots  without  the  aid  of  man.  A  happy  belief! 
Certain  it  is,  however,  that  at  Nervi,  a  few  miles  along  the  coast  from 
Genoa,  orchards  thrive  with  but  little  irrigation,  and  this  state  of  af- 
fairs is  noticed  even  in  the  dryest  seasons.  Unless  groves  have  strong 
soil,  as  above  mentioned,  and  are  moistened  by  an  unseen  water-course, 
they  will  prove  unprofitable  if  the  owners  do  not  nourish  the  dry  roots 
as  often  as,  say,  once  in  eight  days.  In  the  first  four  or  five  years  cul- 
tivation  between  the  plants  is  possible,  but  when  the  tops  of  trees  reach 
a  certain  expansion  cultivation  would  seem  impossible,  or,  at  least,  im- 
probable. 

Produce  and  expense. — When  the  tree  reaches  between  the  ages  of 
fifteen  and  twenty  years  each 4one  is  expected  to  yield  abundant  fruit, 
the  orange  from  400  to  600,  and  the  lemon  from  600  to  1,000.  On  strong 
soil  and  with  proper  care  as  the  orchards  advance  in  years  it  is  said  that 
a  lemon  tree  will  yield  from  3,000  to  5,000  fruit  per  year.  The  ground 
is  manured  like  unto  the  olive  groves,  some  kind  of  compost,  etc. 
The  expense  is  estimated  as  about  the  same,  namely,  $05  per  hectare 
(2.471  acres)  per  annum. 

SUMMARY. 

Oranges  and  lemons  are  not  raised  in  such  quantities  in  this  consular 
district  as  to  admit  of  large  exportation,  but  the  trade  in  olive  oil  is  a 
big  item. 

The  following  table  is  copied  from  advanced  sheets  of  what  is  de- 
signed as  an  accurate  report  of  the  importation  and  exportation  of  olive 
oil,  oranges,  and  lemons  for  the  year  1883,  to  be  soon  issued  by  the 
chamber  of  commerce  of  this  city. 

EXPORTS   OF   LEMONS   AND   ORANGES. 


La  Plata  States       

39   102 

France        ..  

32  532 

England     .  .......   .  . 

8  750 

EffVDt 

4  577 

Total  

84  961 

IMPORTS   OP  LEMONS   AND   ORANGES. 

i 

France 6,878 

Tripoli  and  other  African  ports 66, 155 

Kgypt , 1,830 


Total 74,863 


Total  exports  over  over  imports 10,098 

JAMES  FLETCHER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Genoa,  Italy,  May  1,  1884. 


ORANGES   AND    LEMONS    IN    MESSINA.  495 


MESSINA. 

REPORT  BY  COUNSEL  JONES. 
ORANGES  AND  LEMONS. 

Varieties.-  -Best  variety  for  profit,  the  citrus  lusitanicum  (orange) ; 
citrus  lusioniutn  and  citrus  fimforme  lemon.  Other  choice  varieties 
worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit  are  the  citrus  bergamia  (bergamot)  ;  cit- 
rus deliciosa  (mandarin) ;  citrus  luiretta.  There  are  some  thirty  other 
varieties  of  less  note. 

Location.— The  finest  lemon-groves  are  in  the  neighborhood  of  Briga, 
Pezzuolo,  Giampilieri,  Santo  Stefano,  Saponara,  Eometta.  The  finest 
orange  groves  at  Francavilla  and  Rouella,  in  the  valley  of  the  Alcan- 
tara. 

Distance  from  sea. — Lemon  trees  do  better  nearer  the  sea  than  orange 
trees ;  they  thrive  at  from  J  to  2  miles  from  the  shore ;  orange  trees 
from  2  to  6  miles. 

Elevation. — The  greatest  elevation  at  which  lemon  trees  do  well  is 
1,500  feet.  Orange  trees  do  well  at  2,700  feet  above  sea-level. 

A  southern  exposure  is  best;  but  it  requires  the  most  water.  A 
northern  exposure  is  generally  too  cold.  An  eastern  exposure  exposes 
the  trees  to  April  frosts.  A  western  exposure  is  always  damp. 

The  lemon,  like  the  vine,  delights  in  hill-sides,  facing  south.  Plains, 
as  well  as  hill- sides,  are  well  suited  to  the  orange. 

Soil,  etc. — In  this  district  the  finest  lemon  groves  are  on  argillo-calca- 
reous  soil  of  the  Tertiary  period,  and  on  calcareo-argillaceous  soil  of 
the  Quaternary  period.  These  two  soils  are  the  best  for  both  oranges 
and  lemons.  Sandy  soil  is  not  well  adapted  to  orange  and  lemon  cult- 
ure, as  it  is  too  thirsty.  When  grown  on  sandy  soil  these  trees  are 
small  and  their  late  fruit  (fruit  from  the  last  June  blossoms,  which  at 
latest  must  be  gathered  in  February  and  March)  is  spongy  and  unfit 
for  transportation.  Oranges  do  better  than  lemons  on  sandy  soil. 

Climatic  Influences. — The  climatic  influences  in  this  district  are  sel- 
dom injurious  to  orange  and  lemon  trees.  The  lemon  requires  an 
equable  climate  to  produce  perfect  fruit.  The  orange  and  mandarin  are 
hardier  and  suffer  less  from  sudden  changes  of  temperature ;  they  do 
well  at  a  higher  elevation  than  the  lemon  and  at  a  greater  distance  from 
the  sea. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  in  this  orange  and  lemon  district 
ranges  from  34°  to  100°  Fahr. ;  should  it,  however,  exceed  those  limits 
for  a  few  hours  only  the  trees  soon  rally.  During  the  winter  of  1887 
the  mercury  fell  to  22°,  and  the  tender  twigs  were  frozen  ;  these  being 
at  once  cut  away,  the  trees  were  none  the  worse  for  the  cold.  During 
the  summers  of  1888  and  1889  the  mercury  rose  to  103° ;  an  extra  supply 
of  water  soon  made  the  trees  look  as  green  as  ever. 


49 G        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  average  temperature  is  96°  in  summer  and  42°  in  winter ;  mean 
annual  temperature  70° ,  Nights  cold  or  warm,  sultry,  moist,  ordinary 
atmosphere. 

Spring  and  autumn  the  nights  are  frequently  cold,  and  still  always 
above  freezing-point,  however,  and  do  no  damage. 

Warm  nights  increase  the  evaporation  but  do  not  injure  the  trees. 
In  March  and  April  the  cold  at  early  dawn  sometimes  blights  the  blooms, 
which  would  otherwise  produce  the  "  bastard  "  or  late  fruit. 

During  the  summer  the  atmosphere  is  seldom  if  ever  dry.  In  winter 
the  air  is  dry  when  the  wind  is  north,  which  rarely  happens.  West 
and  northwest  winds  are  damp.  The  prevailing  wind  is  the  sirocco 
(southeast) ;  it  is  generally  warm  and  moist. 

The  average  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  is  0.025  millimeters ;  quite 
inadequate  to  the  successful  culture  of  the  orange  and  lemon.  Only 
groves  of  the  stiffest  clay  or  calcareous  soil  with  a  wet  subsoil  can  dis- 
pense with  irrigation.  Oranges  stand  drought  better  than  lemons. 

There  are  but  few  sultry  days  except  in  the  early  spring,  when  the 
atmosphere  is  saturated  with  moisture ;  at  this  period  rain  is  not  wanted, 
and  often  proves  destructive  to  the  crops. 

The  average  annual  rain-fall  is  22  inches.  From  April  to  September 
it  seldom  rains,  but  pours  in  torrents  in  September  and  October,  causing 
great  damage.  The  heavy  rain  during  the  night  of  October  1,  1889, 
destroyed  a  number  of  groves.  Light,  steady,  and  constant  rains  occur 
in  March  and  April. 

Eain  in  May  and  June  damages  the  blooms.  Earn  in  September 
helps  to  develop  the  bastard  fruit.  Too  much  rain  causes  the  trees  to 
become  chlorotic,  and  predisposes  them  to  the  "  gum;"  it  also  makes 
the  fruit  watery  and  destroys  its  keeping  qualities. 

Irrigation. — Generally  speaking,  throughout  Sicily,  orange  and  lemon 
culture  is  impracticable  without  irrigation.  There  are  a  few  exceptions 
to  this  rule,  however,  in  certain  favored  localities. 

The  trees  are  watered  for  the  first  time  in  June,  when  the  fruit  from 
the  early  blooms  is  the  size  of  a  pea  and  the  trees  are  still  in  bloom. 

The  amount  of  water  required  to  the  acre  depends  upon  the  age  of 
the  trees,  the  nature  of  the  soil,  altitude,  exposure,  etc.  On  an  average, 
each  lemon  tree,  on  moderately  moist  soil,  requires  200  liters  of  water 
at  each  watering ;  2,000  liters  of  water  a  year.  4 

Cultivation. — Vegetables  are  planted  between  the  rows  until  the  trees 
are  large  enough  to  shade  the  ground.  Young  trees  are  in  consequence 
worked  six  times  a  year.  When  the  trees  have  attained  their  full 
growth  they  are  worked  but  seldom. 

The  first  working  of  a  full-grown  grove  takes  place  in  October  or  No- 
vember, after  the  autumnal  rains  have  made  irrigation  unnecessary.  A 
grubbing-hoe  is  used  to  stir  the  soil,  cover  the  weeds,  and  draw  away 
the  earth  from  the  foot  of  trees.  The  second  working  is  in  March, 
when  the  earth  is  thrown  bank  to  the  foot  of  the  trees.  The  third  work- 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    MESSINA.  497 

ing  is  in  April,  after  which  the  land  is  trenched  and  a  basin  is  made 
around  each  tree. 

Fertilizers. — These  groves  are  badly  fertilized,  as  there  are  no  good 
fertilizers  here.  Stable  mannre  is  so  mismanaged  that  it  furnishes" 
bat  little  plant-food. 

Fifty-five  pounds  of  stable  manure  are  applied  annually  to  each 
young  lemon  tree.  These  gardeners  are  now  finding  out  that  this 
amount  is  too  great,  although  the  manure  is  of  an  inferior  quality. 

Lemon  groves  in  bearing  are  manured  every  three  or  four  years ; 
55  pounds  of  cow  or  stable  manure  to  the  tree. 

Some  gardeners  put  the  manure  in  the  irrigation  trench,  and  let  the 
water  spread  it  around  the  trees ;  others  scatter  the  manure  around 
the  trees,  turn  it  under,  and  then  irrigate.  Experiments  are  being 
made  with  sulphate  of  ammonia. 

The  best  time  to  fertilize  orange  and  lemon  trees  is  from  April  to 
May.  To  obtain  bastard  fruit  the  trees  are  fertilized  in  October. 

Pruning. — A  tree  is  never  pruned  until  it  is  four  years  old  ;  its  suck- 
ers and  badly  placed  branches  only  having  been  cut  away  up  to  that 
time.  Trees  are  generally  pruned  in  March,  after  the  crop  has  been 
gathered,  but  no  precise  date  can  be  given.  These  trees  are  always 
pruned  high  from  the  ground ;  their  lowest  branches  are  at  least  7  feet 
above  the  soil,  except  when  they  are  directly  exposed  to  winds  from  the 
sea,  in  which  case  they  are  kept  low  that  they  may  escape,  as  much  as 
possible,  from  the  salt  spray.  Pruning  should  not  be  practiced  in  sum- 
mer, as,  at  that  season,  the  wounds  are  hard  to  heal  and  are  apt  to  pre- 
dispose the  trees  to  gangrene  and  other  diseases. 

Picking — Lemons  are  gathered  from  October  to  August;  oranges 
from  November  to  April.  Lemons  are  picked  whilst  immature  for 
foreign  markets,  and  should  not  weigh  less  than  80  grams  each.  Lemon- 
juice  and  essence  are  extracted  from  inferior  lemons.  The  greatest 
care  fs  necessary  in  gathering  the  fruit  not  to  bruise  it.  After  the  stems 
have  been  cut  close  the  fruit  is  wrapped  in  tissue-paper  and  carefully 
packed  in  boxes  containing  from  300  to  360  lemons  and  from  160  to 
L'OO,  240,  300,  and  360  oranges. 

J'tanting. — One  hundred  and  sixty-two  trees  are  planted  to  the  acre. 

Propagating. — The  lemon  is  now  budded  on  the  bitter  orange  stock 
( Citrus  bigaradia).  Prior  to  1870  the  seedling  only  was  budded,  but 
this  tree  having  been  destroyed  by  the  gum  the  hardy  bitter  orange 
stock  has  taken  its  place.  The  several  varieties  of  oranges  grown  are 
also  budded  on  the  bitter  orange  stock. 

Varieties. — The  best  varieties  are  budded  j  seedlings  never  reproduce 
their  own  variety. 

Orchard*. — The  orchards  are  generally  small,  averaging  from  five  to 
seven  acres.  The  high  prices  that  ruled  a  few  years  ago  induced  small 
land-owners  to  plant  out  orchards,  but  prices  having  fallen  and  diseases 


498  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

having  made  their  appearance  many  of  these  orchards  have  been  aban- 
doned. 

Maturity. — Trees  begin  to  bear  at  six  years  of  age  and  are  most  pro- 
lific at  twenty.  The  greatest  age  of  the  average  tree  is  fifty  years. 
Orange  trees  sometimes  last  eighty  years. 

Insect  pests. — A  number  of  insects  attack  orange  and  lemon  trees : 
The  Coccus  hesperidum,  Kermes  qurantiis,&nts,Mytilaspisfulva,  Secanium 
hesperidum. 

The  most  troublesome  of  the  parasites  is  the  coccus,  which  belongs 
to  the  order  of  the  hemiptera  and  to  the  suborder  of  the  homoptera,  and 
is  vulgarly  called  the  scab.  In  the  spring  it  propagates  rapidly  in 
damp,  warm  weather.  It  prefers  the  lemon  to  the  orange.  This  is  very 
detrimental  to  trees  that  are  overshadowed  by  taller  trees  or  that  have 
not  had  their  heads  opened  out  to  let  in  light  and  air.  Remedy :  a  solu- 
tion of  lime. 

The  Kermes  aurantii  is  partial  to  the  orange  and  punctures  its  leaves 
Remedies :  Solution  of  lime,  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  kerosene, 
infusion  of  tobacco. 

The  best  way  to  get  rid  of  ants  is  to  destroy  their  hills  in  February 
with  kerosene ;  fumigations  of  sulphur  are  also  resorted  to. 

The  Mytilaspis  fulva ;  remedy,  solution  of  phenic  acid.  The  Secanium 
hesperidum  ;  remedy,  sulphur  fumes. 

Beneficial  insects.— The  coleoptera  (of  the  cochineal  family)  and  the 
hemiptera,  above  mentioned,  feed  on  the  aphides. 

Parasites. — There  are  no  known  parasites  of  the  injurious  insects. 
Small  birds,  if  preserved  from  ruthless  sportsmen,  would  prey  upon 
these  destructive  insects. 

Picking  and  curing. — The  fruit  is  gathered  in  baskets,  lined  with  cloth, 
and  piled  at  the  foot  of  a  tree,  where  expert  workmen  trim  the  pe- 
duncles close  to  the  fruit  and  examine  each  orange  and  lemon,  selecting 
the  choice  ones  for  exportation.  This  fruit  is  then  carried  in  large  bas- 
kets to  the  warehouse,  where,  after  a  second  careful  inspection,  women 
wrap  it  in  tissue-paper.  The  fruit  contained  in  each  box  must  be  of 
the  same  size.  These  packers  are  most  expert  in  classifying  the  fruit. 
Sight  and  touch  are  the  only  sizers  used.  If  the  boxes  are  kept  for  any 
length  of  time  in  warehouses,  they  are  opened  once  every  three  YeeXs 
that  their  contents  may  be  carefully  re-examined,  and  the  damaged 
fruit  removed.  Time  is  the  only  curing  process  for  both  oranges  and 
lemons. 

WALLACE  S.  JONES, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Messina,  January  27,  1890. 


OKANGES    AND    LEMONS    JN    MESSINA.  499 

MESSINA. 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL  JONES. 

[Republished  from  Consular  Kcport  No.  102.] 

ORANGES  AND  LEMONS. 

Ju  Sicily  lemon  culture  is  30  per  cent,  more  profitable  than  orange 
culture;  lemon  trees  are  more  prolific  than  orange  trees.  Prices  for 
lemons  are  higher  tban  for  oranges.  Tbe  province  of  Palermo  is  the 
great  orange  district  of  Sicily.  Throughout  the  province  of  Messina 
tbr  orange  was  exterminated  in  1865-1870  by  the  "gum,"  and  the  lemon 
budded  on  the  wild  orange  has  taken  its  place.  To  defy  the  ravages  of 
the  gum  the  bud  must  be  put  in  the  wild  orange  stock  at  least  3  feet 
from  the  ground. 

ORANGES. 

The  bulk  of  oranges  shipped  from  Messina  comes  from  the  province 
of  Reggio  on  the  main-laud.  In  Calabria  they  begin  gathering  the  orange 
in  October ;  their  fruit  is  hard,  sour,  and  of  a  whitish  appearance ;  it  is 
shipped  to  England.  Shipments  of  oranges  to  the  United  States  begin 
in  December.  They  begin  gathering  oranges  in  Sicily  in  November,  if 
we  except  small  shipments  to  London  of  unripe  and  undersized  oranges 
from  Milasso,  30  miles  to  the  northwest  of  Messina.  This  poor  fruit  is 
quoted  at  about  70  cents  a  box  in  October ;  deducting  20  cents  for  cost 
of  box,  leaves  50  cents  for  the  fruit  and  handling.  These  oranges  are 
bought  by  confectioners. 

The  climate  of  southern  Italy  being  warmer  in  summer  than  that  of 
Sicily  (Sicily,  surrounded  by  the  deep  waters  of  the  Mediterranean,  is 
cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than  the  province  of  Eeggio), 
and  the  oranges  being  generally  grown  on  a  light,  sandy  soil,  account 
for  their  maturing  earlier  in  Calabria.  As  just  stated,  the  first  gather- 
ing of  oranges  in  Sicily  occurs  in  November,  but  most  of  the  crop  is 
gathered  in  December  and  January.  The  Sicilian  grower  prefers  run- 
ning the  risk  of  damage  by  frost  (but  two  crops  have  been  injured  by 
cold  during  the  last  twenty  years)  to  gathering  his  oranges  when  they 
are  still  too  immature.  Sicily  oranges,  which  are,  of  course,  not  fully 
ripe  when  gathered,  keep  well  for  forty  days.  Frequently  the  fruit  when 
gathered  is  allowed  to  sweat  in  the  groves  from  two  to  three  days,  piled 
on  the  ground  and  covered  over  with  tarpaulins ;  it  is  then  wrapped  in 
tissue  paper,  boxed  up,  and  sent  to  the  city.  Fruit  is  also  sent  directly 
from  the  groves.  All  fruit  upon  reaching  the  exporters'  warehouses  is 
carefully  inspected,  selected,  and  wrapped  in  fresh  tissue  paper,  and  re- 
packed. Exporters  ship  their  oranges  as  soon  as  packed. 

COST   OF   PACKING— SHIPMENT. 

During  the  shipping  season  large  firms  in  Messina  employ  as  many 
as  three  hundred  women  and  girls,  paying  them  20  to  25  cents  a  day — 


500  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

nine  hours7  work.  The  women  select  and  wrap  up  the  fruit.  Men  are 
employed  to  pack  the  fruit  and  handle  the  boxes  ;  they  get  from  40  to 
50  cents  a  day.  The  stevedores  handle  the  boxes  with  great  care.  The 
steamers  give  all  possible  ventilation  to  the  fruit  during  the  voyage. 
Fruit  possessing  the  greatest  keeping  qualities  is  sent  in  sailing  vessels 
to  the  United  States.  The  duties  paid  on  oranges  and  lemons  enter- 
ing the  United  States  are  as  follows  :  On  oranges  in  boxes,  capacity 
not  exceeding  2J  cubic  feet,  25  cents  per  box;  half-boxes,  capacity  not 
exceeding  1}  cubic  feet,  13  cents  per  half-box ;  bulk,  $1.60  per  thousand ; 
barrels,  capacity  not  exceeding  that  of  the  196-pound  flour  barrel,  55 
cents  per  barrel ;  packages  not  especially  enumerated  or  provided  for, 
20  per  cent.;  on  lemons  in  boxes,  30  cents  per  box  ;  on  half-boxes,  16 
cents;  in  bulk,  $2  per  thousand  ;  in  packages  20  per  cent. 

Exporters  frequently  buy  the  fruit  on  the  trees.  Below  is  given  the 
cost  of  preparing  and  shipping  a  box  of  oranges  or  lemons: 

Cutting,  selecting,  and  packiDg  in  the  groves $0.15 

Box,  paper,  nails,  and  hooping 30 

Transportation  to  Messina  (average) "20 

Repacking,  shipping  charges,  store  rent,  and  brokerage 14 

Freight,  per  box,  by  steamer  to  New  York 30 

Total 1.09 

A  few  firms  export  fruit  to  the  United  States  on  joint  account.  Fruit 
is  generally  shipped  on  consignment.  Consignees7  commissions  and 
auction  fees  are  6  per  cent. 

Years  ago  oranges  were  preserved  in  sand  for  from  four  to  five  months, 
merely  for  family  use.  This  practice  no  longer  prevails ;  it  would  not 
pay  on  a  large  scale,  such  enormous  warehouses  would  be  required  and 
so  great  would  be  the  expense  of  handling  the  fruit.  Preserving 
oranges  in  bran  has  been  tried  ;  it  proved  too  heating.  I  have  heard 
of  a  successful  shipment  of  oranges  packed  in  beech  sawdust.  The  ves- 
sel carrying  the  cargo  left  Messina  in  December  and  reached  St.  Peters- 
burg in  May.  Spanish  grapes  packed  in  cork-tree  sawdust  keep  from 
September  to  March.  Preserving  oranges  by  the  fumes  of  sulphur 
has  never  been  attempted  here,  lest  the  fumes  might  cause  the  fruit  to 
dry  up.  % 

The  maturing  of  oranges  and  lemons  is  affected  by  the  altitude,  lati- 
tude, excessive  heat  in  certain  localities,  irregular  rain-fall,  and  the 
nature  of  the  soil. 

Sicily  is  mountainous  in  character,  and  is  agronomically  divided  into 
three  zones : 

(1)  Marine  zone,  in  which  fruit  ripens  earliest. 

(2)  Middle  zone,  extending  from  1,500  to  3,000  feet  above  the  sea- 
level. 

(3)  Mountain  zone,  where  the  temperature  is  too  low  and  the  climate 
too  damp  for  citrus  culture, 


OKA.ViKS    AND    LKMOXS    IX    MKSSIXA.  501 

The  soil  has  a  great  influence  upon  the  maturing  ami  keeping  quali- 
ties of  the  citri.  The  fruit  ripens  earlier  on  light,  sandy  soil  than  on 
clay  soil.  Fruit  grown  on  light,  sandy  soil  can  not  be  left  long  on  the 
trees  without  its  deteriorating  in  quality — becoming  dry  and  spongy — 
whereas  on  stiff  clay  it  can  remain  with  impunity  until  the  end  of  April. 
The  latest  fruit  to  ripen  is  that  produced  on  the  upper  limit  of  the  mid- 
dle zone — the  trees  growing  in  stiff  clay  soil — which  can  remain  on  the 
nvcs  until  the  end  of  June  without  its  drying  up  or  its  skin  becoming 
hard  and  spongy ;  it  must,  however,  be  gathered  in  July,  for  should  it 
be  left  longer  on  the  trees  it  would  injure  the  new  crop. 

Fruit  grown  on  a  light,  sandy  soil  is  small  and  of  a  pale  yellow,  and 
is  of  comparatively  short  keeping.  That  grown  on  a  clay  soil  is  large  ; 
it  keeps  well  and  is  of  a  reddish  brown.  Trees  on  clay  soil  resist  a 
drought  much  better  than  those  on  sandy  soil.  The  groves  to  the  south- 
west of  the  Palermo  district  produce  much  more  highly-prized  fruit  than 
those  on  the  northwest,  the  sole  difference  between  them  being  their 
clay  and  sandy  soils.  As  in  the  neighborhood  of  Palermo,  so  in  other 
districts  of  the  province,  even  where  the  climatic  differences  are  great. 

Fruit  in  Sicily  is  known  as  " mountain  fruit"  and  **  sea  coast"  fruit. 
Merchants  further  classify  the  fruit  according  to  the  soil  on  which  it 
grows.  Fruit  grown  on  a  clay  soil  brings  30  per  ce*nt.  more  than  fruit 
produced  on  a  sandy  soil.  Mountain  fruit  is  firmer  and  keeps  better ; 
its  superiority  is  attributed  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  not  to  the 
influence  of  the  climate.  Fruit  produced  in  the  plain  of  Portello,  the 
soil  of  which  is  clay,  brings  the  same  as  that  grown  on  the  heights  of 
Moureale: 

The  fine  large  oranges  that  bring  a  high  price  in  Palermo  in  summer 
are  allowed  to  remain  on  the  trees  until  the  end  of  May,  when  they  are 
stored  in  subterranean  grottoes.  They  are  produced  on  clay  soil 
abounding  in  alkalies  and  well-decomposed  organic  matter.  In  the 
sides  of  the  mountains,  near  Palermo,  are  many  grottoes  that  are  cool 
and  well  ventilated,  in  which  oranges  keep  nicely  during  the  summer; 
they  are  spread  two  layers  deep  upon  large  mats,  placed  at  convenient 
distances  one  above  the  other.  Every  day  or  two  the  fruit  is  turned 
over  and  all  the  defective  oranges  are  removed.  This  fruit  finds  a 
home  market. 

The  principal  orange  and  lemon  groves  are  on  the  northern  and  east- 
ern coasts.  The  mountains  along  these  shores  rise  in  bold  headlands 
from  the  sea,  having  but  a  narrow  strip  of  land — the  marine  zone,  of  a 
sandy  character — at  their  base.  The  soil  of  the  hill-sides — the  middle 
zone — is  generally  clay.  For  lack  of  water  for  irrigation,  oranges  and 
lemons  are  not  grown  to  any  extent  on  the  southern  and  western  shores. 

LEMONS. 

The  well-known  variety  of  lemon  called  the  "lunare  "-lunar,  or  ever- 
bearing, produces  blossoms  and  fruit  every  mouth  iu  the  year.  When, 


502  •         FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

however,  during  the  Indian  summer,  rainy  days  are  succeeded  by  dry, 
clear  weather,  lemon  trees  of  different  varieties  immediately  put  on 
blooms,  and  if,  owing  to  the  mildness  of  the  season,  the  fruit  sets  at  the 
beginning  of  winter,  it  will  come  to  maturity  in  midsummer. 

Lemons  are  divided  into  two  classes,  the  true  lemon  and  the  bastard 
lemon.  The  true  lemon  is  produced  by  the  April  and  May  blooms  ;  the 
bastard  by  the  irregular  blooms  of  February,  March,  June,  and  July, 
which  depend  upon  the  rain-fall  or  regular  irrigation  and  the  intensity 
of  the  heat  during  the  summer  and  winter  seasons.  The  true  lemon 
requires  nine  months  to  reach  maturity,  from  the  bloom  in  May  to  the 
mature  fruit  in  January.  There  are  but  three  harvests  of  the  true 
lemon.  The  first  is  the  November  cut,  when  the  lemon  is  green  m 
appearance  and  not  fully  ripe.  Lemons  of  this  cut  are  the  most  highly 
prized ;  they  possess  remarkable  keeping  qualities,  and  are  admir- 
ably preserved  in  boxes  in  warehouses  from  November  until  March, 
and  sometimes  as  late  as  May,  and  then  shipped.  The  second  cut  occurs 
in  December  and  January.  Lemons  of  the  January  cut  must  be  shipped 
three  weeks  after  gathering.  At  this  date  the  lemon  has  acquired  a 
yellowish  appearance.  The  third  cut  occurs  in  March  and  April.  This 
fruit  is  shipped  as  soon  as  gathered,  spring  prices  being  always  high. 
The  uniformity  in  size  of  lemons,  as  we  meet  them  in  the  trade,  is  due 
to  the  monthly  harvestings  from  October  to  March.  No  sizer  is  used  or 
even  known  here. 

Bastard  lemons  present  well-characterized  peculiarities  in  shape  and 
appearance;  their  inner  skin  is  fine  and  adheres  tenaciously  to  the 
meat ;  they  are  hard,  rich  in  acid,  and  seedless.  The  bastard  lemon, 
produced  from  the  bloom  of  June  1,  is  still  green  the  following  April, 
and  ripens  only  towards  the  end  of  July.  It  remains  on  the  tree  over 
a  year,  and  sells  well  in  summer.  Besides  the  March  and  June  bas- 
tards, there  are  yet  others  that  remain  on  the  trees  from  twelve  to 
eighteen  months.  The  true  lemon  can  be  left  on  the  tree  until  the  end 
of  May  or  the  first  week  in  June,  but  it  interferes  with  the  new  crop, 
drops  off  from  overmaturity,  and  is  liable  to  be  attacked  by  insects. 
The  bastards,  on  the  contrary,  withstand  bad  weather  and  parasites, 
and  they  mature  from  June  to  October.  It  is  estimated  that  four  times 
more  oranges  than  lemons  are  lost  in  the  groves  and  warehouses.  Good 
drainage  is,  of  course,  most  essential  in  orange  and  lemon  culture. 

Table  A  shows  the  mean  annual  price  per  box  of  oranges  and  lemons 
at  Messina  for  the  years  1870  to  1886,  inclusive,  the  figures  being 
official. 

ESSENCES. 

With  three  strokes  of  his  sharp  knife  the  cutter  peels  the  lemon 
lengthwise  and  lets  the  peel  fall  into  a  tub  under  the  chopping-block.  He 
then  cuts  the  lemon  in  two  and  throws  it  from  his  knife  into  a  bucket. 
He  works  with  wonderful  rapidity  and  fills  from  ten  to  twelve  tubs  with 


ORANGKS    AND    UNIONS    IN    MESSINA.  503 

peel  a  day  and  is  paid  5  cents  a  till),  weighing??  pounds.  His  left  liaiid 
and  right  index  arc  protected  with  bauds  of  osuaburgs  or  leather.  De- 
cayed i ni it  is  not  peeled,  as  its  oil  cells,  being  atrofied,  yield  no  essence. 
Fresh  peel  is  soaked  in  water  fifteen  minutes  before  the  essence  is  ex- 
tracted. Peel  that  has  stood  a  day  or  two  should  remain  in  soak  from 
thirty  to  forty  minutes,  that  it  may  swell  and  offer  a  greater  resistance 
against  the  sponge.  The  operative  holds  a  small  sponge  in  his  left 
hand  against  which  he  presses  each,  piece  of  peel  two  or  three  times, 
simple  pressure  followed  by  rotary  pressure.  The  women  employed  in 
this  work  run  a  piece  of  cane  through  their  sponges  to  enable  them  to 
hold  them  more  firmly.  The  outside  of  the  peel  is  pressed  against  the 
sponge,  as  the  oil  glands  are  in  the  epicarp.  The  crushing  of  the  oil- 
cells  liberates  the  essence  therein  contained.  The  sponge,  when  satu- 
rated with  the  essence,  is  squeezed  into  an  earthenware  vessel  the  oper- 
ative holds  in  his  lap.  He  is  expected  to  press  the  peel  so  thoroughly 
as  not  to  overlook  a  single  cell.  This  is  ascertained  by  holding  the 
pressed  peel  to  the  flame  of  a  candle ;  should  it  neither  crackle  nor 
diminish  the  brilliancy  of  the  flame  the  cells  are  empty.  This  process 
yields  besides  the  essence,  a  small  quantity  of  juice  and  feccia  (dregs). 
The  separation  of  the  essence,  juice,  and  feccia  soon  takes  place  if  the 
vessels  are  not  disturbed ;  the  oil  floats  on  the  juice  and  the  dregs  fall 
to  the  bottom.  These  three  products  derived  from  the  peel  have  no 
affinity  with  each  other.  As  the  essence  rises  to  the  surface  it  is 
skimmed  off,  bottled,  and  left  to  settle  fora  few  days.  It  is  then  drawn 
off  with  a  glass  syphon  into  copper  cans  which  are  hermetically  sealed. 
After  the  essence  has  been  expressed  a  small  quantity  of  juice  is  pressed 
from  the  peels,  which  are  then  either  fed  to  oxen  or  goats  or  thrown 
on  the  manure  pile  and  well  rotted,  or  they  would  make  too  heating  a 
fertilizer. 

The  yield  of  essence  is  very  variable.  This  industry  is  carried  on 
five  months  in  the  year.  Immature  fruit  contains  the  most  oil.  From 
Xovember  to  April,  in  the  province  of  Messina,  one  thousand  lemons 
yield  about  14  ounces  of  essence  and  17  gallons  of  juice.  An  operative 
expresses  three  baskets , of  lemon  peel  (weighing  190  pounds)  a  day,  and 
is  paid  20  cents  a  basket.  The  essence  is  so  valuable  that  the  opera- 
tives are  closely  watched  ;  they  are  most  ingenious  in  secreting  it  about 
their  persons.  Six  men  work  up  8,000  lemons  a  day ;  two  cut  off  the 
peel  while  four  extract  the  essence,  and  obtain  136  gallons  of  lemon- 
juice  and  7  pounds  of  essence.  In  the  extraction  of  essence  defective 
fruit — thorn-pricked  fruit  blown  down  by  the  wind  or  attacked  by  rust — 
is  used.  This  fruit  is  sold  by  the  "  thousand,"  equivalent  to  119  kilos 
or  260  pounds,  and  thus  classified  :  First,  mixed  lemons,  as  they  come 
from  the  groves  during  December  and  January,  of  good  quality  but  not 
always  marketable,  of  ten  from  top  branches;  second,  lemons  from  March 
blooms ;  third,  lemons  refused  at  the  packing-houses ;  fourth,  dropped 
fruit ;  fifth,  shriveled  or  deformed  fruit. 
156A 8 


504  FRUIT   CULTURE   IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Prices  do  not  depend  exclusively  upon  the  classification  of  the  fruit ; 
the  locality  where  it  was  grown  is  taken  into  consideration  as  well. 
Lemons  grown  on  clay  soil  yield  more  essence  and  juice  than  those 
grown  on  sandy  or  rocky  soil. 

Dealers  sometimes  adulterate  their  essence  with  fixed  oils,  alcohol,  or 
turpentine.  Adulteration  by  fixed  oils  is  detected  by  pouring  a  few 
drops  of  essence  on  a  sheet  of  paper  and  heating  it.  Upon  the  evapora- 
tion of  the  essence  a  greasy  spot  will  remain.  Alcohol  is  detected  by 
pouring  a  few  drops  of  the  essence  into  a  glass  tube  in  which  a  small 
quantity,  of  chloride  of  lime  has  been  dissolved.  The  tube  is  then  heated 
and  well  shaken,  and  its  contents  being  allowed  to  settle  the  essence 
\visl  float  in  the  denser  liquid.  To  detect  turpentine  pour  a  few  drops 
of  essence  on  writing-paper  and  a  strong  smell  of  turpentine  will  re- 
main after  the  essence  has  evaporated.  The  essence  of  sour  orange, 
mixed  with  the  essence  of  lemon,  produces  an  aroma  similar  to  that  of 
the  essences  of  bergamot  ;  the  latter  is  much  used  by  confectioners  in 
flavoring  ice-creams,  etc. 

Equal  parts  of  lemon  essence  and  spirits  of  turpentine,  well  mixed 
(mixture  known  as  essenza  vestrincutale),  remove  stains  from  linen  and 
silk  fabrics. 

In  a  bergamot  essence  establishment  at  Eeggio,  on  the  main-land,1s  to 
be  seen  in  operation  a  hand  machine  for  extracting  essential  oil.  The 
skin  of  the  unpeeled  bergamot  is  punctured  by  a  system  of  revolving 
kriive's  and  then  gently  pressed.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
bergamot  is  spherical  in  shape,  and  this  machine  could  not  be  used  on 
the  lemon  on  account  of  its  shape.  A  thermo-pneumatic  essence  ex- 
tractor, worked  by  steam-power,  has  also  been  invented,  but  the  old 
system  is  still  in  general  use  in  Sicily  on  account  of  abundant  and  cheap 
labor.  The  method  employed  for  the  extraction  of  essential  oil  from 
the  lemon  (as  given  above)  applies  as  well  to  the  sweet  and  sour  orange, 
to  the  bergamot,  and  to  the  mandarin.  But  a  very  small  quantity  of 
essence  of  mandarin  is  made,  and  but  slight  attention  is  paid  to  the 
extracting  of  essence  from  the  orange  flower.  The  essence  extracted 
from  the  flower  of  the  bergamot  is  called  neroli,  and  is  worth  $35  per 
pound. 

Table  B  shows  the  total  quantity  and  value  of  essences  exported  from 
Messina  for  the  last  eighteen  years— 1870  to  1887. 

Table  C  shows  the  value  of  the  essences  exported  from  Messina  to  the 
United  States  for  the  last  ten  years— 1878  to  1887. 

Table  D  shows  the  mean  annual  price  per  kilogram  at  Messina  of  the 
essence  of  bergamot,  lemon,  and  orange  for  the  years  1870  to  1886. 

RAW  AND  CONCENTRATED  LEMON-JUICE. 

When  lemons  have  been  peeled  and  cut  in  two,  as  above  stated,  they 
are  carried  to  the  press  and  thrown  into  large  wicker  bags,  circular  in 
form,  made  of  bulrushes,  and  are  pressed  in  these  bags.  If  the  juico 


ORANGES    AND    LF.MOXS    IN    MUSSINA.  '505 

is  to  be  exported  raw  only  perfectly  sound  lemons  can  be  used;  but  if 
the  juice  is  to  be  boiled  down,  one-fifth  of  the  lemons  may  be  of  an  in- 
ferior quality  and  two-fifths  of  them  pretty  well  decayed.  The  juice 
from  sound  lemons  is  yellowish  in  color,  and  gives  a  pleasant  aroma ; 
its  density  decreases  with  age.  With  all  classes  of  lemons  the  yield  of 
juice  and  its  acidity  varies  considerably  from  month  to  month.  The 
amount  <>t'  juice  increases  from  October  to  April,  its  acidity  and  density 
decrease,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  density  of  the'essence,  owing 
to  the  winter  rains. 

The  manufacturing  of  essential  oil  and  lemon  juice  is  quite  lucrative, 
but  manufacturers,  to  avoid  being  taxed  on  their  business,  are  reticent 
as  to  their  profits. 

An  addition  of  5  per  cent,  of  alcohol  will  prevent  raw  lemon-juice  from 
spoiling.  Lemon-juice  is  adulterated  with  salt  or  tartaric  acid.  Kaw 
and  concentrated  lemon-juice  is  exported  in  casks  of  130  gallons  capac- 
ity. It  requires  1,500  lemons  to  yiejd  26  gallons  (1  hectoliter)  of  raw 
juice,  while  it  takes  2,500  to  yield  the  same  quantity  of  concentrated 
juice,  and  200,000,  more  or  less,  according  to  their  acidity,  to  give  a 
cask.  Experience  has  shown  that  the  lemons  of  the  Province  of  Mes- 
sina, especially  from  the  eastern  shore,  contain  more  acidity  than  the 
lemons  grown  elsewhere  in  Sicily. 

The  value  of  lemon-juice  is  governed  by  its  acidity.  The  rule  is  that 
concentrated  lemon  juice  shall  show  60  degrees  of  acidity  (the  juice 
extracted  from  the  bergamot  or  the  sour  orange  must  show  48  degrees, 
or  one-fifth  less  than  that  derived  from  the  lemon ;  it  also  sells  for  one- 
fifth  less  than  lemon-juice).  Formerly  a  sitrometer,  known  as  Ronch- 
etti's  gauge,  was  used  to  ascertain  the  per  cent,  of  acidity  ;  now,  how- 
ever, resort  is  had  to  chemical  analysis,  which  is  more  satisfactory  both 
to  seller  and  buyer.*  Lemon-juice  is  used  in  the  printing  of  calicoes. 

Table  B  shows  the  mean  annual  price  of  concentrated  lemon-juice  per 
cask  of  130  gallons,  and  of  raw  lemon-juice  per  hectoliter  of  26  gallons, 
from  1870  to  1886. 

Table  F  shows  the  export  of  lemon-juice  from  Messina  from  Decem- 
ber, 1884,  to  December,  1887. 

Of  late  years  a  new  article,  known  as  vacuum-pan  concentrated  nat- 
ural juice  of  the  lemon,  has  been  manufactured  here.  The  juice  concen- 
trated by  this  method  contains  600  grains  of  crystallizable  citric  acid 
for  every  quart.  It  is  exported  in  casks  containing  112  gallons,  in  half 
and  quarter  casks.  It  is  also  shipped  in  bottles  of  500,  300,  and  150 
grains  each.  This  concentrated  juice  is  as  limpid  as  first-quality  oil. 

There  is  an  establishment  here,  probably  the  only  one  of  its  kind  in 
Italy,  that  prepares  crystallized  citric  acid.  It  takes  from  three  hundred 
and  forty  to  three  hundred  and  eighty  lemons  to  make  a  pound  of  citric 
acid,  which  sells  at  about  43  cents. 

*  The  last  two  paragraphs  am  qnoted  from  my  report  accompanying  dispatch  51, 
dated  April  20,  1888. 


506 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


FRUIT   IN  BRINE. 

Large  quantities  of  sound  but  unmarketable  lemons  and  sour  oranges 
are  packed  in  brine.  The  remarks  referring  to  the  shipment  of  citron 
in  brine,  contained  in  my  report  published  in  No.  Cl,  Consular  Reports, 
February,  1886,  are  equally  applicable  to  the  packing  in  brine  of  lemons 
and  sour  oranges. 

A  cask  of  sour  oranges  in  brine  is  worth  here  about  $10  at  this  time. 
Small  lemons  in  brine  are  worth  about  $8  per  cask,  and  good-sized  ones 
about  $12.  While  the  custom-house  keeps  a  record  of  the  quantity  of 
citron  in  brine  that  is  annually  exported,  singularly  enough  it  keeps  no 
record  of  the  large  shipments  of  other  fruits  in  brine.  Fresh  and 
salted  fruits  are  included  in  the  same  figures. 

WALLACE  S.  JONES, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Messina,  January  8,  1889. 


TABLE  A. — Mean  annual  pric 


at  Messina  per  box  of  lemons  and  oranges  for  the  years 
1870  to  1886,-  inclusive. 


Tears. 

Lemons. 

Oranges. 

Tears. 

Lemons. 

Oranges. 

1870 

$2  15 

$1  86 

1879        

$1.93 

$t  23 

3871 

2  25 

1  6s} 

1880 

2  30 

30 

1872 

2  48 

1  71 

lygl           

1  94 

01 

1873 

2.93 

1.41 

1882  

1.83 

30 

1874 

3  26 

1  70 

1883 

1  44 

10 

1875 

3  08 

1  53 

1884    

1.22 

17 

1876        

2.33 

1.36 

1885  

1.36 

1.12 

1877 

2  19 

1  19 

1886        .  .. 

2.00 

1  14 

1878 

2.43 

1.07 

TABLE  B.  — Quantity  and  value  of  essences  exported  from  Messina  to  the  whole  world  during 
the  years  1870  to  1887,  inclusive. 


Tears. 

Kilograms. 

Value. 

Tears. 

Kilograms. 

Value. 

1870 

271  614 

$1  310  900 

1K79  

232  738 

$806  310 

1871 

285  091 

1.596,500 

1880  

222,  216 

1,  257,  826 

1872 

303  000 

2  424  000 

1881   .<  

345  923 

1  793  675 

1873 

281  590 

1  408,145 

1882  

367,  668 

1,387  4'>8 

1874 

245  031 

1  870  190 

1  883 

288  366 

1  280  392 

1875 

283  834 

1  368  010 

1884  

215  910 

t   960,  004 

1876 

326  978 

o  604  370 

1885 

231  427 

982  894 

1877 

306  948 

2  313  770 

1886  

295,  036 

566  313 

1878 

252  097 

1,  624,  225 

1887  

200,  000 

600,  000 

TABLE  C. — Value  of  essences  exported  from  Messina  to  the  United  States  from  1878  to 

1887,  inclusive. 


Tears. 

Value. 

Tears. 

Value. 

1878 

$165  345 

1883  

$231  900 

1879 

271,  768 

1884  

249,  680 

1880 

263  8''9 

1885    

137,  375 

1881 

329  765 

1886  

211,  071 

1882      

209,  933 

1887  

259,  111 

ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    MESSINA    AND    NAPLES.  507 

TABLE  D. —  Wtan  annual  prices  of  essence*  at  Mesainafor  tlte  years  1870  to  188C,  inclusive- 


Years. 

Bergaraot. 

Lemon. 

Orange. 

Years. 

_;iraot. 

Lemoc. 

Orange. 

1870 

Per  kilo. 
$6  10 

Per  kilo. 
$5.14 

Per  kilo. 
$2.  55 

1879... 

Per  kilo. 

Per  kilo. 
$3.86 

Per  kiln. 
$3.04 

1871 

6  35 

6  53 

3  35 

1880 

5  52 

5  23 

IS7-* 

8  10 

8.50 

5.86 

1881  

4   10 

4  °3 

3  47 

1873 

•I  61 

7  50 

3  87 

4  •»•> 

4  06 

1874 

11  :")" 

G.  45 

2.95 

1883  

3.50 

1875 

10  00 

5  23 

"  4',', 

1884 

2  78 

1   77 

1876 

7  56 

5  00 

3.18 

1885  

^.51 

1   7i) 

I  80 

1877 

7  jg 

4  35 

3  12 

1886 

2  00 

1  75 

1  87 

1*78 

5  83 

3.56 

3.22 

TABI.K  E. — Mean  annual  prices  at  Messina  for  concentrated  lemon -juice  and  raw  '• 
juice  for  the  years  1870  to  1886,  inclusive. 


Years. 

Concentrated  Raw  lemon- 
lemon-jtiice,  !  juice,  per 
per  cask  of    hectoliterof 
130  gallons,  j  26  gallons. 

Years. 

Concentrated 
lemon-juice, 
per  cask  of 

U;iw  lenion- 
juice,  per 
bectotiterof 
26  gallons. 

1K70 

$133.40 
1G7.10 
268.  00 
332.80 
•J97.  30 
213.33 
163.10 
15.8.  15 
144.  72 

$2.30 
2.50 
3.60  | 
5.33 
5.13 
4.10 
3.00 
2.63 
2.30 

1879 

$115.  00 
1G1.  00 
159.  50 
124.43 
101.50 
84.  '20 
98.15 
143.43 

$1.98 
3.00 
2.53 
2.53 

1871 

1880      

1872 

1881 

,873 

1882            

1874 

1883 

1875 

1884 

1876 

1885  

1877 

1886 



1878 

TABLE  F. — Exports  of  lemon-juice  from  Messina  to  the  following  places  during  the  years 

1885,  1886,  and  1887. 


Places. 

Dec.  1,  18*4, 
Nov.  30,  1885. 

Dec,  1,  1885, 
to 
Nov.  30,  1886. 

Dec.  1,  1886, 
Xov.  30,  1887. 

Pipes. 
•>  687 

Pipeg. 

]   10G 

Pipe*. 

Liverpool        .   .                                                

184 

•2-0 

400 

8 

3 

,\  States                                                         

241 

393 

298 

•.lies     -  

164 

254 

Genoa 

5 

12 

14 

1 

107 

152 

1^2 

Kussia                                                                       

231 

44 

154 

96 

Total 

3  440 

2  353 

4  438 

NAPLES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  OAMPHAUSEN. 
ORANGES  AND  LEMONS. 

\'ttr  it-tic*. — The  names  of  best  variety  for  profit  are  the  Palermo 
oranges  and  Sorrento  lemons.  The  other  choice  varieties  worthy  of  oult- 
ure  and  for  profit  are  the  Gargano,  Majori,  Amalfi,  and  Sicilian  oranges 
and  lemons. 

Location. — The  tnvs  ;uv,  planted  on  rich  soil,  where  the  tr.mpeniture 


508        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES 

is  not  high,  and  where  they  are  protected  from  cold  winds.  Distance 
from  sea,  30  meters  (97^  feet) ;  elevation  above  sea-level,  from  25  to  3,000 
feet;  southern  exposure  to  sun,  level  land;  clayish  and  damp  soil  is 
best. 

Climatic  influences — Minimum  0,  maximum  18°  centigrade.  The 
nights  are  warm,  days  variable. 

Kain-fall  from  December  to  February  is  very  beneficial  to  all  fruits, 
making  them  grow  better,  and  improving  also  the  growth  of  the  tree 
The  rain-fall  in  inches  can  not  be  ascertained,  as  there  is  no  record  kept 
by  any  person  as  far  as  I  can  ascertain.  Ab  some  of  the  observatories 
records  are  perhaps  kept  but  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  information  from 
them. 

Irrigation. — Irrigating  is  practiced  from  May  to  September,  and  until 
the  soil  is  soaked  through ;  in  summer  every  week. 

Cultivation. — By  stirring  the  ground  every  two  years  and  frequently 
during  the  season.  Fertilizers  are  not  used. 

Pruning. — In  the  month  of  April,  about  three  feet  from  the  ground, 
in  the  usual  manner. 

Picking. — As  soon  as  they  become  yellow  the  oranges  and  lemons  are 
picked,  wrapped  in  thin  paper,  put  in  boxes,  and  shipped. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  planted  15  feet  apart,  and 
propagated  by  graftings  and  planting  the  seeds. 

The  best  varieties  are  from  seedlings — wild  oranges  grafted  into  sweet 
oranges  and  lemons.  Most  of  the  orchards  are  large. 

Maturity. — At  the  age  of  four  years  they  begin  to  bear.  The  largest 
crops  are  obtained  when  the  tree  is  twenty  years  old.  They  mature  at 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  years. 

Insect  pests. — The  louse ;  no  remedy  has  been  found  or  discovered  to 
destroy  it.  There  are  no  beneficial  insects. 

EDWARD  OAMPHAUSEN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

j  January  31,  1890. 


PALERMO, 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  CARROLL, 

'Varieties. — The  following  are  the  best  varieties  cultivated  in  Sicily, 
viz:  Citrus  bigaradia  macrocarpa, Kiss ;  Citrus  bigaradia  coro?mta,  Kiss ; 
Citrus  bigaradia  glaberrima,  Kiss ;  Citrus  medica  glabra,  kiss  j  Citrus 
medicaflorentina,lliss',  Citrus  bergamia  (variety  Vulgaris),  Eiss ;  Citrus 
bergamia  (variety  Mellarosa),  Kiss;  Citrus  aurantium  piriforme,  Kiss  • 
Citrus  aurantium  precox,  Kiss ;  Citrus  deliciosa,  Ten. ;  Citrus  limonum 
fusiforme.  Kiss ;  Citrus  limonum  oblongum.  Kiss ;  Citrus  limonum  cala- 
bricum,  Kiss. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  PALERMO.          .")()!) 

The  following  varieties  are  also  cultivated,  each  having  its  special 
merits,  viz : 

Varieties. 

Citrus  bigaratlia 21 

Citnis  limetta 7 

Citrns  lumia -. 1 

Citrus  medica 8- 

Citrus  bergamia 2 

Citrus  aurantiain 22 

Citms  deliciosa 1 

Citrus  limonum « 19 

PLANTING  AND  PROPAGATING. 

Orange  trees  are  planted  5  meters  apart,  and  lemon  trees  from  5  to  G 
apart,  depending  on  circumstances. 

The  old  lemon  and  orange  gardens  in  this  vicinage  are  generally 
either  the  result  of  certain  succulent  slips,  which  were  cut  from  the 
trees  and  buried  or  planted  two-thirds  of  their  length  in  moist  friable 
ground,  or  curving  or  bending  a  live  branch,  without  detaching 
it  from  the  tree,  and  inserting  it  to  a  depth  of  about  30  centimeters  in 
rich,  soft  friable  soil.  At  the  end  of  about  two  years,  or  when  suf- 
ficient roots  sprouted  from  the  branch  thus  bended  in  order  to  enable  it 
to  live  without  the  mother  tree,  the  branch  in  question  was  detached 
therefrom  and  allowed  to  proceed,  in  growth,  on  its  own  account. 

This  method  of  propagation  has  become  almost  extinct.  There  are 
certain  cases,  however,  in  which  it  is  still  resorted  to  because  of  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  trees  develop  and  which  make  it  preferable  to 
any  other,  as  well  as  on  account  of  the  abundance  of  the  yield  of  trees 
thus  propagated.  But  the  fact  that  such  trees  are  susceptible  of  at- 
tack by  male  della  gomma  and  readily  destroyed  thereby  in  a  few  years, 
has  convinced  even  the  most  steadfast  adherent  of  the  method  that  it 
should  be  abandoned  and  a  resort  had  to  propagation  through  the 
several  varieties  of  melangoli  seed,  called  here  aranci  amari  (Citrus 
bigaradia)  and  the  trees  thus  derived  grafted  with  the  various  varie- 
ties, as  they  resist  the  malady  in  question  with  much  more  vigor.  In 
fact,  the  orange  and  lemon  trees  of  Palermo,  which  are  generally  ob- 
tained by  the  seed  of  the  melangoli,  have  resisted  the  male  della  gomma 
much  better  than  those  of  Messina  which  were  formed  from  plants  de- 
rived from  lemon  branches.  The  best  varieties  are  budded. 

The  orchards  in  Sicily  are  very  large  and  are,  in  view  of  the  great  profit 
ensuing  therefrom,  increasing  rapidly. 

Fructification. — They  fructify  at  the  age  of  three  years,  the  yield 
being  largest  thereafter,  from  year  to  year,  up  to  the  twentieth,  when 
they  are  becoming  old  and  subject  to  all  diseases.  At  this  period  they 
are  denuded  of  their  branches  and  a  new  graft  resorted  to. 

Insect  pests. — The  most  troublesome  insect,  and  that  which  injures 
t  lie  orange  and  lemon  trees  most,  is  called  Coccus  hesperidum  lin  or  Coccus 
citry. 


610  FRUIT   CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  facility  with  which  this  insect  propagates  itself,  and  the  rapid 
increase  consequent  thereon,  result,  in  a  comparatively  short  time,  in 
the  death  or  serious  injury  to  the  trees.  The  mode  of  attack  of  this 
insect  is  by  eating  a  hole  in  the  tree  from  which  soon  exudes  a  profuse 
flow  of  juice,  resulting  in  death  or  serious  injury  thereof,  as  stated. 

The  coccus  citry  lodges  in  trees  having  thick  leaves,  and  especially  in 
those  shaded  by  larger  trees  or  plants.  In  this  contingency  pruning  is 
resorted  to,  with  a  view  of  letting  in  light,  and  thus  causes  the  insect  to 
seek  another  refuge  or  die.  No  specific  is  known  to  combat  this  insect, 
but  the  usual  mode  of  relief  therefrom  is  by  washing  the  trees  with  lime 
water. 

Other  very  injurious  insects  abound  such  as  the  Kermes  coccineus, 
Kermes  hesperidum,  Kermes  aurantu,  Lecanium  hesperidum,  and  Pidocchio, 
which  prefer  the  orange  to  the  lemon  trees.  These,  too,  are  destroyed 
by  lime  water,  solutions  of  copper,  sulphate  thereof,  etc.,  petroleum, 
snuff,  etc. 

Beneficial  insects. — Terrestrial  formicas  or  ants  destroy  other  destruc- 
tive insects  and  their  eggs,  but  in  their  absence  they  gnaw  the  tender 
branches  and  leaves,  thus  causing  them  to  atrophy.  Therefore  all  efforts 
are  made  to  destroy  the  ants  as  in  the  case  of  other  insects,  hoeing  the 
ground  in  winter  being  resorted  to  as  a  means  to  that  end,  thus  expos- 
ing them  to  inclement  and  cold  weather,  death  generally  ensuing  as  a 
consequence. 

Parasites. — The  litchens,  which  attach  themselves  to  old  trees,  those 
attached  by  male  della  gomma.  Shady  and  moist  places  favor  the 
development  of  litchens.  Sea  water  is  used  as  a  wash  to  get  rid  of  this 
parasite. 

The  fumagine  evoluting  from  the  agglomeration  of  microscopic  plants, 
technically  called  capnodium  or  Fumago  citry,  The  fumagine  attacks 
all  varieties  of  oranges  and  lemons  and  causes  grave  damage.  The 
trees  attacked  suffer  greatly,  the  yield  thereof  being  very  small.  The 
fumagine  attacks  the  trunks,  branches,  leaves,  and  fruit.  Only  the 
epidermis  or  outsite  of  the  fruit  is  attacked.  This  parasite  is  destroyed 
by  means  of  pruning  and  manuring  in  January. 

LEMON  AND  ORANGE  GROVES. 

The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  named  at  the  beginning  of  this 
report  are  grown  in  Sicily. 

Distance  from  sea. — There  is  no  fixed  distance  from  sea  for  planting 
orange  and  lemon  trees.  There  are  many  orange  and  lemon  gardens  in 
the  vicinity  of  Palermo,  bordering  on  the  sea,  some  of  which  prosper 
better  than  those  situated  more  inland.  This,  however,  obtains  only 
when  the  gardeners  are  skilled  men  and  give  particular  attention  to  the 
ground  and  adopt  proper  means  with  a  view  of  protecting  the  trees  from 
strong  sea-winds. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  PALERMO.          511 

Eleratiof  above  sea-lecel. — It  is  impracticable  to  determine  with  ac- 
curacy the  elevation  at  which  orange  andlemon  trees  can  be  cultivated, 
the  latitude  and  certain  special  conditions  influencing  this.  In  Sicily? 
tor  instance,  oranges  and  lemons  are  profitably  cultivated  along  the  sea- 
coasts  at  an  altitude  of  from  100  to  500  meters  above  sea-level,  and  often 
much  better  crops  are  obtained  where  the  elevation  is  from  500  to  1,000 
meters. 

Exposure  to  sun. — It  is  of  great  advantage  when  the  gardens  have 
a  southern  exposure,  or  when  the  sun  beams  down  upon  them  from 
sunrise  to  sunset.  This  exposure  is  recommended  by  gardeners  here. 

Position  of  orchards. — Orange  and  lemon  trees  are  indifferently 
planted  in  the  vicinity  of  Palermo,  in  hilly,  rolling,  or  level  land.  The 
nature  of  the  soil,  climate,  exposure  to  sun,  attention  to  the  soil, 
trees,  etc.,  seem  to  be  the  principal  requisites;  elevation,  all  other 
things  favorable,  having  little  or  no  influence,  save  as  to  quality. 
Fruits  produced  on  hilly  land  are  more  appreciated,  and  generally 
command  higher  prices  than  those  produced  on  rolling  or  level  land. 
There  are  exceptions  to  this,  however.  In  Palermo,  for  instance, 
fruits  produced  on  certain  level  lands  command  as  high  prices  as  those 
produced  on  hilly  land ;  with  this  exception,  however,  the  land  best 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  oranges  and  lemons  is  generally  hilly.  In 
fact,'  the  fruit-dealers  mark  their  fruits  with  an  "  M,"  which  signifies 
"  Montagna"  or  u  Mountain,"  which  enhances  their  price,  as  seen  from 
the  following  comparison,  viz : 

Fruits  produced  on  hilly  land,  25,  50  lire  per  thousand;  on  rolling 
land,  21,  27  lire  per  thousand;  on  level  land,  17  lire  per  thousand. 

Soil. — Considerable  attention  has  been  given  of  late  years  to  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  subsoil,  etc.,  best  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
fruits  in  question,  as  well  as  to  the  chemical  composition  of  oranges 
and  lemons  which  has  resulted  in  the  belief  that  calcareous  land,  con- 
taining certain  other  material  necessary  to  the  life  of  all  vegetation,  is 
the  best,  in  order  that  they  may  contain  the  requisite  amount  of  lime, 
potassa,  soda,  etc.  The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  oranges 
and  lemons  is  at  least  one  meter  in  depth  and  devoid  of  rocks,  and  ac- 
cessible to  water  for  irrigation,  else  the  trees  die. 

Deep,  clay  land,  open  and  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  accessible 
to  water,  abounding  with  alkaline  salts,  minus  rocks  or  stones,  little  or 
no  grass,  not  exposed  to  strong  winds,  rains,  or  frosts,  etc.,  is  deemed 
to  present  the  best  advantages  in  all  respects. 

CLIMATIC  INFLUENCES. 

Temperature. — The  temperature  in  the  adjacent  territory  of  Palermo, 
in  summer,  does  not  ordinarily  exceed  35°  centigrade,  and  rarely  falls 
lower  than  20°,  and  in  winter  the  maximum  is  23°,  and  the  minimum 
10°.  Consequently,  the  average  summer  temperature  is  274°  and  that 
of  winter  1G.JC,  the  average,  annual  temperature,  being  22°. 


512        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Neither  cold  nor  warm  nights,  in  the  territory  conterminous  to  Pal- 
ermo, seem  to  wield  an  influence  upon  the  result  of  the  cultivation  of 
oranges  and  lemons  therein.  Sultry  days,  although  frequent  in  sum- 
mer, and  occasional  warm  or  cold  spells,  appear  to  exert  no  detrimen- 
tal influence  upon  either  lemons  or  oranges.  For  instance,  the  fruits 
in  question  flourish  quite  well  where  the  thermometer  does  not  fall 
below  -f  3°  centigrade,  in  winter,  nor  rise  above  34°  in  summer.  It  has 
been  observed  in  Palermo  on  various  occasions  that  the  orange  and 
lemon  trees  resist  a  summer  sultry  temperature  of  40°  centigrade,  and 
that  of — 2°  in  winter  without  any  apparent  detriment,  while  many 
other  plants  or  trees  were  destroyed  or  damaged. 

The  atmosphere  in  and  conterminous  to  Palermo  in  winter  is  almost 
invariably  humid  or  moist,  while  the  climate  is  mild.  In  summer  the 
atmosphere  is  very  warm  with  little  moisture,  save  immediately  on  the 
sea-coast,  the  sdrocco  which  often  obtains  making  life  of  all  kinds 
perilous.  During  this  period  irrigation  is  lavishly  resorted  to  in  order 
to  keep  the  trees  alive  and  preserve  the  fruit. 

Rain-fall. — The  conditions  of  temperature  and  climate  in  Sicily  are 
exceptional,  compared  with  other  parts  of  southern  Italj.  The  strong, 
constant  winds  which  prevail  in  winter  condense  and  accumulate  the 
vapors,  over  which  they  traverse,  into  a  small  compass,  and  as  a  re- 
sult the  rain-fall  is  often  so  copious  as  to  inundate  entire  localities. 
Eain  commences  about  the  latter  part  of  September  and  ends  in  April, 
22  inches  falling  within  the  interim  named. 

When  rain  falls  in  large  quantities  the  trees  are  damaged ;  but  in 
small  quantities  it  is  advantageous  to  them. 

Irrigation. — The  cultivation  of  oranges  and  lemons,  in  Sicily,  gen- 
erally can  not  be  undertaken,  unless  the  trees  are  irrigated  from  spring 
to  autumn,  or  when  the  land  is  not  adjacent  to  springs,  the  drippings 
from  which  serve  therefor,  or  when  springs  do  not  exist  in  the  sub- 
soil, the  nitration  of  which  sufficing  to  maintain  the  ground  in  a  moist 
state  during  summer.  The  custom  of  opening  canals  parallel  to  the 
rows  of  orange  and  lemon  trees  into  which  water,  accumulated  in  an 
elevated  reservoir,  is  allowed  to  flow,  thence  into  and  between  the 
openings  or  small  depressions  between  the  rows  of  trees,  until  the 
ground  is  thoroughly  saturated,  the  more  remote  points  from  the 
source  of  the  water  being  irrigated  first,  until  finally  the  irrigation 
water  and  its  source  coalesce  or  meet,  obtains  here. 

In  the  best  conducted  orange  and  lemon  gardens  in  the  vicinity  of 
Palermo,  irrigation  is  resorted  to  every  eight  days  during  the  first 
year  of  the  growth  of  the  trees  5  every  twelve  days  during  the  second 
and  third  years ;  every  fifteen  days  during  the  years  from  the  fourth 
to  the  eighth,  inclusive,  and  from  the  eighth  year  forward  invariably 
every  twenty -two  days. 

Orange  and  lemon  gardens  require,  on  an  average,  350  cubic  meters 
of  water  for  each  irrigation  to  the  space  of  one  hectare  of  land  in  good 
condition. 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  PALERMO.          51 3 

• 

Great  attention  is  necessary  as  to  the  amount  of  water  required. 
If  too  much  is  used  the  trees  are  subject  to  a  disease  called  "male 
clella  gouima;"  literally  translated,  "gum  disease."  If  too  little,  devel- 
opment is  delayed  and  even  their  death  may  ensue. 

Cult!  rat  Ion. — April  and  May  are  the  best  months  in  which  to  culti- 
vate orange  and  lemon  trees,  the  inclement  weather  having  terminated, 
thus  insuring  tin*  safety  of  the  buds. 

Oranges  and  lemons  are  cultivated  from  the  dry  seed,,  which  costs 
lire  1.80  per  kilogram,  or  from  fresh  plants  containing  the  seed,  the 
latter  requiring  more  attention  than  the  former. 

Planting  or  sowing,  as  the  case  may  be,  commences  in  April,  as  stated, 
or  later,  in  order  to  avoid  white  frosts,  the  ground  being  previously  pre- 
pared. 

Trees  resulting  from  dry  seed  are  generally  good  and  strong,  and 
attain  a  height  of  at  least  1  meter,  before  being  grafted  with  a  view  o/ 
propagating  the  various  varieties  desired. 

The  gardeners  of  the  Province  of  Palermo  recommend  that  a  distance 
of  about  5  meters  should  intervene  between  each  orange  tree  when  the 
ground  is  level,  and  about  4  meters  in  undulating,  rolling,  or  declivitous 
land.  Lemon  trees  are  recommended  to  be  from  5  to  6  meters  apart 
when  large  trees  are  expected,  or  desired,  as  is  the  case  with  all  trees 
derived  from  "cedrangoli  amari,"  (Citrus  Mgaradia,  Kiss.) 

The  best  means  of  planting  trees  is  in  placing  them  in  parallel  lines 
from  north  to  south,  in  order  that  they  may  be  equally  exposed  to  the 
sun's  rays  throughout  the  entire  day,  and  so  placed  as  to  form  a  series 
of  equilateral  triangles,  with  a  tree  on  each  angle,  as  per  drawing  here- 
with. To  this  method  of  planting  the  name  Losanga  has  been  given. 

It  is  customary*  during  the  early  stages  of  the  growth  of  lemon  and 
orange  trees  to  alternate  them  with  other  plants,  such  as  vines,  cotton, 
etc.,  in  order  to  give  them  strength  and  nutrition,  as  well  as  to  utilize 
the  necessarily  large  vacant  spaces  of  ground. 

At  the  expiration  of  ten  years,  however,  or  when  the  orange  and 
lemon  trees  have  become  so  large  and  tall  as  to  obscure  the  plants  in 
question  with  their  branches,  etc.,  they  are  taken  up  and  utilized  in  a 
new  field. 

Fertilizers. — Alkaline  substances  are  better  adapted  than  any  other 
materials  for  fertilizing.  Gardeners  in  the  vicinity  of  Palermo  formerly 
used  sea-weed,  mixed  with  the  excrements  of  horses  and  cows  or  stable 
accnm  illations. 

Fragments  of  dressed  leather,  woolen  rags,  scrapings  from  horns, 
and  cert  tin  other  remains  of  old  or  cast-off  manufactures,  as  well  as 
decayed  fruits,  are  regarded  as  the  best  admixtures  of  fertilizers  for 
oranges  and  lemons.  The  materials  or  substances  in  question  are 
stratified  in  proper  places  with  a  view  to  their  fermentation  before 
being  used. 

When  trees  are  planted  they  are  abundantly  manured,  and  after  one 


514        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

year  the  ground  around  them  is  cleared  away  to  adepth  of  40  centimeters, 
forming  a  circular  ditch  with  a  diameter  of  two  meters  into  which  two 
baskets  of  manure,  or  about  20  kilograms,  are  deposited,  whereupon 
the  ditch  is  covered  with  the  earth  previously  removed,  placing  it  so  as 
to  form  a  shallow  ditch  around  the  tree.  This  operation  is  resorted  to 
in  January  and  February.  Small  trees  are  manured  twice  a  year,  for 
the  first  five  years,  viz,  in  March  and  August. 

Ordinarily,  however,  when  trees  prosper,  manuring  is  resorted  to 
only  every  three  years,  the  quantity  used  being  about  40  kilograms  to 
each  tree. 

Pruning. — The  first  pruning  is  made  after  the  expiration  of  the  third 
year.  The  height  from  the  ground  depends  on  the  quality  of  the  land 
in  which  the  trees  are  planted,  as  well  as  the  desire  for  either  high  or 
low  trees.  When  the  land  is  exposed  to  northern  and  southern  winds 
it  is  better  that  the  trees  should  be  low,  but  inversely  should  this 
exposure  not  obtain. 

In  Palermo,  as  in  all  Sicily,  the  orange  and  lemon  gardens  are  pruned 
from  December  to  June,  while  the  trees  are  devoid  of  fruit,  the  process 
being  governed  by  the  gardeners7  interests  and  experience  rather  than 
by  any  theoretical  suggestions. 

Gardeners  take  care  to  clip  or  clean  the  trees  yearly,  cutting  off  all 
old  and  useless  branches.  Pruning  is  resorted  to  every  three  years. 

PICKING  AND   CURING.* 

Oranges  are  picked  from  November  to  March,  and  lemons  from  No- 
vember to  August.  The  first  picking  is  generally  made  in  November, 
the  second  in  December  or  January,  and  the  third  in  March  or  April. 
During  the  summer  months,  however,  such  as  are  verging  on  maturity 
are  picked  from  time  to  time. 

Oranges  and  lemons  for  export  are  picked  prior  to  maturity,  and  thus 
shipped  to  ripen  on  the  voyage. 

Oranges  and  lemons  for  export  are  not  cured,  but  simply  selected 
with  a  view  to  bearing  the  long  voyage.  Those  not  shipped,  and  for 
which  a  sale  is  hot  readily  found  in  the  markets  of  Palermo,  are  pre- 
served from  March  to  August,  in  well  ventilated  caves  or  grottoes,  to  be 
sold  to  ice  cream  dealers  for:  the  purpose  of  making  ice-cream^ jellies, 
lemonade,  etc. 

*  In  a  subsequent  dispatch  Consul  Carroll  says  that,  "  in  connection  with  preserving 
oranges  and  lemons  after  being  taken  from  the  trees,  it  may  be  proper  to  say  that 
this  consulate  is  often  applied  to  for  information  as  to  the  supposed  or  alleged  means 
resorted  to  here  for  that  purpose  by  California  and  Florida  fruit  growers,  and  to  re- 
peat, for  the  information  of  fruit  growers  in  the  United  States,  that  there  is  no  proc- 
ess resorted  to  nor  known  hereto  preserve  the  fruits  in  question  other  than  folding 
them  in  fine  tissue-paper,  which  is  changed  from  time  to  time,  and  the  fruit  examined 
and  all  contaminated  oranges  and  lemons  eliminated  from  the  baskets  or  boxes  in 
which,  for  the  time  being,  the  fruit  may  be  placed.  Precaution  is  also  taken  to  place 
or  keep  the  fruit  in  question  in  a  dry  equable  temperature. 

"  Oranges  and  lemons  are  generally  picked  before  maturity.  " 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    PALERMO.  515 

PACKING  AND  SHIPPING. 

When  oranges  and  lemons  are  picked  they  are  carefully  selected  and 
wrapped  in  tissue-paper,  packed  in  open  boxes,  and  placed  in  the  ware- 
house. Again,  before  shipping,  they  are  carefully  selected,  newly 
wrapped,  and  packed. 

Generally  speaking  lemons  can  be  divided  into  two  categories,  viz, 
normal  lemons  and  abnormal  or  anomalous  lemons.  The  normal  are 
those  that  bloom  in  the  months  of  April  and  May,  and  the  abnormal 
or  anomalous  those  derived  from  the  blossoms  of  February,  March, 
June,  July,  and  other  successive  months,  and  which  depend  on  water- 
falls, to  a  more  or  less  degree,  during  warm  weather,  for  irrigation. 

The  normal  lemons  arrive  at  maturity  in  about  nine  months — that  is, 
from  May  to  January,  inclusive — the  picking  thereof  being  commonly 
made  in  three  successive  periods,  viz,  from  November  onward.  The 
lemons  picked  in  the  first  period  are  green,  and  those  picked  in  the 
third  period  more  mature.  They  are  picked  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  purchasers.  The  first  and  third  pickings  are  more  valua- 
ble than  those  of  the  second,  consequent  upon  fruits  being  more  abun- 
dant during  the  latter  period. 

The  fruit  under  consideration  is  believed  to  be"  the  best,  and  by  gar- 
deners is  classified  as  first  class  fruit  and  sold  at  very  high  prices. 

The  fruit  picked  at  other  times  is  called  anomalous. 

Lemons  are  picked  by  men  who,  if  the  trees  are  too  high  to  permit 
their  doing  so  from  the  ground,  climb  up  and  detach  them,  taking  care 
to  leave  a  piece  of  stem,  placing  them  in  baskets  lined  with  linen,  on 
the  handle  of  which  is  a  wooden  hook  tied  in  order  that  the  baskets- 
may  be  hung  on  the  branches.  So  soon  as  a  basket  is  full  it  is  lowered 
from  the  tree  by  means  of  a  rope,  provided  with  a  knot,  and  exchanged 
for  an  empty  one  by  a  boy  known  as  "panieraio,"  or,  literally,  "  basket- 
maker,"  whose  duty  it  is  also  to  empty  the  baskets  in  the  place  desig- 
nated by  the  "tagliapiedi"  (peduncle  cutter).  This  is  an  expert  work- 
man in  his  line,  who  performs  two  offices  at  the  same  time,  viz,  cuts 
the  peduncle  of  the  lemons  close  to  the  crown,  and  afterwards  sep- 
arates the  good  from  the  bad  lemons,  depositing  them  in  two  separate 
heaps.  Small  lemons,  although  they  may  seem  to  be  good,  if  of  less 
weight  than  80  grammes  are,  as  a  rule,  not  exported. 

It  is  estimated  that  out  of  the  total  lemon  crop  about  two-thirds  are 
considered  fit  for  export,  the  remaining  third  being  utilized  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  acid,  essences,  etc. 

The  "  taglia  piet^i n  (peduncle  cutter)  places  the  lemons  on  a  straw 
bed,  in  order  to  protect  them,  during  the  voyage,  from  damage. 

When  lemons  are  classified,  girls  place  them  in  baskets  lined  with 
linen.  Each  girl  places  in  her  basket  208  lemons,  4  lemons  at  a  time, 
thus  making  52  operations  or  movements,  and  when  completed  places 
the  baskets  on  her  head  and  conveys  it  to  the  warehouse. 


516  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

In  the  warehouse  good  lemons  are  placed  in  flat  lots  1.30  meters 
high,  where  they  are  allowed  to  remain  from  five  to  eight  days,  in  order 
to  determine  their  strength,  at  the  end  of  which  any  decayed  or  dam- 
aged lemons  which  may  be  found  are  picked  out.  This  is  not,  however, 
general,  especially  when  the  producer  of  the  fruit  is  not  the  shipper  and 
has  no  interest  in  the  shipment  thereof.  It  is  only  done  in  cases  where 
the  shipper  has  purchased  the  fruit  or»the  producer  ships  it  on  his  own 
account. 

In  the  warehouse,  near  the  gardens,  the  lemons  are  wrapped  with 
tissue-paper,  placed  in  boxes,  the  interior  of  which  is  lined  with  paper 
of  the  same  kind.  The  boxes  so  prepared  are  carried  into  the  city  ware- 
house, where  the  lemons  are  taken  out  of  the  boxes  and  a  new  assort- 
ment made,  and  in  order  to  ship  them  the  above  operation  is  repeated. 

Should  the  boxes  not  be  promptly  shipped  for  any  cause,  and  remain 
in  the  warehouse  some  time,  then  it  is  in  the  interest  of  the  person  on 
whose  account  the  fruit  is  to  be  shipped  to  assort  them,  in  order  to  as- 
certain if  there  are  any  damaged  fruits  among  them. 

The  fruit  is  shipped  in  boxes  of  the  following  dimensions,  viz : 

Centimeters. 

Breadth 29 

Height 42 

Length 81 

The  number  of  lemons  which  each  box  contains  depends  on  their  size, 
and  in  order  to  be  exact  the  fruit  is  divided  into  four  categories,  as  fol- 
lows, viz :  200  if  of  the  first  category,  240  if  of  the  second  category, 
360  if  of  the  third  category,  420  if  of  the  fourth  category. 

Boxes  are  divided  into  two  compartments,  each  containing  half  the 
number  stated  above,  placed  as  follows,  viz : 

First  category,  in  4  strata,  25  per  stratum ;  second  category,  in  4 
strata,  30  per  stratum ;  third  category,  in  5  strata,  36  per  stratum ; 
fourth  category,  in  5  strata,  42  per  stratum. 

PHILIP  CARROLL, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Palermo,  March  7,  1890. 


SICILY. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  LAMANTIA,   OF  CATANIA. 

Varieties. — The  names  of  the  best  varieties  of  oranges  for  profit  are: 
The  common  orange  (a  round  fruit) ;  thecalabrese  (a  long-keeping  fruit); 
the  sanguigno  (a  blood-red  orange) ;  tfye  oval  (a  late,  sweet,  and  good 
keeping);  the  mandarino  (mandarine,  the  largest  one). 


OKANGK.S    AND    LK.MOXS    IN    SICILY.  517 

The  names  of  the  best  varieties  of  lemons  for  profit  are:  II  limone 
comune  (common  lemon  for  trade) ;  11  bergamotto  (for  making  essences); 
11  cedro  vero  (citrus  inedica,  for  preserving). 

Situation. — The  same  are  located  in  low  and  high  land,  as  well  as  all 
around  Mount  ^Etna,  at  a  distance  from  300  to  GOO  meters  from  sea,  at 
an  elevation  from  f>00  to  600  meters  above  sea-level,  exposed  to  sun,  on 
level  lands,  because  it  is  better,  aaul  on  rich  calcareous  soil. 

Climate  influence. — The  minimum  temperature  in  January  is  5°  Cent i 
grade ;  the  maximum  is  35°  Centigrade  in  August,  and  the  average  17° 
in  May. 

Nights  in  summer  are  rather  fresh,  and  cool  in  winter.  Days  gener- 
ally clear,  seldom  moist,  and  good  atmosphere. 

Rain-fall  from  25  to  30  inches  per  year,  and  rain  in  proper  season  helps 
the  growth  and  the  fruits  greatly. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  done  by  spring  and  stream  water,  and  by 
well-water  elevated  by  steam  or  horse  power. 

The  groves  with  said  water  are  generally  irrigated  at  option,  and 
whenever  needed,  as  lemon  trees  bear  all  the  year. 

Cultivation. — The  following  information  I  have  been  able  to  gather 
by  personal  visits  to  the  owners  of  the  beautiful  large  groves  of  orange 
and  lemon  trees,  the  production  of  which  forms  one  of  the  principal  re- 
sources of  the  country,  viz:  When  it  is  wished  to  plant  a  new  lemon 
grove,  the  gardener  from  November  to  April  prepares  in  the  best  spot 
of  his  garden  a  well-manured  seed-plot  of  2  square  meters,  whereon  he 
sows  a  quarter  of  a  gallon  bitter-orange  seed,  and  covers  the  same  with 
about  2  inches  of  fine  earth.  Two  months  later  you  see  the  young  plants 
out  of  the  ground,  and  on  the  coming  summer  the  seed-plot  is  to  be 
watered  at  least  every  four  days.  After  one  year  the  young  plants  are  at 
a  height  of  18  inches,  and  then  the  gardener  prepares  a  larger  seed-plot 
to  plant  the  same,  at  a  distance  of  18  inches  apart,  where  they  are  left 
till  another  year.  The  new  ground  is  hoed  about  2£  feet  deep,  and 
divided  in  square  compartments  of  1J  feet  each  side,  in  the  corners  of 
which  are  located  the  largest  seedlings  taken  out  from  the  seedling  bed, 
leaving  there  the  smallest  ones,  to  be  replanted  later  on. 

This  method  of  planting  is  called  by  these  gardeners  mettere  a  casella 
(planting  in  cell).  There  they  are  kept  for  the  second  year,  with  good 
care,  the  stems  being  fastened  to  sticks  driven  in  the  ground  along-side, 
in  order  to  grow  straight  and  to  protect  them  from  the  wind. 

On  the  third  year  the  seedlings  are  already  grown  sufficiently  to  be 
replanted  in  another  larger  place,  in  order  to  give  them  more  room. 
Consequently  half  the  largest  ones  are  again  dug  up  and  planted  in 
another  prepared  bed. 

This  second  method  is  called  planting  in piantonaio.  Here  the  plants 
are  left  until  the  fourth  year.  In  January  or  February  of  the  fifth  year 
the  grower  divides  nil  his  ground,  already  prepared  during  the  previous 
fall,  in  square  compartments  of  14  feet  long  each  side,  and  in  the  cor- 


518  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

ncrs  of  each  one  he  digs  out  round  ditches,  with  some  well- manured 
animal  compost,  mixed  with  the  earth.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  note 
that  the  young  trees  are  always  to  be  kept  free  from  sprouts,  and  watered 
and  manured  diligently.  This  operation  is  done  as  follows: 

Every  fifteen  days  the  ground  is  removed  from  the  bottom,  and  the 
grower  around  the  tree  forms  two  circles,  one  of  a  foot  ami  the  other 
of  two  feet  in  diameter.  Then  he  removes  the  ground  from  the  base  of 
the  tree  about  5  inches  deep  and  fills  it  with  manure,  covered  with  the 
same  ground.  This  operation  is  also  recommended  for  large  old  trees. 

In  the  filth  year  the  said  trees  of  bitter-orange  seedlings  are  grafted 
hit)  lemons,  or  oranges  if  desired. 

Fertilizing. — A  lemon  grove  must  at  least  be  dug  three  times  a  year; 
that  is,  on  the  first  of  January,  pretty  deeply,  and  the  ground  ma- 
nured, if  possible,  in  all  its  extension;  (2)  in  the  month  of  April  for 
forming  the  conche  (compartments)  and  gutters  for  watering  in  the 
hot  summer;  (3)  in  the  middle  of  June,  for  weeding.  In  the  fifth  year, 
the  young  bitter  orange  trees  will  be  grafted. 

Grafting. — Although  no  inquiry  is  made  about  grafting,  yet  I  may 
give  some  details  of  the  methods  used  in  Sicily.  Grafting  is  done  in 
bccco  di  flauto  (beak  of  flute),  by  spacco  (splits),  or  by  scudo  (shield). 
This  last  one  is  generally  practiced  in  this  island,  and  the  proper  sea- 
son is  in  the  month  of  October  or  May.  The  first  method  is  called 
uad  occhio  dormente"  (sleeping  eye),  because  it  is  necessary  to  await 
the  coming  spring  season  to  see  whether  the  grafting  has  turned  out 
well.  The  second  is  practiced  by  smarter  agriculturists,  and  is  called 
occhio  vivente  (living  eye),  for  the  reason  that  should  it  fail,  in  the  coming 
fall  it  is  operated  again.  The  shoots  are  to  be  chosen  from  the  best 
and  most  vigorous  adult  trees,  and  so  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  year 
you  will  have  a  good  producing  young  lemon  grove,  fruiting  all  the 
year  around. 

A  fifteen-year  old  tree  generally  produces  500  lemons,  while  at 
twenty  it  yields  over  1,000.  Professor  Cassella  states  that  he  has  seen 
several  very  large  old  trees  producing  as  many  as  10,000  fruits  per 
year. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  done  according  to  the  growth  of  the  tree. 
The  method  used  in  Sicily  is  a  tronco  rovesciato  (capsized  cone.)  This 
form  is  practiced  from  the  time  the  tree  is  young  by  cutting  thk  main 
trunk,  and  letting  the  lateral  branches  grow,  in  order  to  have  free  ven- 
tilation and  free  sunlight,  and  to  effect  the  fruits  to  maturity. 

The  height  of  the  trees  varies  according  to  locality  and  usage  of  the 
country.  In  Messina,  for  instance,  they  are  left  pretty  high,  while  in 
this  province  they  are  kept  low,  on  account  of  strong  winds,  which 
sometimes  prevail  around  Mount  Etna. 

Picking. — The  regular  season  for  picking  lemons  in  this  district  com- 
mences from  October  in  low  lands,  and  in  November  on  high  lands,  up 
to  the  end  of  January.  That  is  called  ilprimo  taglio  (first  cut),  and  th§ 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    SICILY.  519 

fruits  are  considered  as  the  best  for  quality  and  long-keeping.  The 
second  cut,  larger  than  the  first  one,  begins  in  March  and  lasts  until 
the  end  of  April,  and  the  last  one,  or  third  cut,  known  as  verdelli,  from 
31  ay  to  the  end  of  September.  Finally  lemons  bear  all  the  year  around. 

Orange  picking  commences  in  low  land  in  November,  and  on  the 
montagna  (mountain)  from  January  to  April.  These  are  the  best  fruits, 
and  dm  able,  tit  for  packing  and  Shipment.  The  same  are  always  picked 
a  little  greenish,  and  not  in  full  maturity  5  but  they  acquire  their  nat- 
ural bright  color  after  they  are  wrapped  in  tissue  paper  and  boxed  for 
shipping. 

Do  fore  shipment,  however,  they  are  chosen  into  four  different  sorts; 
that  is,  first  and  second  choice  the  fruits  are  thoroughly  examined  to  be 
entirely  free  from  thorn  touch  or  any  disease,  and  they  are  shipped  for 
farthest  markets.  The  third  choice  are  sent  to  near  markets,  and  with 
the  fourth  one  is  made  essence  and  agro  cotto. 

The  fruit  is  gathered  with  care,  the  stem  is  cut  with  a  very  sharp 
round-bladed  knife,  and  left  to  the  eye  to  prevent  decay. 

Planting  and  propagation.— -The  distance  planted  apart  must  not  be 

more  than  16  feet,  for  the  reason  that  if  trees  are  allowed  to  grow  too 

e  they  can  not  stand  to  support  the  lateral  branches  overloaded 

with  fruit,  besides  preventing  free  ventilation,  without  which  disease  is 

generated. 

As  before  stated,  trees  are  propagated  by  seedlings  and  grafting. 
The  best  varieties  are  of  course  obtained  from  seedlings,  and  then 
grafted  to  the  desired  kind. 

The  orchards  are  pretty  large  in  some  localities  and  small  in  others. 

Maturity. — The  age  of  fruiting  is  at  8  years,  giving  the  largest  crop 
at  -0;  the  maturity  of  trees  is  from  70  to  100 years,  and  according  to  the 
soil,  exposure,  locality,  and  culture  of  same. 

Insect  pests. — The  insects  damaging  this  beautiful  plant  are:  H 
pidocchio  del  limo-ne,  (lemon  louse)  and  II  pidocchio  delVarancio  (orange 
Loose). 

The  first  one  is  an  insect  of  a  whitish  color,  which  attacks  both  leaves 
and  fruits.  It  made  its  first  appearance  in  Sicily  in  1862,  and  notwith- 
standing the  several  efforts  to  destroy  it,  nothing  has  as  yet  been 
accomplished  to  succeed. 

The  second,  pidocchio  (louse)  of  orange,  is  another  insect  of  a  dark 
ltio\vn  color,  and  a  very  injurious  one  to  both  orange  and  lemon,  by  in- 
':ig  the  tree  bark,  leaves,  and  fruits. 

Another  insect,  supposed  to  be  the  cossus  aurantii  and  a  crittogama, 
called  nero  degli  agrumi  (black  disease)  first  of  a  whitish  color  and  then 
black.  Both  of  them  attack,  also,  the  bark  and  branches  of  the  tree, 
prop?! gat  ing  on  the  leaves,  blossoms,  and  fruits,  causing  the  former  to 
stifle  n,  turn  yellow  and  dry,  while  the  latter  grow  very  little,  turning 
black,  and  i  ;uire  the  natural  color  of  the  ripe  fruits. 

If  the  j  -  levelops  early  in  the  season  the  plant  will  thoroughly 

9 


520        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

be  covered  with  the  disease,  the  fruit  stops  growing,  gets  black,  and 
falls.  It  is  said  that  petroleum  sprinkled  on  the  trunk  and  on  the 
branches  has  proved  somewhat  of  a  remedy. 

The  mosca  (fly)  is  another  pest  damaging  both  kinds  of  fruit.  It  gen- 
erally appears  in  the  beginning  of  summer,  stinging  the  fruits  arid  de- 
positiug-.therein  its  eggs,  which  develop  into  grubs  which  destroy  the 
fruit. 

The  gum  disease. — Besides  those  insects,  there  is  also  il  male  della 
gomma  (gum  disease),  which  greatly  injures  the  whole  tree,  if  not  pre- 
vented in  time.  It  makes  its  first  appearance  with  a  small  spot  on  the 
trunk  gradually  enlarging  to  about  one  inch  wide,  and,  in  the  course 
of  four  days,  causes  a  crack  on  the  bark,  wherefrom  a  white  yellowish 
liquid,  like  milk,  drops  out.  Said  liquid  becomes  thick  and  thicker 
like  small  gum  drops,  and  in  a  few  days  later  they  look  like  transparent 
yellow  pearls. 

According  to  Professor  Cassella's  experiments  in  his  grove,  where  he 
has  saved  a  great  number  of  trees,  to  destroy  and  preserve  orchards 
from  such  a  disease,  it  seems  the  following  methods  are  highly  recom- 
mendable,  viz: 

(1).  When  a  plant  has  been  attacked,  all  the  infested  parts  of  the 
bark  and  wood  are  to  be  cut  out  and  care  taken  to  destroy  all  the 
tissues  affected  by  the  disease,  then  take  some  quicklime,  and  while  it 
is  still  warm  rub  all  the  wound  and  especially  the  parts  mostly  infected. 
This  done,  cover  the  same  to  about  one-third  of  an  inch  thick  with  the 
same  lime,  but  cold,  and  cover  the  whole  with  paper  or  something  else. 
Two  mouths  later  take  everything  off  and  you  will  find  the  wood  with- 
out any  alteration. 

(2)  To  preserve  the  tree  from  the  disease,  mix  9  parts  of  lime  and  1 
part  of  ashes,  and  dissolve  the  same  like  whitewash.  Then  dig  a  ditch 
around  the  tree,  about  3  feet  in  diameter,  by  unearthing  the  largest 
roots  of  the  tree,  and  pour  into  the  ditch  about  30  or  40  liters  (7J  or  10 
gallons)  of  the  compost  stuff,  and  with  such  a  proportion  for  large,  adult 
trees,  treat  the  others  according  to  age  and  size.  In  conclusion,  to  avoid 
such  disease,  for  new  groves,  bitter-orange  seed  is  recommended  for 
planting,  and  then  grafting  at  pleasure,  as  above  stated. 

Beplanting. — On  replanting  young  trees  for  final  stay,  as  per  expe- 
rience had  by  several  orange  and  lemon  growers  in  this  district,  I  un- 
derstand that  one  of  the  most  interesting  points  is  the  secret  that  when 
said  plantingtis  to  be  done,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  the  end  piece  off  the 
main  root,  about  3  inches  long,  for  the  reason  that,  if  left  on,  it  would 
draw  all  the  humor  from  the  ground,  and  would  also  prolong  the  growth 
and  the  trees  to  bear  fruits.  I  may  here  give  the  total  production  'of 
this  fruit  in  the  whole  Kingdom  of  Italy.  Out  of  the  twelve  agrarian 
regions  into  which  Italy  is  divided,  only  in  two  of  them  the  acid  fruit 
tree  is  not  cultivated,  that  is,  in  Piedmont,  Emilia,  and  a  part  of  Lazio. 


OKA  M>    LliMONS    IN    SICILY.  521 

According  to  a  statistical  report  in  1880,  by  ProfessorCassella,  it  seems 
that  the  ior;»l  production  of  said  fruit  amounted  to  as  follows,  viz: 

KV.uione  meridionale  Adriatica 85,000,000 

Kfiiiono  metidionaie  Mediterranea 725,000,000 

Regione  meridionale  Sicilia x. 1,622,000,000 


Total  fruits 2,432,000,000 

VINCENT  LAMANTIA, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Catania ,  January  22,  1890. 


SICILY. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JONJBS  OF  MESSINA. 

KEEPING  QUALITY  OF  SICILY  LEMONS. 

Properly  speaking,  no  process  for  curing  lemons  is  employed  by  the 
fruit-growers  of  Messina.  That  lemons  grown  in  the  Messina  district 
keep  perfectly  for  months  before  being  put  on  the  market  is  due  to  the 
great  care  in  gathering,  handling,  and  packing  the  fruit ;  to  their  keep- 
ing qualities  derived  from  the  nature  of  soil  on  which  they  are  grown, 
climate,  and  variety  cultivated. 

First.  The  lemons  are  gathered  with  great  care,  the  peduncle  being  cut 
(not  broken)  off  smoothly  near  to  the  lemon.  The  fruit  is  carried  to  the 
warehouse  in  baskets  lined  with  cloth,  where  it  is  spread  out  on  the 
floor  (if  of  wood)  or  on  large  mats  (if  the  floor  be  of  stone)  and  allowed 
to  dry  from  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours — even  longer  if  there  is 
sufficient  room  in  warehouse — but  never  more  than  six  days.  -  If  lemons 
piled,  say,  4  feet  deep  are  left  for  any  length  of  time,  the  first  layers 
become  greatly  heated,  and  soon  spoil.  The  fruit,  having  been  carefully 
selected,  is  next  wrapped  in  tissue-paper  and  packed  in  boxes.  Upon 
reaching  the  city  warehouses  the  exporters,  before  shipping,  have  the 
boxes  re  inspected;  the  least  defect  in  the  fruit  causes  its  rejection. 
When  packed  for  the  last  time,  prior  to  shipping,  care  is  taken  to  pack 
each  lemon  with  its  nose  down.  If  the  boxes  are  kept  any  length  of 
time  in  warehouses,  they  are  opened  every  three  weeks  and  each  lemon 
carefully  examined.  A  lemon  with  a  blemish,  so  slight  as  to  be  notice- 
able, but  to  an  expert,  is  thrown  out  as  unfit  for  exportation.  Lemon- 
juice  and  essence  are  extracted  from  these  rejected  lemons.  The  fruit 
contained  in  each  box  must  be  of  the  same  size;  an  easy  matter,  owing 
to  the  monthly  harvestings.  Sizers  are  unknown  here. 

Lemons  are  gathered  from  October  to  August ;  they  should  not  weigh 
less  than  80  grams  each  or  average  more  than  from  2 J  to  3  inches  in 
diameter  when  gathered. 


522        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

There  are  three  harvests  of  the  true  lemon — the  November  cut,  the 
December-January  cut,  the  April-May  cut.  The  true  lemon  is  produced 
from  the  April-May  bloom  ;~the  bastard  lemon,  from  the  irregular  bloom 
of  February,  March,  June,  and  July.  The  true  lemon  requires  nine 
months  to  attain  maturity.  The  true  lemon  keeps  much  better  than 
the  bastard.  Lemons  gathered  in  November  are  of  a  deep  green  color ; 
after  remaining  in  boxes  from  six  weeks  to  two  months  they  turn  light 
yellow.  Lemons  cut  and  packed  in  November  show  300  to  the  box ;  the 
same  lemons  (having  shrunk)  when  repacked  in  January  show  360  to 
the  box ;  later  shrinkage  is  scarcely  noticeable.  The  November-cut 
lemon  keeps  better  than  that  of  any  other  cut ;  shipments  of  this  lemon 
are  frequently  made  as  late  as  May  to  New  York.  Lemons  gathered  in 
January  are  of  a  bright  yellow  color  and  are  not  kept  more  than  a 
month  in  the  warehouses  here  before  shipment. 

Second.  The  soils  best  adapted  to  the  lemon  are  the  argillo-calcareous 
and  the  calcareo-argillaceous.  Sandy  soil  is  not  well  adopted  to  lemon 
culture,  as  it  is  too  thirsty,  etc.  The  lemon  requires  an  equable  climate 
to  produce  perfect  fruit ;  in  this  district  climatic  influences  are  seldom 
injurious  to  the  fruit.  The  lemon  does  best  on  hill-sides,  facing  south. 
It  thrives  at  from  one-fourth  to  two  miles  from  the  sea-shore,  and  at  an 
elevation  of  1,500  feet. 

Little  or  no  chemical  fertilizers  are  used  in  these  groves,  and  stable 
manure  but  sparingly.  Water  is  the  great  fertilizer  on  this  island. 

May  not  our  fresh  soils  and  chemical  fertilizers  affect  ( the  keeping 
qualities  of  California  and  Florida  fruit? 

WALLACE  S.  JONES, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Messina,  May  30, 1890. 


SICILY. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WOODOOOK,  OF  OATANIA. 

(Republished  from  Consular  Report  No.  41£.) 

t 

ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  SICILY. 

In  answer  to  the  circular  of  the  Department  relative  to  the  culture  of 
the  orange,  lemon,  olive,  fig,  and  raisin,  I  have  the  honor  to  report  for 
niy  district  as  follows: 

The  Catania  consular  district  comprises  the  southeast  third  of  the 
island  of  Sicily  and  lies  between  36°  and  38°  north  latitude,  and  be- 
tween 11°  and  13°  east  (Greenwich)  longitude. 

The  province  of  Catania  takes  in  the  volcano  of  .ZEtna  and  the  rich 
zone  of  lava  soil  that  surrounds  it.  The  general  trend  of  the  land  is 
from  the  sea-shore  upward  to  the  summit  of  this  mountain,  which  rises 


ORANGES    AND    LEMONS    IN    SICILY.  523 

to  an  altitude  of  10,872  feet,  being  over  two  miles  high.  The  soil  is 
composed  of  disintegrated  lava,  and  is  among  the  richest  and  most  pro- 
ductive of  the  world.  This  inclined  plane  is  habitable  to  within  9J 
miles  of  the  crater,  and  is  densely  populated,  the  population  being  1,424 
to  the  square  mile,  exceeding  that  of  any  other  part  of  Italy.  The  cli- 
mate is  serai-tropical,  temperate,  or  frigid,  in  accordance  with  the  alti- 
tude, the  different  zones  being  represented  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  in 
the  ascent  from  the  sea  to  the  top  of  ^tna. 

The  climate  is  here  (Catania)  in  winter  mild  and  salubrious.  I  have 
been  here  since  the  1st  of  October  last.  Frost  is  seldom  known  in  this 
lower  altitude.  We  had  none  during  the  past  winter,  though  the  citi- 
zens called  it  a  cold  winter.  I  am  forcibly  impressed  with  the  similarity 
of  this  climate  to  that  of  Southern  California,  having  passed  several 
months  in  that  part  of  the  State. 

From  the  sea  up  ward  to  an  altitude  of  from  700  to  1,000  feet  the  land- 
scape is  beautified  by  groves  of  orange,  lemon,  fig,  and  olive  trees,  and 
vineyards  of  grape,  all  of  luxuriant  growth. 

Oranges  and  lemons  are  here  designated  as  "marina"  (sea  coast), 
growing  in  the  lower  altitudes  near  the  sea,  and  "montane"  (of  the 
mountain),  growing  in  the  higher  altitudes.  The*  "moutano,"  or  mount- 
ain fruit,  is  the  choicest,  and  commands  the  best  prices  in  the  market, 
but  the  crop  is  not  so  sure,  owing  to  the  frost.  The  marina  orchards 
boar  more  abundantly,  and  the  crop  is  considered  a  certainty.  Of  the 
fruits  there  are  two  kinds,  the  oval  and  the  round.  The  trees  that  bear 
the  oval  fruit  are  preferred.  Those  trees  that  blossom  several  times 
during  the  year  are  a  specialty  because  of  their  producing  fruit  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  the  season. 

Of  oranges  there  are  four  varieties,  the  round  and  oval  (as  above 
mentioned)  and  the  mandarin  and  bitter.  Of  these  the  oval  is  pre- 
ferred for  commerce,  being  more  durable.  The  round  is  sweeter  and 
larger.  These  two  kinds  are  the  fruit  of  export.  The  mandarin  is  a 
small  orange  of  excellent  flavor,  but  being  more  perishable  than  the 
other  varieties,  it  is  used  more  for  home  consumption  than  export. 

The  bitter  orange  is  very  hardy,  and  is  adapted  to  this  climate ;  it  is 
grown  for  the  purpose  of  propagating  the  other  varieties  by  budding 
or  grafting  them  upon  its  stock.  Its  fruit  is  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  preserves.  The  round  orange  begins  to  ripen  in  December,  the  oval 
in  January. 

Orange  and  lemon  trees  begin  to  bear  full  crops  when  they  are  from 
ten  to  fifteen  years  old.  The  time  of  full  bearing  depends  much  upon 
the  climate  (altitude),  cultivation,  and  fertility  of  the  soil.  As  to  the 
length  of  time  the  trees  will  remain  fruitful,  I  find  a  diversity  of  opinion. 
Some  say  that  varieties  of  the  orange  and  lemon  budded  upon  the  bitter 
orange  stock  will  remain  fruitful  from  one  to  two  centuries;  others  say 
from  forty  to  a  hundred  years.  When  not  thus  budded  upon  the  bitter 
orange  stock,  but  raised  from  the  seed,  the  trees  are  short-lived.  They 


524        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

become  diseased ;  a  gummy  substance  exudes  from  them ;  a  disease 
cankerous  in  nature  attacks  the  wood  and  they  soon  die.  The  bitter 
orange  tree  will,  without  doubt,  continue  to  bear  fruit  for  two  centuries. 
The  budding  process  is  generally  in  practice.  Grafting  is  but  little 
resorted  to. 

The  process  of  starting  an  orange  or  lemon  orchard  is  as  follows: 
1  (1)  The  seed  of  the  bitter  orange  is  planted.  When  the  young  plants 
are  a  year  old  they  are  transplanted.  When  they  have  grown  to  be 
about  one  inch  in  diameter  (three  or  four  years  old)  they  are  again  trans- 
planted and  set  in  the  place  in  the  orchard  where  they  are  to  remain.  The 
top  of  the  young  trees  are  then  cut  off  about  4  feet  above  the  ground. 
When  they  become  well  rooted  and  growing,  the  best  varieties  of  the 
orange  and  lemon  are  budded  upon  the  stalk.  Two  buds  are  gener- 
ally inserted,  and  upon  opposite  sides  of  the  plant.  From  these  buds 
branches  shoot  out,  and  when  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness  become 
of  a  reddish  color. 

The  trees  of  the  orange  and  lemon  are  subject  to  various  diseases.  A 
parasitic  growth  of  fungus  nature  frequently  appears  upon  the  bark  of 
the  trees.  Tbe  lemon  tree  is  more  subject  to  this  than  the  orange. 
This  growth  after  a  rain  (or  being  soaked  with  water)  is  removed  by 
scraping.  An  insect  of  a  dark  brown  color  called  the  orange  louse  is 
very  injurious  to  both  the  orange  and  lemon  by  infesting  the  bark, 
leaves,  and  fruit.  A  similar  insect  of  a  whitish  color,  known  as  the 
lemon  louse,  attacks  the  leaves  and  fruit  of  the  lemon,  but  not  the 
orange.  The  fruit  of  both  the  orange  and  lemon  are  sometimes  injured 
by  an  insect  called  the  fly.  This  insect  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
beginning  of  summer,  and  commences  its  devastation  by  stinging  the 
fruit  and  depositing  therein  its  eggs.  These  eggs  develop  into  grubs, 
which  destroy  the  fruit.  Plenty  of  sunlight  and  good  ventilation  are 
requisite  for  all  these  diseases.  Tar- water,  and  water  slightly  tinct- 
ured with  kerosene  are  used  as  a  wash  for  the  leaves  and  fruit,  being 
applied  with  a  sponge.  Soda-ash  is  also  used.  When  the  fly  first  ap- 
pears the  fruit  must  be  frequently  washed. 

These  remedies  are  only  of  temporary  benefit.  No  remedy  has  yet 
been  discovered  for  the  permanent  destruction  of  these  enemies  of  the 
orange  and  lemon,  especially  the  louse. 

The  distance  between  the  trees  to  be  maintained  in  planting  ki  the 
orchard  depends  much  upon  the  situation  of  the  ground,  the  quality  of 
the  soil  and  the  climate.  The  distance  varies  from  4  to  6  meters  (13  to 
lOJfeet). 

When  the  soil  is  loose,  rich,  and  easily  cultivated  the  lemon  trees  should 
be  planted  at  least  6  meters  (19  J  feet)  apart,  because,  under  these  circum- 
stances, the  trees  grow  luxuriantly  and  become  large.  When  the  situ- 
ation of  the  ground  is  such  that  ventilation  will  not  be  good  the  trees 
should  be  0  meters  (19 J  feet)  apart.  Where  the  soil  is  poor  and  the 
climate  cold,  so  that  the  trees  can  not  grow  large,  they  may  be  planted 


ORANGES    AND   LEMONS    IN   SICILY.  525 

nearer  to  each  other.  The  distance  to  be  maintained  between  orange 
i  is  from  4  to  4£  meters  (13  to  14  feet).  The  distance  must  vary  in 
itli  the  situation  and  quality  of  the  soil,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  lemon. 

Orange  and  lemon  trees  make  beautiful  the  upland  and  mountain 
side  with  their  vivid  green.  They  grow  luxuriantly  in  the  valleys,  and 
fringe  the  sea-coast  almost  to  the  water  line.  Those  orchards  yield  the 
results  which  are  most  distant  from  the  sea  and  are  not  of  such  an 
iiiie  as  to  be  affected  by  the  frost.  The  rich  valleys  above  the  sea- 
level,  where  an  abundance  of  water  can  be  had  for  irrigation,  abound 
in  the  best  orchards.  Some  orchards  here  reach  down  to  the  sea, 
within  330  feet  of  the  shore.  Such  a  location  is  of  course  not  desirable 
for  the  culture  of  this  fruit.  The  trees  so  near  the  sea  are  more  liable 
to  disease,  and  the  quality  of  the  fruit  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  the 
orchards  more  distant. 

Artificial  irrigation  is  necessary  in  this  climate.  Streams  that  tumble 
down  from  ^Etna  are  utilized  for  this  purpose.  Where  this  is  imprac- 
ticable, water  is  elevated  from  wells  by  steam  or  mule  power. 

The  ground  of  the  orchards  between  the  trees  must  be  cultivated.  It 
is  necessary  that  the  ground  be  kept  perfectly  clean.  The  soil  should 
be  worked  at  least  five  times  a  year,  commencing  in  March  and  ending 
in  October.  When  the  trees  are  young  and  small  it  is  not  customary 
to  work  the  soil.  It  is  thought  that  the  vegetable  growth  protects  the 
youug  plants  from  the  too-powerful  rays  of  the  sun. 

Many  sections  raise  crops  of  vegetables  between  the  trees.  This 
practice,  however,  is  condemned  by  the  best  fruit  culturists. 

The  cost  of  cultivation  in  the  best  orchards  per  annum  per  hectare 
(2r5Vb  acres),  on  the  average,  is  about  650  lire  ($125.45);  but  where 
extraordinary  outlays  must  be  made  for  streets  through  the  orchards 
(as  is  often  the  case  in  this  lava-covered  soil)  and  steam  power  for  irri- 
gation, the  cost  per  annum  per  hectare  (2^-0  acres)  may  be  2,000  lire 
G). 

On  the  average  a  lemon  tree  here  produces  1,000  lemons  per  annum ; 
an  orange  tree  GOO  oranges.  There  are  cases  where  trees  produce  ten 
times  this  number. 

The  Sicilians  regard  the  best  time  for  gathering  the  fruit  for  export 
is  in  the  mouth  of  November.  The  fruit  is  carefully  picked  from  the 
tree  by  hand,  caution  being  exercised  not  to  injure  the  same  by  the 
thorns  of  the  tree  or  rough  handling.  The  fruit  is  not  rudely  thrown 
into  a  box,  but  gently  placed  in  a  basket  lined  with  cloth.  The  stem 
is  left  on  the  fruit,  cutting  it  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  sur- 
•  >f  the  fruit. 

Prior  to  boxing,  the  fruit  is  cleaned  of  insects  or  other  injurious  mat- 
ter. The  box  used  here  generally  is  capable  of  holding  from  250  to  360 
of  the  fruit,  there  being  a  partition  in  the  center.  It  is  lined  with  com- 
mon silk  paper.  Each  individual  fruit  is  encased  in  the  same  kind  of 


526        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

paper  prior  to  boxing.  Care  is  taken  tliatuo  nail  protrudes  in  the  box 
to  injure  the  fruit  prior  to  placing  it  therein.  The  boxes  are  not  made 
air  tight,  but  interstices  are  left  between  the  boards  for  ventilation. 

Lemons  gathered  in  the  month  of  November  and  thus  boxed  are  sup- 
posed to  keep  without  spoiling  for  six  months.  Oranges  will  not  keep 
so  long.  The  boxes  should  be  occasionally  opened,  and  any  infected 
ones  removed  therefrom;  especially  should  this  be  done  just  prior  to 
shipment. 

During  the  year  1882  there  were  exported  to  the  United  States  from 
Catania  of  oranges  and  lemons  241,107  boxes,  of  which  the  invoiced 
value  was  $441,227.72. 

During  the  year  1883  there  were  exported  to  the  United  States  from 
Catania  228,857  boxes,  invoiced  at  $324,2c$4.84. 

For  much  of  the  information  relative  to  the  culture  of  these  fruits  I 
acknowledge  myself  indebted  to  our  worthy  vice-consul,  Mr.  Augustus 
Peratoner,  who  owns  several  fine  estates  upon  which  are  splendid  groves 
of  orange  and  lemon. 

ALBERT  WOODCOCK, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Catania,  May  21,  1884. 


VENETIA. 
EEPORT  BY  CONSUL  NOTES,  OF  VENICE. 

(Reprinted  from  Consular  Report  No.  41J.) 
LEMON  CULTURE  IN  VENETIA. 

Although  the  principal  center  of  exotic  culture  is  not  found  within 
the  consular  district  of  Venice,  some  account  of  the  circumstances  and 
methods  connected  with  its  practice  in  the  province  of  Yerona  may  be 
of  i  interest  to  fruit-growers  in  answer  to  the  inquiries  of  the  Depart- 
ment. 

The  Lake  of  Garda,  the  largest  of  the  Italian  lakes,  while  peAetrat- 
ing  with  its  northern  extremity  far  into  the  mass  of  the  Great  Alps, 
opens  out  into  the  plain  to  the  south  with  barely  the  difference  of  level 
necessary  to  contain  its  waters,  and  the  more  completely  it  allows  the 
warm  air  of  the  plain  to  penetrate  into  its  deeply  embedded  mountain 
recesses  the  more  completely  is  the  tepid  element  sheltered  and  isolated 
from  the  colder  currents  of  the  north.  Bathed  in  this  genial  atmos- 
phere, the  precipitous  shores  form  a  range  of  natural  espaliers,  exposed 
to  the  southern  sun  in  all  its  course  and  enjoying  a  climate  of  their  own, 
on  which  the  cultivation  of  oranges  and  lemons  has  been  a  profitable 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  VENETIA.  527 

industry  for  several  centimes.  It  is  on  the  western  shore  of  the  lake, 
in  the  region  of  Mreseia,  that  both  fruits  are  produced  witli  success;  while 
to  tin  nd  properly  within  the  Venetian  territory,  the  lemon  only, 

being  the  more  hardy,  is  cultivated  to  any  extent  for  commerce,  the 
orange  being  more  rarely  planted,  except  for  experiment  or  ornament; 
its  iruit  does  not  generally  come  to  maturity. 

Cultication. — The  lemon  is  cultivated  in  the  open  air  and  succeeds 
perfectly,  though  requiring  the  nicest  care  and  attention.  It  demands 
a  soil  sufficiently  loose  and  fresh  to  permit  the  free  passage  of  solar 
heat  without  baking  or  shrinking,  and  largely  composed  of  the  sub- 
stances most  suitable  for  the  formation  of  acids,  of  sweet  and  aromatic 
juices,  such  as  the  alkalies,  and  particularly  those  of  potassa  and  lime. 

Analysis. — An  analysis  of  the  trunk  and  fruit  of  the  lemon  shows  in  the 
fruit  the  presence  of  47.48  per  cent,  of  potassa,  22.82  per  cent,  of  lime, 
and  11.57  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid;  in  the  trunk,  55.13  per  cent,  of 
lime,  17.09  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  14.76  per  cent,  of  potassa, 
with  smaller  proportions  of  other  substances. 

Manures. — The  manure  should  be  of  a  nature  to  complete  the  natural 
resources  of  the  soil,  by  still  further  additions  of  alkaline  and  azotated 
substances ;  stable  manure,  mixed  with  leaves  and  sea- weed,  and  left  to 
decay  together  till  they  form  a  loam,  to  which  may  be  added  powdered 
lime  or  plaster  of  Paris  and  night  soil;  some  cultivators  use  also  the 
refuse  of  the  wine  and  oil  press. 

Propagating. — For  propagating  the  plants,  a  nursery  is  generally 
formed  in  some  spot  particularly  favorable  for  soil  and  exposure,  and 
here  the  plantation  may  be  made  in  various  ways — with  the  seed  simply, 
with  a  portion  of  root  which  has  already  given  a  sprout,  with  slips 
buried  till  they  commenced  taking  root.  From  the  seed  sown  in  spring 
the  plants  are  more  robust,  but  such  plants  always  require  to  be  grafted 
later,  which  is  done  sometimes  in  the  simple  split,  but  oftener  by  the 
insertion  of  a  bud  on  some  thrifty  shoot  from  one  of  the  lower  branches. 

The  young  plants  remain  for  six  years,  more  or  less,  in  the  nursery, 
and  here,  or  in  the  pots  or  cases  to  which  they  are  sometimes  trans- 
ferred, they  receive  the  care  necessary  to  bring  them  to  a  certain  de- 
gree of  vigor  and  solidity,  as  well  as  the  pruning  and  shaping  generally 
to  the  form  of  a  sphere  or  hollow  vase. 

Transplanting. — When  ready  for  transplanting,  the  ground  is  prepared 
by  digging  a  broad  ditch  the  whole  length  of  the  proposed  line  of  trees, 
taking  care  to  break  the  earth  as  deeply  and  widely  as  possible  to  give 
free  passage  for  warmth  and  moisture,  and  clearing  of  any  stones  or 
large  pebbles.  The  plants  are  removed  from  the  nursery  or  case,  with 
the  mass  of  earth  adhering  to  their  roots,  and  set  in  the  earth  9  or  10 
inches  deep.  Care  should  be  taken  at  the  same  time  to  separate  and 
spread  any  roots  too  closely  grouped  together,  or  tending  too  much  in- 
ward or  downward.  In  refilling  in  and  around  the  roots  manure  should 
be  used  liberally,  and  a  slight  elevation  of  earth  raised  around  the  spot 


528  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

to  retain  water.  The  plants  are  sometimes  grafted  before  this  transfer, 
sometimes  only  a  year  or  two  after.  Each  plant  should  have  about  25 
square  yards  of  open  ground  around  it ;  in  these  intervening  spaces, 
however,  small  shoots  are  sometimes  cultivated  for  sale  or  transplanta- 
tion, but  in  all  cases  the  earth  should  be  well  spaded  during  the  first 
year  at  least,  lopping  the  roots  which  come  too  near  the  surface.  The 
young  trees  are  sheltered  during  the  winter,  and  the  ration  of  manure 
for  each  is  prepared  beforehand  and  placed  under  cover  near  it  for  pro- 
tection from  cold,  to  be  well  worked  into  the  ground  with  the  first  spad- 
ing, which  takes  place  at  the  commencement  of  vegetation  in  spring. 

At  the  same  time  the  tree  should  be  pruned  of  its  dried  or  weakly 
branches  and  leaves,  which  would  become  points  of  attack  for  mildew 
or  insects,  as  well  as  to  maintain  its  compact  and  advantageous  form, 
and  this  cleansing  operation,  after  being  carefully  attended  as  soon  as 
the  advancing  season  offers  some  security  against  returns  of  cold,  should 
be  renewed  towards  the  1st  of  July,  when  the  first  period  of  vegetation 
has  well  marked  the  relative  vigor  and  promise  of  the  young  shoots. 

The  plants  should  be  watered  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
season,  using  for  the  purpose  water  from  which  the  chill  has  been  re- 
moved by  standing  in  the  sun.  This  is  done  here  mostly  by  hand  with 
the  simple  old-fashioned  watering-pot. 

Where  the  plants  are  kept  in  pots  or  cases,  here  as  elsewhere,  they 
are  more  for  ornament  than  profit,  and  in  this  case  the  filling  is  entirely 
of  manure,  and  should  be  renewed  every  three  years.  At  a  certain 
stage  of  growth,  also,  it  is  necessary  to  transfer  the  plant  to  a  larger 
recipient,  though  one  change  of  the  kind  is  generally  sufficient,  a  case 
of  2  to  2 £  feet  in  diameter  being  large  enough  for  it  at  almost  any  age. 
The  operation  should  not  be  executed  without  due  precaution.  The 
plant,  enveloped  in  cloths  or  rags,  and  lifted  gently  by  ropes  and  pul- 
leys, should  suffer  no  violence ;  while  suspended,  the  smaller  and  too 
extended  filaments  of  root  trimmed  away,  and  lowered  with  its  mass  of 
earth  undisturbed  into  its  new  receptacle  on  a  stratum  of  fine  gravel 
prepared  for  it,  the  empty  spaces  filled  as  before  with  manure  and  loam 
well  worked  into  the  roots.  The  plant  should  then  stand  in  the  shade 
for  about  eight  days,  guarded,  as  far  as  possible,  from  sudden  changes 
of  temperature,  and  copiously  watered,  admitting,  however,  the  external 
air  if  in  the  greenhouse,  when  the  weather  permits  it.  i 

Finally,  and  to  prove  that  after  all  Italy  is  not  the  natural  home  for 
these  delicate  products,  even  with  all  these  precautions,  the  orange 
and  lemon  plants,  which  thrive  here  in  the  open  air  during  summer, 
can  not  risk  the  winter  without  protection,  either  in  the  greenhouse  or 
under  provisory  sheds  of  light  planking,  provided  with  stoves  and  con- 
ducting tubes  sufficient  to  maintain  a  certain  uniformity  of  temperature 
in  every  part  of  the  inclosure.  Many  cultivators  regulate  their  practice 
in  heating  by  the  simple  expedient  of  placing  a  vessel  of  water  near 
the  plant,  and  light  their  stoves  when  the  water  begins  to  freeze.  This, 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  THE  AZORES.         529 


ho  \ve\vr,  is  considered  dan^orons,  as  the  injury  may  be  already  done 
before  the  signal  is  given  or  observed,  and  the  plant  once  attacked  by 
frost  is  beyond  remedy.  More  careful  gardeners  use  the  thermometer, 
and  begin  heating  when  it  marks  6°  or  7°  Fahr.  above  freezing  point, 
particularly  if  the  weather  is  clear  and  dry. 

With  all  these  risks  and  precautions  the  cultivation  can  not  but  be 
regarded  as  exotic  and  artificial,  and  the  fruit,  though  large  and  hand- 
some, is  watery  in  quality,  with  much  of  its  substance  taken  up  by  the 
disproportionate  thickness  of  the  rind  ;  nor  has  it  the  concentrated 
acid  of  the  lemon  produced  in  more  congenial  climates.  The  yield,  also, 
is  very  precarious,  and  always  liable  to  be  prostrated  by  any  extra- 
ordinary severity  of  the  season.  It  is  estimated  for  the  average  year 
at  500,000  lemons  of  various  sizes,  with  an  average  value  of  15,000 
francs  ($3,000). 

Mo  WALLER  B.  NOTES, 
Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Venice,  March  3,  1884. 


PORTUGAL. 

THE  AZORES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  MOREIRA,  OF  ST.  MICHAEL'S. 

Varieties.— The  name  of  best  variety  for  profit  is  the  common  orange 
(Citrus  aurantium),  or  China  orange,  which  is  the  orange  exported. 

Names  of  other  choice  varieties  worthy  of  culture  are :  the  "  selecta" 

(selected)  without  pips,  which  never  attains  a  deep  color  and  does  not 

ripen  well  till  March  or  April;  the  tangerine,  a  variety  of  mandarin,  a 

delicious  small  orange,  but  not  cultivated  to  any  great  extent;  a  few 

s  are  shipped,  but  of  the  "selecta"  hardly  a  package  is  exported. 

Situation. — The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  above-named  are 
grown  in  almost  all  situations  of  the  island ;  distance  from  sea,  from 
one-half  up  to  three  miles ;  elevation  above  sea-level,  from  80  to  400  feet; 
for  exposure  to  sun  eastern  aspect  desirable;  they  grow  in  all  lands, 
but  level  laud  is  preferable. 

Soil. — Light  soil  and  also  argillaceous  mixed  with  pumice-stone. 

Climate. — Generally  moist. 

Temperature. — Winter  months,  minimum,  48°,  maximum,  75° ;  aver- 
age, 61°.  Summer,  minimum,  50°,  maximum,  82J°;  average,  69J°. 
Nights  generally  cold  in  winter  but  very  warm  in  summer;  few  sul- 
try days;  atmosphere  moist. 

Bain-fall  averages  40  inches  per  annum  on  the  lower  grounds,  but  on 
the  higher  lands  probably  60  inches.  Our  soil  is  porous,  the  rain  soon 
sinks  into  the  ground,  and  the  soil  soon  dries  up,  therefore  genial 


530        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

showers  in  summer  are  very  beneficial.  In  some  years  there  are 
droughts  in  summer,  and  the  fruit  trees  suffer  much ;  consequently  the 
fruit  is  small  and  frequently  rough. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  not  required. 

Cultivation. — There  is  no  particular  method  of  cultivation. 

Fertilizers. — About  February  lupin  is  sown  broadcast,  and  when 
about  2  feet  high  is  dug  into  the  ground ;  some  people  (but  very  few) 
sometimes  use  farm -yard  manure,  and  guano  has  sometimes  been 
applied. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  not  generally  practiced  before 'the  trees  attain 
an  age  of  seven  years,  and  then  at  about  4  feet  from  the  ground. 

Picking. — Picking  begins  about  the  15th  of  November  and  continues 
up  to  March ;  the  fruit  is  rot  properly  ripe  until  January. 

Curing  and  packing. — There  is  no  system  of  curing.  The  fruit  is 
packed  in  boxes  containing  from  400  to  500  oranges,  according  to  size 
of  fruit,  wrapped  in  Indian -corn  leaves. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Distance  from  plant  to  plant,  in  rows,  15 
to  20  feet.  If  planted  closer,  which  is  sometimes  done,  the  trees  shoot 
up  too  high  and  the  branches  touch  one  another,  preventing  the  sun 
from  shining  into  the  trees  as  much  as  desirable.  The  trees  are  now 
mostly  propagated  by  selecting  a  healthy  branch  about  half  an  inch  in 
diameter,  taking  off  the  bark  all  round  about  an  inch  in  height,  then 
putting  round  it  some  sifted  soil.  When  it  begins  to  throw  out  roots 
it  is  cut  off  from  the  tree  and  planted  out  in  beds  till  it  attains  a  height 
of  at  least  3  feet,  and  then  it  is  ready  to  be  transplanted.  They  are 
also  propagated  by  layers,  that  is,  by  pegging  down  the  lower  branches 
and  grafting  in  the  ordinary  way.  From  seedlings  the  oranges  are 
better  than  from  layers,  but  they  take  a  long  time  before  they  produce 
any  fruit.  Sometimes  also  the  trees  are  budded.  The  orchards  are 
from  one-third*  of  an  acre  up  to  20  acres  in  size. 

Maturity. — The  trees  will  produce  in  seven  years,  not  however  in  large 
quantities,  but  the  largest  crops  may  be  expected  when  they  attain  the 
age  of  twenty  years  up  to  forty  years,  at  which  latter  period  they  begin 
to  produce  less. 

There  are  no  insect  pests. 

Many  years  ago  there  was  a  fair  quantity  of  lemons  and  some  were 
shipped,  but  now  there  are  very  few.  Nobody  ever  thinks  of  planting 
lemon  trees  except  for  their  own  use,  or  for  sale  in  the  market,  where 
sometimes  5  cents  are  given  for  one.  None  are  now  shipped. 

AU  GUSTO   S.  MOREIRA, 

Acting  Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

8t.  Michael's,  Azores,  December  31, 1889. 


ORANGES    AND   LEMONS    IN    THE    AZORES.  531 

THE   AZORES. 

REPORT  RY  CONSUL  DABNEY,  OF  FAYAL. 

[Repnolishod  from  Consular  Report  No.  41$.] 

ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  THE  AZORES. 

The  lemon,  never  raised  in  large  quantities  in  these  islands,  proba- 
bly been  use  its  quality  did  not  make  it  a  favorite,  has  become  quite  ex- 
tinct as  an  article  of  trade  in  consequence  of  the  liability  to  disease  of 
the  tree  roots.  The  orange  of  the  Azores,  the  China  orange,  is  a  fine 
fruit,  but  of  so  perishable  a  nature  as  to  be  incapable  of  resisting  a  long 
voyage.  In  Fayai  and  Terceira  it  has  ceased  to  be  exported,  not  be- 
ing able  to  compete  in  price  with  oranges  sent  from  other  countries  in 
the  markets  of  England,  the  only  markets  really  within  the  reach  of  so 
delicate  a  fruit.  At  the  island  of  St.  Michael,  which  has  always  been 
immensely  in  advance  of  the  others  in  point  of  quantity  produced  and 
exported,  the  trade,  for  the  same  reason,  although  yet  an  important  one, 
lias  diminished  very  seriously.  From  the  United  States  consular  agent 
at  that  island  I  have  obtained  the  most  of  the  following  information 
regarding  the  orange  culture.  The  varieties  preferred  are  the  "  selecta  " 
and  the  "  navel  n  orange,  the  Latin  names  of  which  he  could  not  obtain. 
The  trees  come  into  full  bearing  at  the  age  of  eight  or  ten  years,  and 
continue  to  bear  until  forty  or  upwards — in  by-gone  times  to  a  much 
greater  age.  They  are  obtained  from  seedlings,  on  which  at  the  proper 
age  the  best  varieties  are  grafted,  and  also  by  the  system  of  layering; 
the  former  are  naturally  longer-lived  trees. 

The  orange  tree  at  St.  Michael  appears  to  be  subject  to  a  drying  up 
of  the  branches  without  any  apparent  cause  and  without  the  presence 
of  any  insect  or  fungus.  No  remedy  has  yet  been  discovered  for  this,  I 
am  told  (may  it  not  be  from  exhaustion  of  the  soil,  probably!).  It  is 
customary  to  set  out  orange  trees  about  twenty-five  feet  apart.  The 
best  orange  gardens  are  some  2  miles  from  the  coast-line.  The  spaces 
between  the  trees  are  sometimes  filled  with  corn  or  vegetables,  but  the 
more  sagacious  cultivators  abstain  from  this.  Where  the  garden  is  de- 
voted exclusively  to  oranges  it  is  hoed  twice  a  year,  but  as  a  rule  not 
manured  5  never  irrigated.  The  cost  of  cultivation  is  estimated  at  $20 
per  acre. 

An  acre  yields  about  40  boxes  of  a  size  to  contain  some  400  oranges  j 
the  value  at  the  present  time  problematical,  as  the  exportation  is  done 
by  the  garden  proprietors  banded  into  large  companies.  Formerly, 
when  more  or  less  of  the  fruit  was  bought  by  speculators  on  the  trees — 
all  expenses  being  for  this  account — it  was  sold  at  from  $1.50  to  $2  the 
"  English  box,'7  a  package  equivalent  to  three  Sicily  boxes,  or  contain- 
ing from  GOO  to  900  oranges,  according  to  size  of  fruit.  In  a  good  year 
as  many  as  250,000  or  300,000  of  such  boxes  were  exported  from  St. 


532         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Michael,  conveyed  by  small  fast-sailing  schooaers,  carrying  from  600 
to  1,200  boxes  of  that  size.  Of  late  years  the  carrying  has  been  clone 
by  steamers. 

The  Azorean  orange  has  been  with  few  exceptions  packed  in  corn 
husks,  it  being  found  that,  liable  as  it  is  to  decay,  the  husk,  being 
thicker  and  firmer  than  paper,  protects  the  sound  ones  more  effectively 
from  a  decayed  comrade. 

The  soil  of  these  islands,  though  generally  thin,  is  fairly  productive 
if  rain  does  not  fail  too  much  during  the  summer  months,  and  it  is  ob- 
served that  the  best  oranges  are  raised  on  rather  a  sandy  soil ;  those 
from  richer  ground  being  thicker  skinned  and  deficient  in  flavor.  The 
climate  is  decidedly  a  damp  one,  but  equable  in  temperature.  The 
mean  annual  temperature,  deduced  from  three  daily  observations  of 
a  Fahrenheit  thermometer  properly  placed  in  the  shade,  I  found  to  be 
62°j  the  maximum  observed  being  80°  and  the  minimum  44°. 

S.  W.  DABNEY, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,. 

Fayal,  'April  24,  1884. 


SPAIN. 

REPORl  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  LOEWENSTEIN,  OF  GRAO. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.   41^.] 
CULTIVATION  OF   THE   ORANGE   TREE. 

I  have  the  honor  to  forward  to  you  herewith  a  report  on  the  cultiva- 
tion and  propagation  of  the  orange  tree  in  this  province.  It  was  made 
out  after  consulting  the  most  eminent  cultivators  and  authors,  and  my 
fervent  desire  is  that  this  paper  may  be  useful  to  some  of  the  lesser- 
instructed  cultivators  of  this  tree  in  the  United  States. 

CLIMATE. 

The  orange  tree  does  not  thrive  in  the  open  air  except  a^bove  43° 
latitude,  and  then  in  sheltered  spots,  where  the  earth  always  preserves 
a  temperature  above  congealmeut  at  a  depth  of  0.02m  to  0.03m.  In 
these  cases  the  sap  of  the  roots,  which  is  always  in  mo  vein  out  in  the 
trees  of  permanent  leaves  even  in  winter,  defends  the  exposed  parts  of 
the  tree  from  congealment.  The  thermometer  has  been  known  as  low 
as  10°  Keauniur  without  the  orange  trees  perishing,  because  such  tem- 
perature was  not  sufficiently  continuous  to  penetrate  to  any  depth  in 
the  soil,  besides  which  the  thaw  that  succeeded  was  accompanied  with 
a  cloudy  sky.  In  short,  the  orange  tree  can  be  cultivated  with  perfect 
security  in  the  open  air  where  the  temperature  is  not  lower  than  3° 


CULTIVATION    OF   THE    ORANGE    TREE   IN   SPAIN.  533 

Reaumur.  In  the  spots  most  favored  this  condition  is  not  met  with  at  a 
greater  altitude  than  thatof  400  meters.  When  the  average  temperature 
readies  from  15°  to  16°  the  apparent  vegetation  of  the  orange  tree 
comiMiMuvs,  which,  as  a  rule,  takes  place  in  the  month  of  March.  Tlie 
blossoming  requires  a  mean  temperature  of  18°  centigrade,  Reaumur, 
the  tirst  flowers  appearing  in  April  and  frequently  continuing  through- 
out the  whole  of  May.  The  blossoms  are  found  on  the "  secondary 
branches,  but  principally  on  the  tertian  ones,  or  in  general  those  formed 
during  the  previous  year;  but  this  rule,  which  is  the  most  regular,  is 
not  the  same  everywhere.  Selling  the  fruit  too  late,  and  the  consequent 
working  and  manuring  of  the  grounds  (by  reason  thereof)  out  of  the 
proper  time  for  so  doing,  besides  which,  in  consequence  of  the  scarce- 
ness of  irrigation  in  summer  for  want  of  water,  a  great  disorder  in  the 
natural  course  of  vegetation  is  occasioned.  With  reference  to  the  height 
above  sea-level,  the  majority  of  the  orchards  range  between  4  and  30 
meters.  The  temperature  of  this  province,  Valencia,  is  very  mild,  and 
while  it  seldom  reaches  as  low  as  zero,  many  parts  are  protected  from 
north  winds  by  different  mountains. 

The  climate  of  the  districts  where  the  orange  tree  is  cultivated  in- 
Valencia  is,  as  aforesaid,  benign,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  orange, 
lemon,  citron,  palm,  locust  bean,  and  various  other  trees,  as  also  shrubs, 
all  of  which  are  delicate,  thrive  freely  in  the  open  air.  Further,  the 
jujube,  fig,  pomegranate,  almond,  and  olive  trees,  the  vine,  and  the 
sugar  cane,  also  flourish  here  luxuriantly.  The  dwarf  fan-palm  grows 
spontaneously. 

The  rSsume  of  the  meteorological  observations  made  and  published 
during  the  year  from  1st  December,  1881,  to  the  30th  of  November,  1882, 
at  the  Observatory  of  Valencia,  is  as  follows  (barometer  being  in  milli- 
meters and  at  zero,  thermometer  of  Reaumur,  centigrade)  : 

Meteorological  observations. 

Millimeters. 

Average  pressure  of  barometer 762.  97 

Maximum  pressure  of  barometer  (January  17) 781. 01 

Minimum  pressure  of  barometer  (October  27) 745.94 

Oscillation 35.07 

Degrees. 

Average  temperature 16.2 

Maximum  temperature  in  the  sun  (September  30) 43.0 

nre  in  the  shade  (July  10) 3G.  0 

Mi iii in u in  temperature  in  the  air  (December  27  and  January  6) 1.1 

Minimum  temperature  in  the  reflector  (December  27  and  January  6) 0. 0 

Average  oscillation  of  temperature 13.3 

imidity 61.  0 

Maximum  of  hujnidity  (May  17) 94.0 

Minimum  of  humidity  (April  25) 20.0 

Average  tension 11.0 

Maximum  tension  (August  19) , 23.9 


534        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Degrees. 

Minimum  tension  (December  24) 3.0 

Average  evaporation 9. 1 

Maximum  evaporation  (July  8) 24.  0 

Total  of  evaporation 3,340.9 

Rainy  days 48 

Days  of  inappreciable  rain 22 

Stormy  days 7 

Day  s  of  snow -- 1 

Rain-fall  during  the  year 420.5 

Rain-fall,  maximum  (September  7) 92. 0 

Kilometers. 
Average  velocity  of  wind 283 

Maximum  velocity  of  wind  (February  26) 962 

Minimum  velocity  of  wind  (January  1  and  August  30) 40 

Frequency  of  the  winds.     (Observed  twice  during  the  year.) 

North 70 

Northeast — 134 

East 126 

Southeast 105 

South 11 

Southwest 37 

West 130 

Northwest 117 

Atmospheric  state. 

Clear  days .. —  ., 167 

Cloudy  days * .- 97 

Covered  days 101 

Days  of  calm 51 

Daj's  of  breeze  . 274 

Days  of  wind 39 

Days  of  storm 1 

The  rain  when  the  weather  is  not  stormy  is  nearly  always  accom- 
panied by  south  or  southeast  winds,  and  the  rainiest  months  of  the 
year,  or  at  least  those  when  the  rains  which  are  most  beneficial  for  the 
soil  occur,  are  November,  February,  and  April,  although  in  consequence 
of  the  great  felling  of  trees,  which  has  taken  place  during  the  present 
century,  as  also  owing  to  unknown  causes,  the  rains  are  muchness  fre- 
quent than  they  were  last  century.  In  this  province  electricity  exists 
to  a  very  great  extent  in  the  atmosphere  by  reason  of  the  dryness  of 
the  climate  and  the  pureuess  of  the  sky,  especially  in  the  mountainous 
districts. 

SOIL. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  soil  in  this  region  is  tribasic,  cretace- 
ous, and  tertiary,  and  contains  a  large  proportionate  admixture  of  clay, 
sand,  and  lime,  which  is  the  true  reason  why  the  earth  in  this  prov- 
ince is  so  very  fertile,  as  is  proved  by  the  luxuriant  vegetation,  the 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN.  535 

variety  of  produce,  and  the  richness  of  this  fortune-favored  district. 
Tfie  color  of  the  earth  in  the  parts  where  there  is  no  irrigation  is,  in 
general,  red,  but  this  changes  to  gray  when  irrigation  commences' 
and  manure  is  employed.  In  parts  where  vegetable  refuse  and  abun- 
dance of  farm  manure  form  the  greater  portion  of  the  soil,  the  color  in- 
clines to  black. 

The  soil  should  be  at  least  one  meter  in  depth  and  should  be  subject 
to  irrigation.  It  should  further  be  of  a  middle  consistence,  silicious- 
argillaceous,  or  argillaceous-calcareous,  rather  damp,  but  without  being 
humid.  Chalky  soils,  more  or  less  pure,  those  completely  silicious,  and 
those  which  are  compact  argillaceous,  with  constant  humidity,  are  use- 
less. In  the  two  first  the  manures  decompose  rapidly  before  being  of 
service  to  the  roots,  and  they  require  excessive  irrigation,  which  weak- 
ens the  soil  and  exhausts  it.  In  the  latter  the  excessive  humidity  which 
is  constantly  retained  deprives  the  roots  of  atmospheric  influence  and 
causes  putrefaction.  A  soil  composed  of  clayey  marl  or  a  light  clay 
mixed  with  sand  is  most  suitable  for  the  cultivation  on  a  large  scale  of 
orange,  lemon,  and  other  trees  of  the  same  family.  The  soils  where 
the  orange-tree  thrives  well  are  of  very  distinct  composition,  as  there 
are  as  many  orangeries  on  santly  as  on  clayey  one's,  but  those  most  com- 
pact should  not  contain  more  than  65  per  cent,  of  fine  earth  (with  less 
than  0.005  millimeter  diameter),  and  on  reaching  this  limit  they  should 
have  a  sandier  earth  for  subsoil.  The  same  extreme  limits  which  the 
orange- tree  admits  in  its  physical  composition  are  also  admitted  by  the 
soil  with  regard  to  the  quantity  of  lime  contained  in  it,  for  while  in  cer- 
tain districts  (Benifayo)  the  earth  contains  no  carbonate  of  lime,  in 
other  parts  18.29  per  cent,  is  found,  and  recently  a  calcareous  earth  has 
been  examined,  the  same  being  of  great  depth,  and  has  been  found  to  con- 
tain 57.22  per  cent,  of  said  carbonate ;  notwithstanding  the  same,  the 
orange-trees  thrive  well.  These  earths  are  also  rich  in  potash,  and  con- 
taiu  this  matter  in  an  exceedingly  large  quantity  in  a  form  that  may  be 
considered  as  assimilable  with  the  tree,  so  that  in  such  districts  there 
is  no  necessity  of  employing  potash  for  manure.  Of  the  other  alimental 
principles  of  the  plants,  there  is  in  general  a  limited  quantity  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  in  some  parts  an  addition  of  magnesia. 

The  extraordinary  foliage  acquired  by  the  orange-tree  in  a  loose  soil, 
which  at  the  same  time  contains  what  is  necessary  for  its  proper  develop- 
ment, may  be  fully  appreciated  in  the  districts  of  Alcira  and  Carcagente, 
in  this  province,  which  districts  are  the  center  of  production,  and  the 
soil  in  which  is  loose  and  of  great  depth.  A  simple  analysis  of  a  sam- 
ple of  earth  taken  from  Carcagente  showed  that  it  did  not  effervesce 
with  acids,  whilst  a  sample  from  Alcira  did,  and  abundantly.  The  anal- 
of  100  grams  of  earth  from  Alcira  gave,  salt  of  lime  (carbonate), 
20  per  cent. ;  sand  (silicate),  70  per  cent.;  clay,  10  per  cent.  This  an- 
alysis, which  was  lightly  made,  is  sufficient  to  give  an  idea  of  the  soil 
in  which  the  orang3-tree  thrives  to  perfection. 
15GA 10 


536         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Thus  it  is  that  in  other  parts  (Castellon  de  la  Plana),  where  the  soil 
is  most  compact,  the  growth  is  slower ;  in  years  when  there  is  a  scarcity 
of  water  and  the  orchards  are  not  irrigated  at  the  proper  season,  the 
earth  becomes  so  compact  as  to  prevent  the  growth  of  the  small  life- 
giving  roots,  besides  depriving  them  of  the  beneficial  effect  of  the  at- 
mospheric air,  and  as  these  roots  cannot  then  properly  nourish  the  trees, 
the  latter,  little  by  little,  harden,  or,  in  other  words,  the  trunk  and 
branches  lose  the  green  color  they  should  have,  which  manifests  the 
abundance  of  sap  contained  by  them,  and  which  is  what  preserves  them 
tender,  a  thing  so  necessary  for  their  growth. 

From  the  preceding  it  will  be  seen  that  it  is  necessary  to  well  examine 
the  soil  (should  one  have  the  idea  of  converting  it  into  an  orange  gar- 
den) before  incurring  any  expense,  not  only  examining  the  surface,  but 
also  the  subsoil,  as  there  may  be  some  parts  where  the  soil  is  loose  and 
of  good  quality  on  the  surface,  but  very  compact  and  bad  beneath,  or 
vice  versa.  By  attending  to  this  the  proprietor  will  know  what  may  be 
expected  from  said  ground  and  to  what  cultivation  it  would  be  advisa- 
ble to  dedicate  it. 

PROPAGATION. 

Orange  trees  may  be  propagated  the  same  as  any  other  fruit 
tree,  either  from  seed,  whichis  the  natural  way  of  multiplication,  or 
from  cuttings,  which  is  artificial.  The  first  system,  viz,  from  seed, 
perpetuates  the  species  and  gives  origin  to  new  descriptions,  afterwards 
improved  by  cultivation.  The  second  method,  either  from  shoots,  cut- 
tings, or  grafting,  continues  the  race  and  at  the  same  time  accelerates  the 
fruitage,  which  is  always  later  with  the  trees  produced  by  the  first- 
named  system,  but  in  exchange  the  trees  raised  from  seed  are  more  ro- 
bust and  live  to  a  much  greater  age.  The  oldest  orange  trees  found^n 
this  province  clearly  demonstrate  that  the  primitive  trees  were  raised 
from  seed.  The  sweet  orange  does  not  thrive  well  when  raised  from 
shoots,  and  in  order  to  obtain  a  good  result  it  is  necessary  to  recur  to 
tightly  bandaging  them  so  as  to  favor  the  accumulation  of  juices,  which 
contribute  to  the  acceleration  of  the  unfolding  of  the  underground 
shoots.  The  bitter  orange  is  more  easily  cultivated. 

The  following  means  have  been  employed,  and  are  still  being  ised,  as 
by  the  same  froudose  trees,  bearing  a  large  quantity  of  fruit,  and  this 
of  good  quality,  are  obtained.  Said  means  are  these  :  First,  a  flower- 
pot is  obtained,  composed  of  two  pieces,  which  can  be  easily  fastened 
together  either  with  wire  or  strong  twine  passed  round  them  at  the  top 
and  also  at  the  bottom.  Then  some  straight  branches  of  about  the 
thickness  of  two  fingers  must  be  selected,  and  if  said  branches  are  very 
long  they  should  be  cut  down  to  the  length  of  1  £  meters ;  then  the  part 
that  has  to  be  placed  in  the  center  of  the  flower-pots  is  barked  all  round 
for  about  1J  inches,  and  immediately  bound  up  with  esparto-grass  cord- 
ing. As  soon  as  this  is  done  the  flower-pots  are  put  together  and  filled 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGK    TliKK    IN    SPAIN.  537 

\\itii  earth  and  stable  manure,  well  mixed  together  and  watered;  after 
this  they  are  watered  once  a  week.  At  the  end  of  a  year  the  roots  that 
have  formed  fill  nearly  the  inside  of  the  flower-pots,  and  then  the 
branches  at  the  lower  exterior  part  of  these  are  sawn  off  and  the  new 
orange  trees  taken  to  the  spot  where  they  are  to  be  planted.  For  plant- 
ing them  there  is  only  to  cut  the  wire  or  string  holding  the  flower-pots 
rlier,  and  if  they  are  well  looked  after  they  will  commence  bearing 
fruit  at  the  end  of  two  years. 

The  slips  of  the  sweet-orange  tree  rarely  strike  root,  or  at  least  such 
is  the  experience  of  farmers  here  who  have  tried  it. 

Till  the  disease  of  the  orange  tree  occurred  some  years  back,  the  prop- 
agation was  generally  effected  by  grafting  the  orange  on  a  slip  of 
lemon  tree,  but  since  then  cultivators  have  only  directed  their  attention 
to  obtaining  vigorous  plants  from  the  seed,  on  which  are  afterwards 
grafted  cuttings;  and  the  seed  most  preferred  are  Niranjo  dulce franco, 
Bigarado  franco,  and  Bigarrado  Gallesio  ;  further,  should  short  shoots 
l»e  required,  the  trunk  should  be  raised  from  the  seed  of  the  sweet 
orange.  Those  raised  from  the  seed  of  the  bitter  orange,  either/rawco 
or  that  called  Gallesio,  are  more  vigorous,  more  luxuriant,  and  of  longer 
duration,  besides  which  they  better  resist  the  cold,  for  which  reason 
they  are  preferred  and  chosen  for  the  trunks  of  the  trees  of  tall  growth. 
The  fruit  of  the  first  named  is  considered  the  best. 

The  last  system  of  propagation,  being  that  adopted  in  this  province, 
viz,  grafting  on  &  franco  trunk,  a  series  of  operations  takes  place,  such 
as  the  establishment  of  a  nursery  for  raising  plants  from  the  seed,  a 
plantation  of  young  trees,  grafting,  and  transplanting. 

NTJESERIES. 

The  soil  where  this  is  effected  must  be  of  good  quality,  free  from 
creeping  herbs  or  weeds,  and  it  must  be  in  a  good  position  so  as  to 
receive  the  sun  in  all  parts,  besides  which  it  must  have  an  abund- 
ance of  water  for  irrigation.  All  seeds  are  sown  in  flat  plots,  and  if 
they  are  delicate  the  soil  is  manured  with  a  small  quantity  of  well- 
rotted  dung  finely  minced  so  as  to  allow  of  its  better  distribution  and 
at  the  same  time  produce  more  beneficial  effects;  the  soil  is  also  exca- 
vated and  loosened  so  as  to  give  the  plant  greater  freedom  for  growing. 
These  plots,  when  prepared,  are  opened  out  in  parallel  rows  of  about 
four  inches  deep  and  one  foot  distance  between  each. 

The  means  generally  adopted  in  this  province  for  the  establishment 
of  these  nurseries  are  as  follows :  The  raising  from  seed,  when  on  a 
small  scale,  is  done  in  large  boxes,  but  when  on  a  scale  of  any  impor- 
tance it  is  done  in  the  soil.  This  last  is  greatly  preferred,  because  the 
plants  have  more  roots  on  account  of  having  more  space  for  develop- 
ment. Although  the  temperature  of  this  zone  is  very  benign,  it  is  nev- 
ertheless necessary  to  select  a  sheltered  spot  for  the  nursery,  taking 
care  that  the  soil  be  rich,  nutritive,  of  sufficient  depth,  and  possessing 


538  FKUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

means  for  irrigation.  Having  everything  prepared,  the  next  thing  is 
to  obtain  the  quantity  of  seeds  required  for  sowing  when  the  proper 
time  comes  around;  The  general  method  is 'to  divide  the  orange  with 
a  knife,  taking  care  not  to  cut  it  so  deeply  as  to  touch  the  seed,  so  as  to 
in  nowise  injure  them ;  these  are  then  picked  out  and  placed  in  the 
shade  to  dry,  after  which  they  are  preserved,  either  in  paper  packets 
or  earthernware  pots,  in  a  (Iry  place.  Other  methods  for  obtaining  seed 
are  adopted,  but  the  preceding  is  considered  as  the  best.  Once  the 
seed  is  perfectly  obtained,  should- it  not  be  required  for  use  within  a 
short  time  or  period,  it  should  be  placed  in  layers  in  sand,  so  as  to 
prevent  its  getting  too  dry  and  opening.  A  thing  of  the  greatest  im- 
portance is  the  selection  of  the  orange  from  which  to  obtain  the  seed. 
Some  nurseries  have  been  planted  with  seed  obtained  from  the  No- 
vember orange,  and  but  few  trees  have  been  obtained,  only  a  small 
quantity  of  seed  germinating.  The  seed  of  more  seasoned  oranges  come 
up  in  greater  number  and  with  more  strength,  in  addition  to  which 
the  plants  are  much  more  vigorous,  Nurseries  may  be  created  with  the 
June  orange,  the  fruit  at  said  period  being  perfectly  seasoned,  but  this 
is  considered  too  late,  and  the  frost  or  cold  would  catch  the  plants 
whilst  still  very  tender.  The  average  season  for  planting  the  nurseries 
is  from  the  middle  of  February  till  the  middle  of  April,  thus  concili- 
ating everything :  first,  because  the  seed  then  obtainable  is  good  j  and, 
secondly,  there  is  sufficient  time  for  the  young  plants  to  acquire  suffi- 
cient strength  to  resist  the  cold  weather  ere  the  winter  sets  in. 

As  the  time  approaches  when  the  seed  should  be  sown,  the  soil  where 
such  is  to  be  effected  is  properly  prepared,  being  watered  and,  when  in 
fit  condition,  well  dug  up.  If  the  earth  is  very  compact  and  composed 
of  hard  lumps,  these  are  well  broken  up  and  smoked,  and  made  up  in 
hormigueros,  which  are  heaps  of  dry  vegetable  refuse  covered  over  with 
earth,  having  a  small  opening  near  the  ground  in  which  is  introduced  a 
wisp  of  straw.  On  setting  fire  to  the  straw  the  whole  mass  gradually 
consumes  itself,  forming  a  small  heap  of  vegetable  ashes  and  earth. 
The  ashes  of  the  hormigueros  are  equally  distributed  over  the  surface 
of  the  soil,  and  immediately  afterwards  this  is  manured  with  stable 
dung,  which  should  have  been  left  to  rot  in  sand,  and  which  must  be 
old  and  as  fine  as  the  sand.  This  has  first  to  be  watered  to  ^keep  it 
moist,  and  when  the  proper  season  arrives  a  good  watering  has  to  be 
given  it,  after  which  it  is  spread  over  the  surface.  When  the  space  to 
be  cultivated  is  limited,  the  mixture  of  stable  dung  and  sand  is  per- 
formed with  a  spade,  and  the  ground  is  not  plowed.  The  ground  has 
to  be  divided  in  long  and  narrow  plots,  having  small  irrigating  canals 
between  each,  which  must  be  sufficiently  deep  so  as  not  to  allow  of  the 
water  reaching  the  superficies  of  the  rows,  as  should  it  do  so  it  would 
have  the  effect  of  hardening  the  earth,  which  should  always  be  loose, 
so  as  to  obtain  a  good  result. 

The  seed  should  be  soaked  in  water  for  a  couple  of  days,  and  after- 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN.  539 


wards  tlnVkly  sown,  to  provide  against  the  eventuality  o! 
defective  and  not  germinating. 

There  are  some  who  immediately  cover  the  seed  with  a  coating  of 
fine  manure  of  about  1J  to  2  inches,  while  there  are  others  who  employ  a 
mixture  of  river  sand  and  stable  dung;  but  experienced  cultivators  say 
that  the  sand  often  injures  the  stalk  of  the  tender  shoot.  It  seems  that 
in  order  to  obtain  the  most  favorable  result  a  covering  is  made  of  earth 
from  a  pine  forest,  virgin  earth,  the  greater  portion  dung.  When  this  is 
not  obtainable,  then  dry,  arable  ground  which  is  very  loose.  Having 
arrived  so  far,  two  things  are  necessary,  viz,  that  the  soil  be  al\\a\s 
damp,  and  that  the  earth  covering  the  seed  be  loose,  not  offering  any 
opposition  to  the  unfolding  and  shooting  of  the  tender  plant.  This  is 
obtained  by  watering  the  nursery  every  two  or  three  days  after  sunset, 
and  still  better  by  doing  so  before  sunrise,  using  a  watering-pot  with 
a  long  spout. 

When  the  orange  trees  are  about  2  inches  high  or  more,  then  irriga- 
tion by  means  of  the  canals  at  the  sides  of  the  rows  will  suffice. 

The  young  plants  are  from  four  to  six  weeks  before  appearing  above 
the  surface,  and  sometimes  more,  and  the  plants  are  kept  in  the  nur- 
sery for  one  or  two  years,  according  to  the  state  of  their  development. 

The  chief  things  to  be  observed  with  the  seedlings  are  :  (1)  The  earth 
should  always  have  a  certain  amount  of  humidity.  (2)  The  plant  should 
be  kept  perfectly  clean,  and  should  weeds  spring  up  these  should  be 
rooted  out  with  a  small  weeding-hook.  (3)  When  the  young  plants 
come  up  close  together  they  should  be  separated  so  as  to  admit  the 
proper  development  of  those  which  give  promise  of  thriving,  and  allow 
those  separated  to  thrive  in  other  spots  where  transplanted.  (4)  If  the 
ground  is  sufficiently  manured  the  young  plants  have  sufficient  nutri- 
ment until  reaching  the  height  of  about  10  inches  or  even  more. 

If  the  soil  is  not  properly  manured,  then  it  is  necessary  to  assist  the 
plant  by  using  Peruvian  guano,  and  for  doing  this  various  growers  dis- 
solve a  small  quantity  of  guano  with  the  water  in  the  watering-pot,  and 
thus  apply  it  to  the  plants  ;  but  should  the  watering  take  place  by 
means  of  the  small  irrigating  canals,  the  guano  is  placed  at  the  entry  of 
the  water  into  said  canals,  and  is  thus  conveyed  all  over  the  nursery. 

Planting.  —  As  soon  as  the  young  plants  have  acquired  a  certain  de- 
velopment in  the  nursery,  which  sometimes  occurs  at  the  end  of  one 
year  and  sometimes  at  the  expiration  of  two,  the  plantation  has  to  be 
commenced.  This  generally  takes  place  from  the  middle  of  February 
to  the  beginning  of  March,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  plants.  It 
is  commenced  by  arranging  the  soil  in  the  same  manneras  for  the  nursery, 
and  when  this  is  done  the  nursery  is  well  watered,  so  as  to  enable  the 
young  plants  to  be  rooted  out  without  injuring  them. 

Some  cultivators  advise  the  taking  up  of  the  young  plants  with  the 
earth  adhering  as  thick  as  mud,  while  others  counsel  that  they  should 
be  transplanted  with  a  ball  of  earth  attached  to  the  roots,  although 


540        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

said  ball  be  of  small  size,  so  that  the  plants  should  lose  less.  With 
a  mountain  knife,  or  other  similar  garden  tool,  a  series  of  holes  are 
made  of  superficial  depth,  to  admit  the  roots  of  the  young  plants, 
which  are  placed  in  same  conditions  as  they  were  in  the  nursery.  The 
orange  trees  are  planted  in  the  plantation  at  a  distance  of  from  40  to 
50  centimeters  apart,  if  wished  to  be  of  short  trunk ;  but  should  the 
contrary  be  desired,  they  are  planted  at  a  greater  distance  from  each 
other.  On  transplanting  the  young  trees,  a  series  of  light  beds  are 
made  and  the  trees  are  planted  at  the  base  of  the  same  and  in  regular 
files,  but  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  beds  to  that  where  they  are  irri- 
gated, thus  preventing  the  water  from  reaching  the  young  shoots. 

Now  and  then  the  top  soil  is  loosened  with  a  weeding-hook,  and  thus 
the  beds  gradually  get  lower,  until  at  last  they  are  level  with  the  sur- 
rounding earth  at  the  time  when  the  plants  have  taken  firm  root  and 
are  flourishing.  The  plantation  is  irrigated  once  in  every  three  weeks 
in  ordinary  weather,  but  oftener  should  it  be  very  dry  ;  and  about  at 
the  end  of  two  or  three  months  after  transplanting,  say  in  July  or 
August,  a  small  quantity  of  guano  or  of  rotten  dung  may  be  applied. 
At  the  expiration  of  a  year  in  the  plantation,  the  young  trees  are  suffi- 
ciently advanced  for  grafting,  should  they  have  been  tended  with  great 
care  and  are  required  for  trees  of  short  trunk ;  but  should  they  be  re- 
quired to  be  of  long  trunk,  every  means  should  be  availed  of  for  favor- 
ing the  development  of  the  terminal  bud.  To  this  end,  every  year, 
about  June,  by  means  of  nipping,  the  too  forward  growth  of  the  lateral 
buds  is  checked.  In  April,  branches,  leaves,  and  thorns  on  the  lower 
half  of  the  stem  are  cut  off,  as  are  also  the  lateral  branches  above  the 
same  which  are  vigorous. 

This  same  care  is  bestowed  every  year  until  the  stem,  straight  and 
devoid  of  knots,  reaches  a  height  of  from  1J  to  2  meters,  when  grafting 
is  effected  on  its  upper  part.  Should  any  of  the  plants  take  a  crooked 
direction,  they  are  cut  off  in  April  of  the  second  year  at  about  10  cen- 
timeters from  the  surface  of  the  soil,  when  they  shoot  afresh  during  the 
summer,  and  when  the  shoots  have  reached  a  height  of  about  20  cen- 
timeters the  most  vigorous  are  selected  and  the  rest  done  away  with. 
In  this  province,  trees  of  short  trunk  are  those  invariably  grown,  con- 
sequently this  last  plan  is  but  little,  if  at  all,  availed  of. 

i 

GRAPTING. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  means  for  the  propagation  of  the 
orange  tree. 

Grafting  consists  in  the  insertion  of  a  branch  or  cutting  of  one  plant 
into  another,  which  operation  has  to  be  carefully  done,  so  that  both  may 
unite  and  ultimately  form  a  single  plant  growing  on  the  same  stem. 
Grafting  is  also  done  on  a  plant  with  some  of  its  own  shoots. 

Grafting  is  principally  performed  with  the  object  of  procuring  flowers, 
leaves,  wood,  or  fruit  of  superior  quality  or  more  merit  than  that  previ- 
ously obtained. 


CULTIVATION   OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN.  541 

Grafting  also  serves  for  the  propagation  of  many  trees  and  boshes, 
both  exotic,  rare,  and  delicate,  by  employing  specimens  of  wild,  rustic, 
and  strong  plants  that  may  be  analogous,  or  of  the  same  family,  so  as 
to  improve  the  budding  of  the  branches  of  a  plant  which  has  become 
stripped  of  same  (in  the  regions  where  the  cultivator  wishes  to  augment 
the  growth  and  reproduce  the  species),  and  also  to  unite  on  a  single 
branch  the  male  and  female  flowers  of  vegetables  normally  u  dicecians," 
which  are  thus  converted  into  "moncecians,"  and  their  fertilization  vastly 
improved.  The  "  graft "  is  the  name  given  to  the  shoot,  or  branch,  etc., 
inserted  in  another,  and  u parent"  is  that  in  which  it  is  grafted;  and 
the  plant  obtained  is  called  u  franco  "  when  both  are  raised  from  the 
same  class  of  seed,  and  "  bastard  "  when  from  different  species.  With 
all  grafting  it  is  necessary  to  put  similar  textures  in  contact,  and  above 
all  the  generating  layers  or  vegetative  zones  of  both  parent  and  graft, 
and  at  the  same  time  impede  the  access  of  air  and  light  to  the  uncovered 
p;irt,  or  the  wound.  It  is  not,  as  it  is  generally  believed,  the  joining  of 
the  bark  which  contributes  to  the  perfection  of  the  grafting,  but  rather 
of  that  generative  texture  or  cambium  which  exists  between  the  white 
wood  and  the  bark,  by  which  is  effected  the  growth  in  diameter  of  the 
flidoneos,  vegetable  substances. 

In  order  to  obtain  a  successful  result,  the  operations  should  be  per- 
formed in  fine  and  temperate  weather.  The  parent  plants  should  be 
carefully  selected,  not  too  young,  as  although  the  grafting  might  be 
successful,  they  would  be  long  in  bearing  fruit,  notwithstanding  that 
would  be  frondose;  neither  too  old,  because  although  giving  fruit 
sooner,  they  are  of  little  duration  ;  further,  those  selected  must  be  per- 
fectly sound,  well  formed,  and  possessing  a  clean  bark.  There  are  four 
>ns  when  the  operation  of  grafting  may  be  performed,  viz,  at  the 
impulse,  at  the  time  of  shooting,  at  the  time  of  vivifying,  and  when 
sleeping. 

Grafting  at  the  impulse  is  done  when  the  movement  of  the  sap  com- 
mences and  the  buds  begin  to  wake  out  of  the  lethargic  state  in  which 
they  had  been  all  the  winter,  but  before  they  have  unfolded.  The  sea- 
son for  doing  this  is  from  the  middle  of  February  till  the  commencing 
of  April,  and  it  is  done  by  grafting  twigs  of  the  previous  year. 

Graf  ling  at  time  of  shooting  is  when  the  sap  is  at  its  greatest  activity 
and  when  the  shoot  has  attained  half  or  three-quarters  part  of  its  defi- 
nite growth.  This  system  is  generally  carried  into  operation  from  the 
commencement  of  April  till  end  of  May,  and  the  ingrafted  shoot  availed 
of  is  a  tender  shoot  of  the  same  vigor  as  that  of  the  portion  of  the  par- 
ent plant  where  it  is  to  be  ingrafted. 

Grafting  at  time  of  vivifying  is  so  called  because  it  is  done  at  the  sol- 
stice and  when  the  shoots  commence  to  put  forth  their  second  sprouts, 
which  occurs  from  about  the  end  of  May  till  the  end  of  June.  The  cut- 
tings for  grafting  on  vivifying  are  selected  from  twigs  of  the  same  year. 

drafting  when  sleeping  is  done  at  the  equinox  in  September,  and  only 


542  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

differs  from  the  previous  system  in  that  the  graft  on  vivifying  com- 
mences immediatly  to  shoot,  whereas  that  grafted  whilst  sleeping  does 
not  commence  to  move  until  the  following  spring.  The  system  may 
begin  to  be  adopted  from  the  end  of  August  till  about  the  middle  of 
October. 

A  successful  result  greatly  depends  on  the  intelligence,  skill,  and  care 
of  the  grafter,  as  also  on  other  conditions  that  may  be  possessed  by  him. 
The  young  shoots  to  be  grafted  are  frequently  spoilt  by  workmen  whose 
hands  perspire  copiously,  and  the  same  also  occurs  from  bad  breath 
either  from  disordered  stomach  or  smoking  to  any  extent,  in  the  cases 
where  the  grafter  is  accustomed  to  hold  the  ingrafted  shoots  and  buds 
between  the  teeth  whilst  preparing  the  patron. 

The  object  of  the  ligatures  is  to  subject  and  fasten  the  graft  to  the 
parent  tree,  and  those  are  best  which  possess  sufficient  elasticity  not  to 
either  tighten  or  loosen  too  much,  ,as  also  suffer  but  little  from  atmos- 
pheric influences,  and  further  they  should  be  of  slight  cost  and  easy  ac- 
quirement, preference  being  given  to  those  belonging  to  the  animal 
kingdom,  such  as  raw  and  carded  wool,  worsted,  silk,  or  horse  hair.  Of 
the  vegetable  kingdom  the  following  are  best:  hemp,  flax,  esparto, 
enea,  reed-mace,  various  flexible  barks,  and  the  leaves  of  certain  trees 
possessing  the  same  property. 

With  the  graftings  it  is  necessary  that  the  cuts  and  wounds  in  the 
patron  should  be  properly  covered  and  protected  with  substances  suit- 
able for  said  purpose,  and  which  ought  to  combine  the  advantages  of 
slight  cost,  easy  manipulation,  shortness  in  preparation,  duration,  and 
perfect  protection.  The  materials  most  generally  employed  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  Grafter's  clay,  which  is  of  ancient  use,  and  is  composed  of  two- 
third  parts  of  clayey  soil  and  one-third  of  cow  dung,  well  mixed  to- 
gether ;  and  to  this  are  sometimes  added  dry  herbs  chopped  very  fine, 
and  by  some  a  small  portion  of  salt  is  also  employed  in  the  mixture. 
Softened  pitch  is  also  made  use  of,  not  alone,  as  it  would  dry  and  peel 
off,  but  melted  with  a  corresponding  quantity  of  wax  or  tallow,  or  of 
resin  and  tallow,  to  which  is  added  red  earth  or  brick-dust. 

A  good  receipt  for  this  mixture  is  as  follows : 

Kilos. 

Resin 1.250 

Pitch l.  0.750 

Tallow 0.'250 

Earth 1.500 

This  composition  should  be  applied  tepid,  but  not  very  warm,  as  in 
this  case  it  would  injure  the  plant. 

When  a  good  variety  has  been  obtained  from  seed,  it  is  so  subject  to 
injury  or  loss  from  any  casualty  that  the  plants  are  generally  grafted  in 
order  to  preserve  them.  When  the  cultivator  wishes  robust  and  bushy 
trees  of  long  vitality,  the  grafting  is  done  with  trees  of  the  same  species, 
but  should  he  wish  to  obtain  trees  less  robust  and  either  of  medium 
size  or  dwarf,  he  does  this  (although  at  the  expense  of  obtaining  a  tree 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN. 

of  lesser  duration)  by  grafting  on  analogous  parent  trees  of  a  distinct 
species  to  the  grafts,  on  account  of  such  gratis  requiring  a  greaior 
quantity  of  sap  than  can  be  given  them  by  the  respective  parent  plants, 
for  which  reason  they  remain  small,  have  but  few  branches  and  roots, 
and  the  buds  are  of  but  brief  duration. 

As  a  general  rule  two  cuttings  are  grafted  on  the  same  trunk,  some 
times  with  the  object  of  greater  certainty,  and  sometimes  for  the  purpose 
of  the  trees  sooner  forming  their  top.  With  reference  to  the  numerous 
buds  that  appear  when  the  graft  commences  moving,  all  are  suppressed 
except  those  nearest  to  where  the  grafting  was  made  in  order  to  draw  the 
sap  towards  said  point.  Should  they  develop  too  much,  the  points  are 
(Hit  oft',  which  is  done  when  the  graft  attains  a  length  of  Om.15. 

The  universal  system  employed  in  this  province  for  grafting  of  orange 
trees  is  the  following:  If  the  nursery  has  been  well  cared  for,  at  the 
end  of  a  year  the  small  free  orange  trees  are  grafted,  whilst  those 
•which  from  some  special  circumstances  have  not  sufficiently  developed 
are  kit  lor  the  following  year,  and  it  is  recommended  that  the  grafting 
should  be  done  in  that  part  of  the  nursery  where  the  plants  are  thickest, 
as  being  very  close  together  impedes  the  moisture  from  disappearing 
from  the  soil,  the  sun  not  being  able  to  penetrate  through  the  plants 
to  evaporate  the  dampness,  as  it  can  when  the  plants  are  scattered  or 
isolated.  This  should  be  greatly  studied  in  those  parts  where  water  is 
scarce  in  summer,  and  it  is  the  plan  followed  by  the  majority  of  culti- 
vators who  have  nurseries. 

Nearly  all  systems  of  grafting  may  be  eif  ployed  with  orange  trees, 
but.  in  this  province  the  only  one  now  universally  adopted  is  that  of  the 
grafting  of  a  bud,  which  gives  excellent  results,  giving  preference  either 
to  the  method  ufjouette  (d  ojo  vclando)  or  to  that  ofvidry  (de  ojo  dormitlo), 
according  to  the  season  when  the  grafting  is  effected,  viz,  the  first  from 
April  till  end  of  June  and  the  second  from  August  to  October.  One  of 
the  most  intelligent  cultivators  of  orange  trees  in  this  province  grafts 
when  the  sap  is  moving,  doing  so  from  the  time  it  commences  to  move 
until  St.  Peter's  day  (end  of  June),  and  also  when  the  sap  is  dormant, 
which  is  from  August  till  October,  cutting  the  shoot  in  February.  The 
buds  for  grafting  are  taken  from  the  center  of  the  tree,  as  it  has  been 
found  that  if  taken  from  the  lower  part  the  branches  of  the  tree  pro- 
duced always  incline  towards  the  earth,  and  young  twigs  are  not  liked, 
as  they  produce  large  trees  bearing  but  little  fruit.  The  buds  for 
grafting  are  selected  from  those  of  the  previous  year  and  of  the  June 
shooting,  and,  according  to  the  size  of  the  parent  stem,  one,  two,  four, 
etc.,  are  placed,  for  should  the  parent  stem  be  thick  and*  have  only 
one  bud  grafted  on  it  the  excess  of  sap  would  suffocate  it.  On  plac- 
ing the  buds,  the  parent  stein  is  probed  and  they  are  applied  to  the 
most  salient  parts  which  this  may  present,  because  it  is  considered  that 
it  is  here  where  tin-re  is  the  greatest  quantity  of  sap,  an<J  it  should  be 
done  when  possible  in  the  part  facing  the  north,  so  as  to  suffer  less  from 


544  *      FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

the  heat  of  the  sun,  besides  which  one  can  work  better.  The  grafts 
should  be  tied  with  esparto  grass,  this  being  found  much  better  than 
other  strings  or  cords  by  reason  of  the  less  damage  it  causes  to  the 
bark,  besides  which  it  better  protects  it.  It  remains  in  this  state  for 
twenty-one  days,  and  if  at  the  end  of  this  time  the  bud  continues  green 
the  grafting  is  correct,  in  which  case  the  shoot  is  cut  off  about  four  inches 
above,  and  it  at  once  moves  if  it  has  dried.  Sometimes  it  commences 
moving  before  the  grafting  has  thoroughly  taken  place,  in  which  case  it 
is  immediately  cut,  although  the  twenty-one  days  may  not  have  expired. 
As  soon  as  the  shooting  commences,  cut  the  esparto  on  the  opposite 
side  if  there  is  only  one  bud,  or  at  the  sides  if  there  are  two,  but  do 
not  take  it  off.  It  is  calculated  that  about  three  hundred  can  be  grafted 
daily,  and  when  the  grafting  is  done  in  fine  weather  it  is  much  better, 
but  it  does  not  matter  if  done  when  raining,  as  neither  through  rains 
iior  irrigation  have  the  grafts  been  lost,  although  there  are  some  who  do 
not  irrigate  until  at  least  twelve  days  after  grafting.  The  four  inches 
of  stem  which  remain  above  the  graft,  and  which  served  as  a  support 
for  the  growing  shoot,  are  cut  off  at  the  end  of  a  year  and  before  re- 
moving the  plants  from  the  nursery. 

The  proprietors  taking  but  little  care  in  providing  themselves  with 
good  seed  on  grafting,  and  the  grafter,  whose  only  aspiration  is  to  ob- 
tain his  day's  pay,  taking  everything  that  comes  nearest  to  hand  and 
costs  him  least  trouble,  it  frequently  happens  that  fatal  results  are  the 
consequence.  The  same  recklessness  is  noted,  with  those  who  purchase 
orange  trees  already  grafted  and  who  take  no  trouble  to  ascertain  their 
origin,  etc.  For  the  preceding  reasons  it  is  not  surprising  to  see  sickly 
orange  trees  in  all  directions,  and  others,  although  sound,  producing 
but  little  fruit  and  this  of  bad  quality,  thus  occasioning  a  heavy  loss 
to  the  imprudent  and  careless  proprietors,  which  they  could  have  easily 
prevented  if  they  had  not  overlooked  that  the  grafts  inherit  the  good 
and  bad  qualities  of  the  tree  which  produced  them,  as  also  of  its  state 
of  sickness  or  disease  as  also  of  its  healthy  condition  ;  thus  it  happens 
that  in  a  small  field  of  only  six  hanegadas  of  loose  earth,  and  the  whole 
subject  to  the  same  cultivation,  in  which,  by  reason  of  the  carelessness 
of  the  owner,  there  are  three  descriptions  of  orange  trees,  each  of  dif- 
ferent merit ,  there  are  some  that  give  a  flat  fruit  with  a  fine  skin  or 
peel ;  others  that  are  round  and  with  a  finer  peel  than  the  preceding, 
with  abundant  flesh  and  as  juicy  as  the  former  but  sweeter ;  and,  lastly, 
there  are  others  the  oranges  of  which  are  very  coarse  and  less  esteemed 
by  exporters. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

The  tree  lives,  strikes  root  or  the  contrary,  is  more  or  less  well 
formed,  gives  better  or  worse  fruit,  according  to  how  the  plantation 
may  have  been  more  or  less  carefully  attended  to,  the  health  and  du- 
ration of  the  plant  being  also  subordinate  to  this  operation.  The 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN.  545 

outcome  of  the  plantation  does  not  only  depend  on  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  hut  also  on  the  age  of  the  trees  transplanted,  as  the  younger  they 
are  there  is  much  greater  probability  of  their  taking  root.  A  soil  well 
broken  up  is  better  for  a  plantation  of  trees  than  any  other;  but  very 
few  persons  take  this  trouble,  contenting  themselves  with  opening  holes 
at  regul.-ir  intervals  in  a  slightly  worked  soil.  The  trees  with  horizontal 
branches,  or  curved  at  the  tip,  give  fruit  sooner  than  those  that  have 
vertical  or  nearly  vertical  ones.  As  a  general  rule  the  holes  made  in 
virgin  earth  and  of  the  best  soil  are  about  a  meter  in  diameter  by  one 
in  depth,  but  in  dry  and  hot  soils  they  should  be  two  meters  in  diame- 
ter by  1.30  in  depth.  These  are  made  the  winter  previous  to  planting, 
in  order  that  the  earth  extended  and  deposited  round  the  edges,  as  also 
the  sides  of  the  holes,  may  improve  from  the  action  of  the  air;  and  in 
the  neighborhood  of  each  hole  is  placed  about  a  cubic  decimeter  of  well- 
rotted  manure,  or,  should  this  not  be  obtainable,  it  may  be  substituted 
by  4  pounds  of  dried  and  pulverized  blood  or  6  pounds  of  guano. 
Should  the  soil  where  the  planting  is  to  be  effected  be  of  bad  quality, 
the  half  of  the  earth  extracted  from  the  hole  is  replaced  with  a  similar 
quantity  of  clayey  silicious  or  chalky  clay  soil.  The  manure  must  be 
perfectly  mixed  with  the  half  of  the  best  earth  extracted  from  the  holes, 
and  the  half  of  this  is  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the  hole  in  the  form 
of  a  spreading  cone.  The  tree  is  then  placed  on  said  cone  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  neck  of  the  root  when  the  hole  is  filled  in  will  not  be 
deeper  than  it  was  in  the  nursery,  as  should  that  limit  be  surpassed  the 
root,  beijig  deprived  of  the  action  of  the  air,  would  only  work  imper- 
fectly. The  only  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  the  transplantations  to  dry, 
arable  ground,  and  in  this  case  the  neck  of  the  root  is  placed  at  about 
5  centimeters  below  the  surface.  Being  thus  placed,  the  roots  are  cov- 
ered with  the  remaining  earth  that  had  been  extracted,  and  the  holes 
should  be  so  filled  up  that  the  soil  thrown  in  them  should  reach  the 
height  of  six  or  eight  centimeters  above  that  of  the  surrounding  surface, 
so  that  on  settling  down  and  becoming  firm  there  should  be  no  profund- 
ity at  the  foot  of  each  tree,  and  the  earth  thus  raised  is  arranged  in  a 
hollow.  When  the  plantation  is  thus  made  it  should  be  immediately 
irrigated,  so  that  the  earth  should  remain  in  immediate  contact  with 
the  whole  of  the  roots,  and  this  irrigation  should  be  several  times  re- 
peated during  the  months  of  April  and  May,  conformably  as  the  weather 
may  be  more  or  less  dry. 

In  this  province  the  custom  is  to  make  the  holes  at  the  time  of  trans- 
planting, there  being  few  that  anticipate  this  operation,  and  then  the 
holes  are  only  made  of  sufficient  size  to  conveniently  plant  the  young 
trees,  for,  the  soil  not  being  virgin,  it  is  neither  necessary  to  work  it  so 
much  nor  for  the  soil  or  hole  to  receive  the  beneficial  effect  of  atmos* 
pheric  influence,  as  iir  the  first  case,  which  is  indispensable.  Accord- 
ing to  experts,  orange  trees  do  not  require  very  deep  holes,  it  being 
preferable  for  their  loots  to  be  near  the  surface.  Plantations  of  little 


546        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

depth  thrive  better;  they  give  more  fruit  and  are  healthier;  thus, 
placing  the  young  trees  the  same  as  when  in  the  nursery,  and  taking 
care  that  the  grafts  are  from  about  4  to  6  inches  above  the  surface,  the 
planting  is  well  done.  After  having  completed  everything  necessary 
for  the  transplantation,  the  nursery  is  well  watered  and  the  young  trees 
are  dug  out  with  a  large  spade,  .with  a  good  quantity  of  earth  adhering 
to  the  roots,  which  earth  is  surrounded  with  rotten  or  dried  leaves  and 
tied  round  with  cords ;  and  it  may  be  mentioned,  the  speculating  deal- 
ers take  as  little  earth  as  possible  from  the  nursery,  so  as  not  to  impov- 
erish the  soil.  When  the  orange  trees  are  conveyed  to  the  spot  for 
planting  the  first  thing  done  is  to  line  the  bottom  of  the  holes  with  the 
earth  first  taken  out  until  it  is  calculated  that  on  planting  the  young 
tree  it  will  be,  after  irrigating  the  soil,  at  about  the  same  depth  as  when 
in  the  nursery,  and  as  soon  as  the  tree  is  placed  in  position  the  virgin 
earth  remaining  around  the  sides  of  the  hole  is  thrown  in.  There  are 
some  who  throw  in  a  basketful  of  burnt  earth  and  vegetables,  taking 
care  that  the  same  does  not  come  in  contact  with  the  capillary  roots, 
which  form  what  are  vulgarly  called  cabellera  6  barlada  (false  hair,  or 
bearded).  If  the  planting  is  done  in  November,  there  is  no  necessity 
for  employing  more  manure,  that  already  made  use  of  being  sufficient; 
but  in  February,  when  the  time  for  budding  or  sprouting  approaches,  a 
certain  quantity  of  manure  is  mixed  with  the  soil  at  a  little  distance  from 
said  capillary  roots  to  oblige  them  to  go  in  search  of  it,  by  which  means 
they  enlarge  and  gain  strength.  Before  closing  up  the  hole  about  twenty 
liters  of  water  should  be  thr6wn  into  it  if  there  is  a  probability  of  irri- 
gating the  orchard  within  a  few  days ;  but  should  the  contrary  be  the 
case,  a  small  quantity  of  earth  is  thrown  on  top  of  the  twenty  liters 
of  water,  after  which  a  similar  quantity  of  water  is  added.  It  is  a  mat- 
ter of  importance  that  the  proprietor  should  be  present  when  this  is 
done,  as  it  frequently  happens  that  the  water  is  thrown  in  so  hurriedly 
that  it  does  not  reach  the  bottom  of  the  hole,  thus  the  roots  of  the  orange 
tree  do  not  come  into  contact  with  it  and  are  consequently  either  Ion g«»r 
in  developing  or  else  dry  up  and  die.  On  planting  it  is  absolutely  nec- 
essary that  the  e&rth  around  the  roots  should  be  like  mud,  so  as  to  pre- 
vent any  contretemps,  and  later  on,  when  the  time  for  irrigation  arrives, 
the  whole  surface  is  watered  and  now  and  then  is  dug  up,  the  condition 
of  the  soil  being  improved  little  by  little  by  fresh  tillage,  the^gronnd 
around  the  trees  being  kept  well  free  from  weeds.  The  soil  should  be  kept 
sufficiently  damp,  and  the  orchard  should  be  irrigated  at  least  twice  a 
month  should  the  weather  be  dry.  There  are  some  who  plant  the 
young  trees  just  the  same  as  when  taken  from  the  nursery,  while  there 
are  others  who  lop  off  the  branches  and  cut  off  about  9  inches  of  the 
tree  in  order  that  it  may  sooner  commence  budding ;  but  this  it  is  not 
always  necessary  to  do.  If  on  rooting  up  the  young  trees  some  of  the 
roots  are  injured  and  have  to  be  cut  off,  if  there  are  many  some  of  the 
branches  should  also  be  done  away  with,  there  being  an  intimate  rela 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    THEE    IN    SPAIN.  547 

Monship  between  the  roots  and  branches;  hence  it  is  easy  to  under- 
stand that  if  on  transplanting  a  young  tree  the  roots  are  nearly  intact 
there  is  scarcely  any  necessity  for  cutting  off  or  reducing  the  brandies, 
while,  on  the  contrary,  if  a  portion  of  the  roots  has  to  be  cut  off,  the 
branches  should  be  proportionately  reduced. 

CULTIVATION. 

The  orange,  the  same  as  all  other  fruit  trees,  may  be  submitted  to 
two  different  systems  of  cultivation;  extensive  or  large  cultivation, 
which  means  planting  the  trees  at  a  good  distance  from  each  other,  and 
availing  of  the  intermediate  soil  for  other  crops,  and  intense,  which  is 
the  cultivation  in  gardens,  where  the  trees  of  short  stems  are  planted 
cloM.*  to  each  other  and  subjected  to  very  careful  operations.  This  latter 
system  of  cultivation  is  more  costly  than  the  former,  but  the  results 
obtained  are  more  certain,  better,  and  more  abundant.  For  extensive 
cultivation,  plants  of  about  the  height  of  from  1  meter  50  centimeters 
to  2  meters,  and  a  diameter  of  about  3  centimeters  at  a  distance  of  a 
meter  from  the  surface,  are  selected,  and  if  only  a,  single  row  is  to  be 
cultivated  there  is  no  need  to  trouble  about  how  the  trees  are  planted. 
Should  the  plantation  consist  of  various  rows  close  together,  either  the 
threefold  system  is  adopted,  each  three  trees  formingau  equilateral  trian- 
gle, or  else  that  called  marcoreal,  which  is  when  each  four  trees  form,  a  per- 
fect square.  Employing  the  first  system,  hiore  trees  can  be  planted  per 
hectare,  and  the  soil  can  be  tilled  in  three  different  directions,  while  in 
the  second  case  it  can  only  be  tilled  in  two.  When  only  one  row  is 
planted,  the  trees  are  placed  at  a  distance  of  about  6  meters  from  each 
other  if  the  soil  be  rich,  and  at  only  5  meters  if  it  be  middling.  Should 
intense  cultivation  be  adopted,  the  trees  are  planted  at  a  distance  of 
from  3  to  5  meters  from  each  other.  In  many  parts  of  the  province  of 
Valencia  the  marco  real  of  G  meters  is  adopted,  216  trees  being  planted 
per  hectare. 

Cultivation  during  the  first  years. — As  soon  as  the  transplanting  lias 
been  effected,  which  generally  occurs  during  February  and  March,  the 
formation  of  a  garden  should  be  attended  to  without  delay,  so  as  to 
have  the  plants  in  a  productive  state.  The  rule  observed  by  culti  vat  ors 
in  this  country  is  so  notably  different  as  to  confound  the  most  practical 
gardener,  but  that  which  has  been  adopted  by  various  intelligent  culti- 
vators and  which  has  obtained  the  best  results,  is  the  following : 

First  year. — Eidges  are  formed  at  the  sides  of  the  rows  of  orange 
trees  at  about  the  distance  of  75  centimeters  from  the  trees.  In  the 
month  of  April  the  trees  are  each  manured  with  one  or  two  pounds  of 
guano,  or  else  with  stable  dung,  or  sewage,  at  the  distance  of  about 
50  centimeters  from  the  trunk,  to  which  a  trench  is  dug  around  it,  in 
which  the  manure  is  placed  and  afterwards  covered  over.  The  orange 
tree  thus  receives  the  irrigation  from  the  space  between  the  ridges,  the 
rest  of  the  earth  remaining  intact ;  thus  the  trees  are  prevented  from 


548        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

getting  dirty,  and  both  work  and  money  are  economized.  When  the 
season  for  irrigation  arrives  a  thorough  weeding  takes  place ;  thus  the 
soil  is  cleared  and  continues  clean.  The  irrigation  is  continued  at  its 
proper  time,  in  order  that  the  trees  may  not  suffer,  after  which  the  cor- 
responding weeding  is  effected. 

Second  year. — In  February,  previous  to  the  moving  of  the  trees,  two 
or  three  pounds  of  guano,  or  stable  dung,  is  given  to  each  tree  as  afore- 
said, but  placed  at  the  distance  of  75  centimeters  from  it,  or,  in  other 
words,  at  the  edge  of  the  ridges.  Later,  one  or  two  baskets  of  any 
kind  of  manure  are  distributed  around  each  tree ;  this  may  be  done  in 
April,  which  is  the  best  mouth  for  doing  it,  but  at  any  other  time  it 
may  also  be  effected.  The  necessary  irrigation  and  weeding  must  be 
strictly  attended  to,  so  as  to  preserve  the  orangery  in  good  condition, 
and  should  any  tree  bear  fruit,  this  should  be  plucked. 

Third  year. — In  this  year  the  young  roots  of  the  orange  trees  have 
reached  as  far  as  the  ridges  and  the  trees  commence  bearing  fruit, 
which  should  be  plucked  as  soon  as  salable,  before  Christmas,  if  pos- 
sible, so  as  to  be  able  to  work  the  soil  in  February.  There  are  some 
who  counsel  the  plucking  of  the  fruit  as  soon  as  it  appears  on  the  trees, 
without  waiting  to  derive  pecuniary  advantage  from  it,  leaving  this 
for  the  following  year.  The  ridges  are  now  broken  down,  the  whole 
superficies  irrigated,  and  hormigueros  are  made.  At  a  distance  of  a 
meter  from  the  trunk  of  each  tree  small  holes  are  dug  with  a  spade, 
and  after  placing  2  or  3  pounds  of  guano  in  each  they  are  covered 
up.  After  doing  this  the  hormigueros  are  spread  over  the  surface, 
the  soil  is  irrigated,  and  at  the  opportune  moment  the  ground  half  way 
between  the  trees  is  plowed,  great  care  being  taken  that  the  plow  does 
not  touch  the  roots  5  the  earth  all  round  the  tree  must  be  well  weeded 
and  loosened  to  about  the  depth  of  2  inches.  Watering,  plowing,  and 
weeding  throughout  the  year. 

Fourth  year. — From  the  previous  year,  the  cultivation  to  be  given  to 
the  orange  tree  when  in  a  state  of  production  has  already  commenced. 
The  fruit  is  plucked  as  soon  as  possible.  Hormigueros  are  not  made 
this  year.  The  soil  is  dug  up  or  plowed  from  twice  to  four  times,  and 
is  manured.  The  principal  manure  employed  is  guano,  of  which  about 
36  kilograms  per  hanegada  are  used.  But*  should  stable  ctying  be 
employed,  about  six  basketfuls  are  given  to  each  tree,  and  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  there  are  some  cultivators  who  use  more  manure  dur- 
ing these  first  years.  Pruning  the  orange  trees  is  now  commenced,  the 
same  being  confined  to  a  cleaning,  and  this  should  be  effected  between 
February  and  May,  preference  being  given  to  the  earlier  months  of  this 
period.  This  is  henceforward  repeated  every  year,  and,  in  order  that 
the  wounds  occasioned  to  the  tree  may  be  of  easy  healing,  the  branches 
or  shoots  pruned  off  are  always  the  thinnest  or  most  delicate.  Should 
the  trees  be  required  to  be  low  and  wide,  the  cultivator  limits  himself 
to  checking  their  upward  growth  and  favoring  their  spreading. 


CULTIVATION    OF   THE    ORANGE    TKEE    IN    SPAIN.  549 

Certain  intelligent  observers  maintain  that  it  does  not  in  any  way 
prejudice  the  tree  to  lop  off  all  the  lower  branches,  which  there  is  acer. 
tainty  thai  if  allowed  to  grow  will  rest  on  the  ground  as  soon  as  they 
commence  bearing  fruit,  thus  impeding  the  necessary  tillage.  With 
reference  to  the  remainder,  it  is  prudent  that  they  should  be  respected, 
and  even  the  whole  of  them  leffc  untouched  should  it  be  noted  that  the 
tree  does  not  suffer  in  its  growth  from  an  excess  of  branches,  as  said 
branches  will  later  on  distribute  themselves,  being  obliged  to  do  so 
from  the  weight  of  the  fruit  on  them,  and  then  a  fitter  pruning  can  be 
effected  and  the  trees  left  in  the  condition  in  which  they,  ought  to  be, 
the  branches  prejudicial  either  to  the  tree  or  its  development  being  easily 
removed.  The  want  of  attention  to  this  is  the  cause  of  various  pruners 
finding  their  trees  when  least  expected  with  fewer  branches  than  the 
trunk  could  nourish,  and  consequently  yielding  less  fruit  than,  they  ought 
to  do. 

The  pruning  is  another  of  the  most  important  operations  of  arbori- 
culture, and  very  important  in  the  cultivation  of  orange  trees,  for  the 
following  reasons,  which  it  has  for  object,  viz : 

(1)  To  give  the  tree  a  regular,  elegant,  and  graceful  form,  with  rela- 
tion to  the  spot  where  planted  and  the  space  occupied  by  it. 

(2)  To  obtain  from  the  whole  of  the  principal  branches  a  series  of 
smaller  secondary  ones,  bearing  floral  or  fruitful  buds. 

(3)  To  make  the  fruitage  more  equal  and  at  the  same  time  propor- 
tionate to  the  strength  of  the  tree,  care  being  taken  to  avoid  intermis- 
sion. 

(4)  To  augment  the  bulk  of  the  fruit  and  contribute  towards  the 
same  being  more  savory,  on  account  of  its  juices  being  obtained  with 
greater  care  and  more  completely. 

Cultivation  when  in  full  production. — As  has  been  seen,  little  by  little 
many  modifications  have  been  introduced  in  the  cultivation  of  this  tree 
as  it  goes  on  developing.  When  the  tree  is  in  full  production  the  cul- 
tivation is  as  follows :  If  the  orchard  is  small,  hormigueros  are  made  one 
year,  and  the  following  one  manure  is  employed  j  but  should  it  be  large, 
hormigueros  are  made  in  one  half  and  the  other  half  is  manured.  The 
following  year  the  part  where  the  hormigueros  were  made  is  manured, 
and  in  the  other  part  where  the  manuring  was  effected  hormigueros  are 
made,  and  this  system  is  successively  continued  alternately.  Should 
the  fruit  be  sold  at  Christmas,  the  soil  is  worked  in  February  and 
March ;  but  should  the  fruit  not  be  sold  at  said  period,  the  only  thing 
to  be  done  is  to  wait  till  it  is  plucked  and  then  work  the  soil  when  pos- 
sible. As  soon  as  the  tree  is  bare  of  fruit,  the  pruner  commences  his 
work,  the  best  time  for  this  being  the  end  of  February  and  during  the 
whole  of  March.  All  dry  branches  are  cut  off,  as  are  also  all  rickety 
shoots  and  the  crooked  branches  which  cross  one  another,  and  some  of 
those  from  the  center,  when  there  are  many  close  together;  in  short, 
all  those  branches  that  are  calculated  to  prejudice  the  tree.  The  orange 


550  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

trees  must  have  sufficient  space  between  each  to  allow  of  good  venti- 
lation, and  they  must  be  properly  protected  to  enable  them  to  resist 
the  abrupt  changes  of  temperature  and  at  the  same  time  give  the  full 
quantity  of  fruit  they  ought  to  yield.  An  excess  of  wood  is  iirejutlicial 
to  the  luxuriance  of  the  trees,  as  likewise  to  their  production,  for  which 
reason  cultivators  endeavor  by  pruning  to  widen  the  scroun  of  the 
tree,  and  check  its  growth  in  height.  In  September,  before  the  trees 
begin  to  bud,  they  should  all  be  well  examined  to  remove  alltheyoung 
twigs  that  may  have  formed,  only  leaving  such  buds  as  are  well  placed 
for  forming  branches  in  the  empty  spaces  there  may  be.  This  custom 
is  very  much  neglected,  for  which  reason  trees  are  very  frequently  seen 
with  twigs  which  have  rendered  useless  the  principal  branches,  thus 
disarranging  the  good  order  these  should  have  in  their  proper  distribu- 
tion. One  thing  the  pruner  of  orange  trees  must  bear  in  mind  is  the 
following,  viz,  that  the  branches  of  these  trees  bear  a  heavy  fruit,  which 
makes  them  incline  to  either  side;  but  there  are  some  who  do  not  take 
this  into  account  and  prune  some  of  the  branches  that  ought  not  to  be 
touched,  only  fixing  their  attention  on  the  place  they  occupied  at  the 
time  of  pruning,  which  was  different  to  that  where  they  previously 
were.  Those  who  are  not  partisans  of  low  trees,  like  the  cultivators 
here,  allow  the  orange  trees  a  greater  development  and  do  not  punish 
them  so  much  in  the  pruning. 

As  soon  as  the  pruning  is  finished  the  working  of  the  soil  is  com- 
menced. This  is  watered  and  dug  up,  and  hormigueros  made  where  they 
correspond,  which  last  work  should  be  carefully  attended  to,  otherwise 
the  farmer  will  spend  both  time  and  money  uselessly.  The  hormigueros 
give  very  good  results  in  strong  and  damp  soils,  but  they  are  of  littlo 
use  in  those  that  are  sandy  and  dry  A  sufficient  quantity  of  combus- 
tible should  be  employed  and  the  earth  so  burned  as  to  be  neither  "too 
much  nor  too  little  so,  but  at  the  same  time  be  blackish.  This  opera- 
tion must  be  effected  slowly  and  with  great  care.  In  the  orchards  where 
guano  is  employed,  which  is  thrown  round  about  the  trunk,  the  hormi- 
gueros are  made  in  the  parts  where  said  manure  has  not  been  used,  so 
that  the  same  may  benefit  thereby. 

In  the  orchards  manured  with  stable  dung,  which  manure  cultivators 
are  accustomed  to  throw  down  in  every  row  between  each  orange  tree, 
the  hormigueros  are  made  in  the  clear  spots  that  have  not  been  manured. 
The  part  of  the  orangery  that  is  manured  is  worked  as  follows :  Some 
fanners  irrigate  the  ground  and  when  the  proper  season  arrives  throw 
down  the  manure,  digging  up  the  soil  with  a  spade  to  the  depth  of  25 
to  30  millimeters  in  the  clear  spots,  and  only  2  or  3  inches  deep  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  trees.  As  this  is  being  done,  men  go  behind  and  level 
the  surface  with  a  species  of  narrow  hoe,  in  order  that  the  earth  may 
be  more  united  and  better  preserve  its  seasoning.  Other  cultivators 
commence  by  making  a  string  of  ridges  from  one  to  the  other  side  of 
each  row  of  orange  trees  at  the  distance  of  the  extremity  of  the  branches, 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN   SPAIN.  551 

and  when  this  is  done  they  throw  down  the  manure,  which,  if  in  small 
quantity,  is  spread  from  the  outside  towards  the  trunk,  or,  if  in  large 
quantity,  all  over  the  space  between  the  ridges.  As  soon  as  the  ma- 
nure is  properly  distributed  the  ground  is  irrigated,  care  being  taken 
that  the  water  enter  gradually  and  equally,  so  as  not  to  wash  or  carry 
away  the  manure,  but  let  it  remain  where  put.  At  the  proper  season 
the  earth  is  burned  over,  and  all  thus  mixed  together.  This  latter  sys- 
tem is  preferable  to  the  former,  inasmuch  as  the  water  commences  to 
dissolve  the  soluble  portion  of  the  manure,  which  thus  at  once  pene- 
trates the  soil,  and,  the  insoluble  part  being  well  soaked,  is  better  mixed 
afterwards  with  the  earth. 

With  reference  to  the  first  system,  it  frequently  happens  that  the 
manure  is  spread  over  spots  not  yet  properly  seasoned,  and  in  this  case 
the  surface  manure  or  that  at  a  small  distance  from  the  superficies  is 
destroyed  by  the  rays  of  the  sun,  a  loss  which  is  avoided  by  employing 
the  second  method. 

At  the  expiration  of  a  month  or  month  and  a  half,  should  it  not  have 
rained  and  the  weather  continue  fine,  the  orangery  is  again  irrigated. 
After  watering  at  the  proper  season,  two  plowings  are  given  to  the 
soil  between  the  extremities  of  the  branches  of  one  tree  and  another, 
care  being  taken  that  the  plow  does  not  touch  or  injure  the  branches, 
and  a  good  weeding  is  given  to  the  ground  round  the  trunk  and  under 
the  branches.  There  are  some  orangeries  where  the  plow  can  not  be 
used  on  account  of  the  trees  being  so  thickly  planted,  the  branches  of 
one  tree  almost  touching  those  of  its  neighbor.  In  these  cases  the  soil 
is  slightly  dug  up  with  a  spade.  This  cultivation  is  continued  through- 
out the  year  till  the  month  of  October,  when  the  orange  (fruit)  begins 
to  turn  yellow,  and  then  the  plowing  work  is  suppressed  by  many,  who 
only  keep  on  weeding  to  keep  the  surface  clean.  At  this  period  of  the 
year  great  care  should  be  taken  of  the  capillary  roots,  for  if  cut,  the 
tree  suffers  and  the  fruit  falls  off. 

The  person  who  has  to  direct  the  cultivation  of  an  orangery  must 
always  be  on  the  watch,  both  as  regards  the  weather  and  the  state  of 
seasoning  of  the  soil.  Should  the  earth  be  sufficiently  moist,  and  there 
be  signs  of  wet  weather,  or  it  be  thought  that  the  ground  can  pass 
some  time  longer  without  irrigating,  this  is  not  effected,  and  thus  the 
cultivator  economizes  the  cost  of  the  labor  necessarily  attendant  after 
each  irrigation.  Should  the  weather  be  cold  the  orchard  is  irrigated 
if  possible,  and  thus  the  trees  do  not  suffer  so  much  from  it.  Should  a 
period  of  dry  weather  be  followed  by  a  lowering  of  the  temperature  at 
the  time  when  the  orange  trees  are  not  fully  seasoned,  the  fruit  is  likely 
to  get  frozen,  and,  to  however  little  an  extent  this  may  occur,  the  orange 
is  useless  for  shipment.  It  is  always  advisable  for  the  proprietor  of  an 
orangery  to  have  the  irrigation  done  by  a  person  that  thoroughly  under- 
stands it,  so  that  the  water  may  only  enter  the  field  with  the  required 
current,  in  order  to  prevent  any  of  the  surface  soil  being  swept  away, 
156A 11 


552        FKUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

as  also  to  avoid  the  formation  of  any  pools,  especially  about  the  foot  of 
the  orange  trees  or  in  close  vicinity  to  them,  the  same  being  exceedingly 
prejudicial.  According  to  the  opinion  of  many  experienced  cultivators 
the  orchards  about  Valencia  may  pass  from  four  to  five  weeks  during 
the  summer  season  without  being  irrigated,  but  this  should  not  be  de- 
layed longer,  as  it  would  only  redound  to  the  detriment  of  the  fruit, 
which  would  not  thrive  as  it  should  do.  In  the  winter  the  gardens  can 
be  well  left  for  eight  or  nine  weeks  without  irrigating. 

Water  is  so  scarce  in  some  parts  in  summer  that  frequently  two 
months  or  even  more  pass  without  it  being  possible  to  irrigate  the 
orangery,  in  which  case  the  orange  trees  suffer  a  great  deal  and  the 
fruit  is  small,  thus  causing  a  loss  of  importance  to  the  grower.  By  giv- 
ing a  much  deeper  tillage  the  evil  is  in  great  part  avoided,  but  exceed- 
ing care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut  any  of  the  roots,  or  should  such  occur 
that  it  should  not  be  to  the  extent  of  causing  the  trees  to  suffer  there- 
from, for  which  reason  it  is  best  to  perform  the  tillage  gradually  and  by 
piecemeal.  There  are  some  plantations  so  exceedingly  superficial  as 
not  to  admit  of  deep  tillage ;  thus  the  seasoning  only  produces  effects 
of  short  duration,  and  when  it  rains  said  plantations  scarcely  benefit 
from  the  nutritive  elements  washed  down  and  deposited  by  the  rains  on 
the  surface,  for  as  soon  as  the  sun  shines  the  greater  portion  are  rapidly 
evaporated,  having  penetrated  but  such  a  short  depth  into  the  soil. 
These  do  not  admit  of  any  improvement  ;  but  it  must  be  borne  well  in 
mind  that  the  greater  the  quantity  of  earth  turned  over  on  planting, 
the  tree  to  be  cultivated  has  more  nutritive  elements,  and,  at  the  same 
time,  requires  less  water  for  thriving. 

Although  all  the  trees  of  this  species  greatly  love  water,  so  much 
so  that  without  it  they  can  not  live,  still  great  care  must  be  taken  not 
to  let  them  have  too  much,  as,  unless  graduated  with  the  greatest 
rigor,  it  does  them  harm ;  consequently  it  has  to  be  arranged  according 
to  the  season  and  the  position  and  quality  of  the  earth,  so  that  on  an 
average  and  reckoning  on  soil  suitable  for  the  vegetation  of  these 
trees  it  will  be  sufficient  to  irrigate  the  gardens  once  in  every  twenty 
days  in  summer  and  suspend  it  during  the  autumn  and  winter.  Should 
the  earth  be  at  all  compact  it  is  only  irrigated  occasionally,  but  should 
it  be  loose  it  requires  it  ofteuer.  In  general,  the  degree  of  watering 
given  to  the  soil  should  be  sufficient  to  maintain  the  leaves  smooth  and 
straight  without  being  twisted ;  should  the  irrigation  be  carried  be- 
yond prudent  limits  it  is  detrimental  to  the  tree,  and  it  may  be  easily 
known  when  the  waterings  are  too  frequent  or  exceed  the  necessities 
of  the  tree,  as  the  leaves  commence  turning  yellow. 

Hormigueros. — All  cultivators  are  unanimous  in  agreeing  that  the 
hormigueros  give  excellent  results  in  the  cultivation  of  the  orange  tree 
in  this  zone.  The  orange  tree  itself  shows  by  its  wider  and  deeper 
colored  leaf  how  much  it  benefits  from  the  hormigueros,  and  there  are 
many  who  believe  they  contribute  in  giving  consistence  to  the  fruit. 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN. 


553 


For  the  preceding  reason  the  owners  of  vineyards  preserve  the  cuttings 
of  their  vines,  preferring  the  ashes  of  these  to  those  of  other  vegetables. 
By  these  means  the  physical  properties  of  the  earth  are  greatly  and 
favorably  improved,  and  in  addition  to  the  seeds  and  roots  of  weeds 
being  destroyed  so  are  also  various  insects  and  their  grubs,  besides 
which  a  quantity  of  vegetable  ash  is  obtained,  the  use  of  which  has 
always  been  greatly  recommended,  as  amongst  other  elements  the 
earth  receives  a  quantity  of  potash,  which  is  of  great  importance  to 
plants.  Notwithstanding  the  preceding  the  system  of  hormigueros  is 
not  suitable  for  all  classes  of  soils,  but  it  is  to  be  preferred  for  those 
which  are  argillaceous,  and  the  result  will  be  much  better  with  those 
which  are  red  and  humid. 

The  application  of  hormigueros  to  light,  sandy  soils,  which  are  nat- 
urally acrid  and  poor  in  organic  substances,  always  produces  fatal  re- 
sults ;  but,  nevertheless,  there  is  an  exception  to  this  general  rule,  for 
chalky  soils  may  be  improved  by  the  use  of  liormigueros  when  done 
with  prudence,  as  by  the  action  of  combustion  a  portion  of  the  chalk  is 
converted  into  quicklime,  and  the  same  result  is  obtained  as  if  the  earth 
had  been  calcined,  but  in  this  case  it  is  necessary  that  the  manure 
should  be  applied  previous  to  the  liormigueros^  which  is  the  method 
adopted  in  various  parts  of  this  country. 

FERTILIZERS. 

This  manure  is  largely  employed,  as  by  the  use  of  it  the  develop- 
ment of  the  orange  trees  is  advanced,  and  they  give  a  larger  yield. 
Its  use  gives  excellent  results  in  the  young  gardens  where  the  trees 
are  weakly,  but  in  the  orangeries  where  the  ground  is  in  itself  rich 
it  contributes  towards  the  fruit  being  swollen  or  blown.  The  quantity 
of  guano  employed  varies  according  to  the  state  of  the  orchard.  In 
general,  a  bag  containing  from  60  to  70  kilograms  is  used  per  faiiega, 
but  there  are  some  cultivators  who  use  double  this  quantity.  The  num- 
ber of  trees  planted  per  hanegada  varying  so  much,  some  growers  have 
adopted  the  rule  of  putting  about  4£  kilograms  to  each  tree  5  thus  the 
manure  of  each  costs  about  5  or  6  reals.  If  the  guano  is  thrown  down 
dry,  small  trenches  are  dug  round  about  each  tree,  in  which  the  guano 
is  placed  and  afterwards  covered  over,  but  should  there  be  a  good  sup- 
ply of  water  at  hand  the  guano  is  strewn  over  the  earth  under  and 
round  about  the  tree,  and  the  garden  is  immediately  irrigated. 

The  composition  of  the  principal  guanos  may  be,  on  an  average, 
represented  as  follows : 


Guano. 

Ammonia. 

Phosphates. 

Azoe. 

Nitrate. 

17  to  18 

24  to  26 

15  to  16 

Per  cent. 

4   70 

TcJiabo  Islands  

7  to    8 

30  to  32 

8  to  10 

t   70 

Chilian 

5  to   8 

37  to  40 

6  to   8 

(J 

Patairoriian  ..     .       .         ....... 

2  to    3 

44  to  46 

6  to    H 

f, 

Baker's  Islands  (Pacific) 

78  to  85 

0  3  to  1  2 

3  5 

554  FRUIT    CULTUKE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  preceding  there  are  some  guanos  which  are 
very  rich  in  phosphoric  acid  and  contain  but  little  ammonia,  whilst  in 
others  the  ammonia  predominates,  and  the  phosphoric  acid  is  much 
less.  Potash  is  found  in  but  very  limited  quantity,  and  in  some  guanos 
there  are  no  traces  of  it,  as  happens  with  the  guano  from  the  Lobos 
Islands.  Magnesia  is  also  met  with,  but  in  small  quantity. 

The  organic  substances  are  of  easy  decomposition,  and  cause  the 
formation  of  carbolic  acid,  which,  decomposing  the  silica  of  potash  in 
the  soil,  liberates  both  the  silica  and  the  potash.  Should  the  soil  be 
poor  in  potash  and  magnesia,  it  soon  becomes  barren,  although  the 
quantity  of  guano  may  be  increased.  This  should  be  well  borne  in 
inind  in  the  cultivation  of  orange  trees,  rice,  and  sugar-cane. 

Guano  can  not  by  any  means  replace  good  stable  manure,  but  it  is  one 
of  its  best  complements,  its  action  being  immediate,  due  to  the  great 
solubility  of  its  principal  fertilizing  elements.  Owing  to  the  preceding 
the  action  of  guano  is  of  but  short  duration,  and  unless  alternated  with 
other  manures,  such  as  vegetable  ashes,  phosphates,  stable  dung,  etc., 
the  soil  soon  becomes  exhausted.  It  is  a  very  good  custom  to  mix  the 
guano  with  stable  manure,  as,  in  addition  to  economy  and  the  facility 
and  equality  with  which  it  can  be  spread  in  this  manner,  the  results 
obtained  are  more  beneficial,  because,  without  lessening  its  efficacy,  it 
neither  burns  nor  destroys  the  young  plants,  although  these  might  come 
in  contact  with  it.  By  means  of  practical  trials  it  has  been  found  out 
that  10,000  or  14,000  kilograms  of  stable  dung  mixed  with  150  or  200 
kilograms  of  guano  produce  much  more  satisfactory  results  than  30,000 
or  40,000  kilograms  of  stable  dung  used  alone,  and  that  the  earth  after- 
wards remain  in  a  better  condition  for  later  culture.  It  has  been 
proved  that  a  ton  of  guano  (1,000  kilograms)  is  equal  in  fertilizing  effects 
to  33J  tons  of  stable  manure,  to  21  tons  of  horse  dung,  to  33J  of  cow 
dung,  and  to  14J  tons  of  human  excrement  mixed. 

One  of  the  most  perfect  known  manures  is  human  excrement.  In  this 
is  found  all  the  elements  required  by  vegetables,  and  in  such  a  state 
that  their  assimilation  takes  place  with  rapidity,  their  effects  being 
equal.  Fecal  matters  are  required  as  much  for  strong  as  for  light  soils, 
but  nevertheless  a  distinction  should  be  made,  viz,  when  the  excrement 
is  in  a  desiccated  state  it  is  applied  to  argillaceous  soils,  and  when  fresh 
the  preference  is  given  to  light  ones.  The  fecal  matters  are  v^ry  ener- 
getic, and  their  action  on  the  vegetation  is  rapid,  brisk,  and  of  short 
duration,  but  whilst  contributing  powerfully  to  the  first  development  of 
the  plants  they  weaken  the  strength  of  them  during  their  latter  period. 
In  short,  it  is  a  manure  which  quickly  gives  what  it  has  to  give,  leaving 
little  or  nothing  behind  it.  That  human  excrement  is  one  of  the  most 
perfect  manures  is  proved  by  its  composition.  According  to  Boussin- 
gault,  100  kilograms  of  human  excrement  in  an  ordinary  condition 
contain  75  kilograms  of  water  and  24.90  kilograms  of  dry  matters,  the 
principal  elements  being : 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN.  555 

Oxygen,  hydrogen,  and  carbon 20. 10 

Azoo 0.40 

Phosphoric  acid 0.20 

Potash  and  soda 1.50 

Lime  and  magnesia T. 0.70 

Silica  and  other  substances 2.00 

On  evaporation  of  the  water,  an  inert  matter  of  which  it  is  despoiled 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  considering  only  the  dry  matter  contained  in 
it,  its  composition  is  as  follows : 

Organic  matter  per  100  kilograms 80.14 

Mineral  matter  per  100  kilograms 19.85 

Lost 0.01 

The  organic  matter  contains  78.66  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen,  and 
1.48  azoe.  The  mineral  matter  contains  0.82  phosphoric  acid,  11.00  alka- 
line salts,  potash,  soda,  and  lime,  and  8.04  of  silica  and  loss — in  short, 
all  the  substances  that  enter  into  the  com  position  of  vegetables ;  above 
all,  the  azoes,  soluble  phosphates,  and  alkalies,  especially  potash. 

According  to  the  experiences  of  Hermsbtael  and  Schubler,  it  has  been 
proved  that  the  soil  without  manuring  of  any  description  can  produce 
the  seed  3  times,  but  if  manured  with  vegetable  manure,  5  times,  and  if 
manured  with  common  stable  manure,  7  times,  and  if  manured  with 
pigeon  dung,  9  times,  and  if  manured  with  horse  dung,  10  times,  and  if 
manured  with  human  urine,  12  times,  and  if  manured  with  solid  excre- 
ment, 14  times. 

The  employment  of  manures  is  indispensable  for  activating  the  devel- 
opment of  the  orange  tree  and  maintaining  its  fertility.  Without  them 
its  growth  would  be  slow,  and  it  would  soon  be  loaded  with  fruit  of 
small  size,  which  would  exhaust  the  tree  by  reason  of  its  abundance, 
and  cause  it  to  succumb  long  before  giving  its  maximum  produce. 

The  orange  tree  requires  to  be  manured  at  two  periods  of  its  existence. 
Ihiring  its  first  development  it  should  receive  it  in  abundance,  so  as  to 
activate  as  much  as  possible  the  formation  of  its  branches  and  at  the 
same  time  obtain  its  maximum  production.  Afterwards,  during  the 
remainder  of  its  existence,  only  the  necessary  quantity  for  its  proper 
preservation  and  nourishment  should  be  given  it,  its  state  of  vegetation 
indicating  the  frequency  with  which  it  should  be  manured  and  the  quan- 
tity to  be  given  it.  In  the  first  period  of  vegetation  of  the  orange  trees 
manures  of  rapid  decomposition  should  be  employed,  so  that  they  may 
immediately  proportion  to  the  roots,  and  in  abundance,  the  nutritive 
elements  required  by  them.  Such  manures  are  the  following,  viz,  well- 
prepared  dungs,  pigeon  manure,  the  skins  and  refuse  of  oily  seeds, 
guano,  desiccated  blood,  and  fecal  matters.  In  the  second  period  the 
manures  of  slower  decomposition  should  have  the  preference,  and  these 
are  horn  raspings  or  scrapings,  crushed  bones,  old  woolen  rags,  horse 
hair,  and  the  hair,  tendons,  and  waste  of  tanning  factories.  The  effect  of 
.  these  last  manures  endures  for  from  five  to  eight  years.  Both  classes 
of  manure  are  distributed  over  the  surface  soil  supposed  to  have  roots 


556        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

underneath,  and  particularly  over  the  parts  reached  by  the  radical  ex- 
tremities, which  is  to  say  within  the  circumference  covered  by  the 
branches  of  the  trees.  These  manures  are  buried  in  the  soil,  about  the 
end  of  October,  at  a  depth  of  from  25  to  30  centimeters.  Liquid  ma- 
nures are  also  sometimes  employed,  such  as  fecal  matters,  skins,  and 
refuse  of  oily  seeds,  and  guano,  the  whole  mixed  together  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  water,  but  the  effect  produced  is  immediate  and  of  short 
duration.  These  should  not  be  made  use  of  except  during  the  heat  of 
the  summer  and  at  the  moment  when  the  vegetation  is  most  active,  for 
if  applied  during  the  winter  they  might  lead  to  the  putrefaction  of  the 
roots.  In  general,  they  are  not  resorted  to  except  for  such  trees  as 
appear  languid  and  seem  diseased,  and  a  trench  of  about  the  depth  of 
5  centimeters  is  dug  around  the  spot  where  this  liquid  manure  is  to 
be  placed,  which  is  afterwards  covered  over.  In  order  that  the  earth 
may  be  fertile,  it  should  contain  all  the  necessary  elements  required  for 
obtaining  the  proper  development  of  the  plant  that  has  to  be  cultivated 
in  it,  and  these  must  be  in  a  perfect  state  of  assimilation,  but  compost 
and  vegetable  and  animal  remains  that  may  be  added  to  the  earth  in 
the  shape  of  manures  do  not  return  to  it  the  principles  lost  by  it  yearly 
with  the  crops  raised;  and  Liebig,  seeing  that  in  all  countries  the  agri- 
cultural production  was  diminishing,  commenced  a  series  of  studies  to 
ascertain  the  cause  thereof,  the  result  being  such  as  to  clearly  demon- 
strate what  was  taking  place.  He  found  out  that  all  plants  required  to 
assimilate  a  greater  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid  than  that  contained  in 
compost,  and  consequently  proposed  the  employment  of  bones  and  nat- 
ural phosphates,  as  also  mineral  phosphates,  coprolites,  etc.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  mixing  or  alternating  complete  with  incomplete  manures, 
so  that  the  earth  may  always  retain  its  fertilizing  properties. 

The  method  for  calculating  the  substances  which  in  the  shape  of 
manure  should  be  given  to  the  soil  as  a  necessity,  after  the  collection 
of  each  crop,  is  as  follows : 

1.  The  cultivator  should  avail  of  all  the  vegetable  manure  obtainable 
from  the  refuse  of  each  crop,  to  which  should  only  be  added  the  fixed 
principles  of  the  fruit,  the  nitrogen  required  by  it  being  supplied  by  the 
ammonia  in  the  air,  as  also  that  remaining  on  the  surface  soil  after  being 
washed  there  by  the  rains.    To  ascertain,  in  this  case,  the  quantity  of 
nutritive  principles  required  to  be  incorporated  with  the  soil,  the  prob- 
able average  weight  of  the  fruit  to  be  produced  each  year  should  be 
calculated,  having  ascertained  which,  and  taking  into  account  the  weight 
of  ashes,  this  problem  is  easily  solved.    Knowing  the  weight  of  the  ashes 
of  100  parts  of  the  fruit,  a  proportion  is  established  which  will  give  the 
required  result. 

2.  Should  the  cultivator  not  wish  to  avail  of  the  vegetable  refuse  of 
each  crop,  he  should  add,  first,  the  fixed  principles  of  the  fruit,  and, 
secondly,  the  fixed  principles  of  the  branches  and  leaves.    An  analo- 
gous calculation  to  the  preceding  will  give  the  sum  of  nutritive  principles 
*o  be  added  to  the  soil  in  the  shape  of  manures. 


CULTIVATION    OP    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN. 


557 


3.  The  case  where  the  cultivator  only  utilizes  a  portion  of  the  vege- 
table refuse.  Knowing  the  total  quantity  of  leaf  and  branches  obtained 
Avitli  each  crop,  by  difference  may  be  ascertained  the  quantity  of  leaf 
and  vegetable  refuse  that  is  not  returned  to  the  soil,  and  with  this  datum 
may  also  be  calculated  the  nutritive  principles  that  should  be  adminis- 
tered, which  will  be : 

(1)  The  fixed  principles  of  the  fruit. 

(2)  The  fixed  principles  of  that  part  of  the  leaves  and  branches  that 
are  not  utilized  as  manure. 

(3)  The  quantity  of  nitrogen  contained  in  the  leaves  and  branches 
which  is  not  availed  of  for  manure. 

The  study  of  the  orange  tree  has  determined  by  analysis  that  its  ashes 
give  the  following  results  per  cent.,  viz: 

Composition  of  the  ashes  of  the  fruit. 


Constituents. 

Mineral 
manure. 

Compost. 

Per  cent. 
20.15 

Per  cent. 
]5.28 

Sod.'*                           

10.22 

12.  14 

30.12 

30.24 

9.02 

8.10 

20.04 

18.24 

1.08 

4.14 

Silicic  acid 

4.50 

5.82 

Oxide  of  iron                                                                   .....         ..  ................ 

4,25 

4.75 

Loss 

0.62 

1.29 

Ashes  of  the  fruit                                     ..                            .     .                   per  100.. 

100.00 
3.57 

100.  00 
3.48 

Composition  of  the  trunk,  branches,  and  leaves. 


Constituents. 

Trunk  and 
branches. 

Leaves. 

Potash    

Per  cent. 
14.  15 

Per  cent. 
10.  18 

Soda 

10.67 

10.82 

Lime      .......        ..                       .                                                         

31.57 

41.  22 

10.64 

6.54 

Phosphoric  acid                                                                                                          ...  

18.82 

19.47 

489 

4.53 

Silicic  acid 

2.82 

5.48 

6.44 

1.76 

100.00 
1.57 

100.00 
1.60 

6.32 

6.20 

The  orange  trees  analyzed  were  from  Alcira  (Valencia) ;  some  manured 
with  compost  and  others  with  mineral  manure.  The  proportional  dif- 
ference noted  between  the  assimilative  nutritive  principles  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  for,  as  has  been  observed,  this  varies  with  the  same  plant 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  manure  employed. 


558  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIG-N    COUNTRIES. 

DISEASES. 

The  development  of  disease  in  the  orange  trees  is  greatly  contributed 
to  by  atmospherical  phenomena,  various  insects,  and  parasitical  plants, 
as  also  the  neglect  or  limited  knowledge  of  the  cultivators.. 

The  effects  of  cold,  snow,  humidity,  dews,  frosts,  hail,  wind,  burning 
rust,  chlorosis  or  yellowing  of  the  leaves,  and  withering  are  as  follows: 

Cold. — This  commences  by  destroying  the  tender  shoots  of  the  trees, 
followed  by  the  drying  up  of  the  blossoms,  after  which  takes  place  the 
disorganization  of  the  fruit  and  afterward  that  of  the  leaves,  branches, 
trunk,  and  finally  roots ;  crevices  open  in  the  branches,  which  bend 
and  turn  black,  the  leaves  wrinkle,  roll  up,  and  die ;  the  flowers  become 
blackened  and  disorganized  ;  the  fruit  loses  its  brilliancy,  dissipates  its 
odorous  principles,  loses  its  juice,  and  becomes  bitter,  falls  off  the  tree 
and  rots;  or,  if  the  cold  has  not  been  very  intense,  the  fruit  is  half  frozen 
and  remains  on  the  tree  till  the  following  spring. 

Snow. — This  injures  the  trees  both  from  cold  and  its  weight.  Should 
the  storm  be  heavy  and  the  fall  great,  this  bears  down  the  branches  and 
in  many  cases  breaks  some.  As  regards  the  cold  occasioned  by  it,  this 
does  not  always  do  harm,  but  when  it  does  do  so  it  is  very  frequently 
confined  to  the  young  shoots.  Should  the  weather  be  fine  both  before 
and  after  a  snow-storm,  the  cold  water  produced  on  thawing  produces 
its  effects  on  the  young  branches,  for  which  reason  no  time  should  be 
lost  in  shaking  all  the  snow  off  them  before  nightfall,  for  should  it  be 
condensed  on  them  the  harm  occasioned  would  be  of  much  greater  im- 
portance. The  system  of  placing  heaps  of  damp  straw  at  fixed  dis- 
tances between  the  trees,  so  that  on  setting  said  heaps  on  fire  in  order 
to  obtain  a  smoke  between  the  sun's  rays  and  the  trees  has  produced  a 
magnificent  result.  If  after  snowing  the  weather  continues  threatening, 
or  there  be  heavy  clouds  floating  about,  neither  the  trees  nor  the  fruit 
will  suffer  any  harm,  although  the  thermometer  might  be  below  zero. s 

Humidity,  dews,  and  frost.— An  excess  of  humidity  in  the  atmosphere 
during  the  fecundation  of  the  blossom  generally  produces  bad  results, 
especially  in  such  places  where  the  ventilation  is  limited,  should  the 
temperature  at  night  decline  to  any  extent.  Frost  with  an  east  wind 
occasions  a  deal  of  harm,  but  should  the  wind  be  from  the  north  it  is 
not  so  bad.  Little  that  is  economical  can  be  availed  of  in  l$,rge  or- 
chards, but  in  reduced  ones  the  harm  is  lightened  at  small  cost  by  avail- 
ing of  certain  materials  for  shelter,  of  little  value,  which  in  certain  dis- 
tricts are  plentiful. 

Sail. — This  causes  a  deal  of  damage  to  the  fruit.  Should  the  storm 
be  of  short  duration  and  the  wounds  occasioned  by  it  be  of  slight  pro. 
fundity,  these  will  soon  heal  up  and  everything  continue  well,  but  cer- 
tain black  stains  will  remain,  which  reduce  the  value  of  the  fruit. 
Should  the  storm  be  heavy,  it  completely  destroys  the  orange,  which 
quickly  enters  into  a  state  of  putrefaction. 

Wind. — This  exercises  its  influence  on  the  orange  trees  in  two  differ- 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN.  559 

ent  ways,  viz,  by  its  force  and  by  its  temperature,  the  injury  caused  be- 
ing greater  or  less  according  to  the  position  in  which  the  orchards  may 
lie.  Xorth,  northwest,  and  west-northwest  winds  are  the  most  danger- 
ous in  certain  places  on  account  of  their  temperature,  for  as  a  rule  they 
dry  up  the  extremes  of  the  branches  exposed  to  their  influence,  besides 
which  the  shoots  of  certain  species  become  unsound.  Those  that  cause 
most  harm  in  the  south  of  Europe,  by  reason  of  their  impetuosity,  are 
the  south,  south-southwest,  and  south-southeast,  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  valleys.  All  these  winds  come  with  puffs  of  extraordinary 
strength  and  destroy  the  branches  unable  to  resist  them.  The  only 
remedy  in  these  important  occasions  is  to  cut  off  everything  that  has 
been  destroyed  and  dried  up.  With  the  object  of  partially  avoiding 
these  misfortunes,  the  custom  of  producing  trees  of  shortened  growth 
has  of  late  years  vastly  extended. 

The  burning  and  rust — The  disease  known  as  burning  is  due  in  great 
part  to  the  too  abundant  dews  that  fall  here,  which  are  evaporated  with 
an  excessive  rapidity  by  a  burning  sun.  To  the  same  cause  may  be 
traced  the  disease  vulgarly  called  "  rust,"  or  a  class  of  mildew  on  the 
leaves  of  the  orange  trees.  This  manifests  itself  on  the  fruit  by  a  red 
stain,  which  as  it  increases  becomes  much  darker,  and  finishes  by  dis- 
organizing tht  pulp  and  rotting  the  fruit.  The  cleaning  and  pruning  of 
the  trees  is  the  best  known  method  against  this  evil. 

Chlorosis. — The  chlorosis  or  yellowing  of  the  leaves,  and  also  the 
withering,  are  generally  attributed  either  to  the  superabundance  of  hu- 
midity in  the  soil,  to  an  excessive  quantity  of  branches  having  but  little 
ventilation,  to  the  want  of  iron  in  the  earth,  to  a  species  of  torpor  in 
the  absorption  of  the  mineral  matters  existing  in  them,  and  to  the  alter- 
ation of  the  roots  if  old.  The  remedy  to  be  employed  to  combat  this 
evil  is  distinct  according  to  the  cause  by  which  it  is  produced. 

INSECT  PESTS. 

These  attack  the  roots,  trunks,  blossoms,  and  fruit,  consequently 
they  are  orgauical  beings  most  pernicious  to  the  trees,  frequently  caus- 
ing exceeding  harm  on  account  of  their  extraordinary  multiplication. 
Of  this  numerous  class  of  insects,  the  only  descriptions  which  up  to 
date  have  proved  enemies  to  orange  trees,  lemon  trees,  and  others  of 
the  Auranciacea  family,  which  are  cultivated  here,  are  the  coleopteral, 
hemipteral,  and  dipteral. 

Coleopteral.— This  description  contains  more  than  fifty  thousand  spe- 
cies, and  only  one  is  injurious  to  the  orange  tree,  the  same  being  called 
Othiorhynchus  meridionalis.  This  devours  the  leaves  and  tender  shoots 
of  the  orange  tree,  and  is  a  class  of  beetle  or  winged  insect.  The 
young  insect  is  sufficiently  perceptible,  being  about  a  centimeter  long, 
of  reddish-black  color,  and  with  grooves  on  the  elytron.  During  the 
daytime  it  hides  itself  in  the  earth,  where  it  should  be  hunted  and  de- 


5 GO        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

stroyed,  and  at  night  it  climbs  the  trunks,  crawling  up  to  the  extreme 
height  of  the  trees  in  search  of  the  young  leaves  and  tender  shoots, 
which  it  devours.  In  general,  it  is  not  one  of  the  most  terrible  enemies, 
on  account  of  the  facility  with  which  it  can  be  found  out  at  the  foot  of 
the  trees  and  exterminated. 

Hemipteral. — Of  this  numerous  family  there  are  six  which  are  enemies 
of  the  orange  tree,  namely,  Aphis  auranti,  Chermes  hesperidum,  GJiermes 
olece,  Chermes  aurantii,  Chermes  coccineus,  Coccus  citri. 

Aphis  auranti. — A  kind  of  small  vine-grub  of  green  color  varied  by 
black,  and  with  long  feelers,  and  small  green  horns  black  at  their  points. 
It  is  generally  seen  in  the  orange  trees  in  the  month  of  September,  and 
when  the  trees  commence  to  bud  it  usually  fixes  at  the  extremities  of 
the  young  shoots  a  quantity  of  black  puceron,  which  occasions  a  vast 
deal  of  damage  to  them,  inasmuch  as  by  reason  of  rendering  them  use- 
less their  growth  is  greatly  retarded.  By  applying  sulphur  to  the 
shoots  with  great  promptness  the  evil  is  soon  and  perfectly  overcome. 

Chermes  hesperidum. — This  gall-insect,  called  by  gardeners  the  louse 
of  the  orange  tree,  is  not  confined  to  the  same,  being  also  found  on 
other  trees,  such  as  the  laurel,  myrtle,  pomegranate,  and  others.  It  is 
found  in  the  shape  of  an  oval  body  nearly  hemispherical,  of  brown 
color,  somewhat  lucent.  It  prefers  the  under  part  of  the  leaves,  but  is 
frequently  found  on  top  of  them  in  a  line  along  the  center  nerve  or 
stalk,  being  met  in  great  number  on  the  young  branches,  and  when 
numerous  they  occasion  the  loss  of  a  large  quantity  of  sap,  which  ex- 
hausts the  trees  already  languid  from  any  other  cause.  Fumigations  of 
sulphur  or  tobacco  are  not  at  all  efficacious  with  these  insects  ;  the  only 
true  means  for  diminishing  the  quantity  of  kermes  consists  in  simply 
cleaning  the  plants  with  a  brush  or  horse-hair  glove,  for  once  that  the 
insects  are  separated  from  the  branches  or  leaves,  they  do  not  climb  up 
again,  and  shortly  die.  In  the  orchards  carelessly  cultivated,  as  also 
the  spots  having  but  little  ventilation  in  which  the  orange  trees  are 
thickly  planted  and  where  the  sun  scarcely  penetrates,  is  where  this 
insect  is  principally  found. 

Chermes  oleoe. — This  insect,  although  more  natural  to  the  olive  tree,  is 
also  found  attacking  the  orange  tree.  The  small  shell  of  the  female  is 
seraiglobose  and  of  a  grayish-brown,  more  or  less  dark  in  color.  The 
superficies  is  marked  with  two  thick  transverse  corrugations,  which 
make  it  seem  rough. 

Chermes  aurantii  is  big,  oval,  very  long,  and  of  a  blackish-brown  color. 

Chermes  coccineus. — This  is  called  the  red  kermes,  its  body  being 
round  and  of  a  bright  red  color.  It  has  two  long  feelers,  very  movable, 
and  six  white  feet.  This  gall-insect  lives  on  top  of  the  leaves,  where  it 
deposits  from  ten  to  fifteen  eggs,  producing  a  corresponding  number 
of  young  insects  of  pearly-white  color,  which  insects  on  growing  to  the 
length  of  half  a  millimeter  turn  red.  The  existence  of  this  insect  is  in- 
dicated by  the  appearance  on  the  under  part  of  the  leaves  of  the  orange 


CULTIVATION   OF   THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN.  5C1 

i 

trees  of  some  yellowish  and  concave  spots,  in  which  concavities  they 
are  found,  and  should  they  be  allowed  to  spread  much  the  tree  greatly 
suffers  from  loss  of  sap. 

Coccus  citri  (orange  cochineal  insect). — This  is  an  hemipterous  homop- 
terous  with  an  oval-oblong  body,  convex  on  the  top  and  slightly  swollen 
underneath.  The  color  is  an  ashy  gray  approaching  a  pale  yellow, 
and  it  is  covered  with  a  cotton-white  powder ;  at  the  sides  are  some  ap- 
pendices, and  the  hind  legs  are  longer  than  the  front  ones.  The  great 
fecundity  of  these  insects  causes  the  damage  occasioned  by  them  to  be 
very  considerable,  on  account  of  the  infinity  of  their  bites,  which  accel- 
erates the  perspiration  of  the  trees.  Amongst  the  various  methods  em- 
ployed for  its  extermination,  the  only  one  which,  up  to  date,  has  given 
good  results  has  been  the  employment  of  slaked  lime  squirted  over  the  . 
branches  and  leaves  by  means  of  a  gardener's  syringe  or  small  hand 
pump,  taking  care  that  all  parts  infected  are  touched.  This  operation 
is  effected  when  the  vegetation  commences,  which  is  when  the  insect 
takes  up  its  berth.  The  trees  attacked  should  be  immediately  pruned 
and  cleared  so  as  to  augment  the  ventilation  and  allow  the  sun  to  pen- 
etrate in  every  direction. 

Diptera. — There  is  also  a  dipteran  which  is  an  enemy  of  the  orange 
trees,  known  by  the  name  of  Ceratitis  hispanica,  or  orange  fly.  This 
insect  in  grub  state  lives  in  the  pulp  of  the  fruit,  which  it  alters  pro- 
foundly, and  causes  the  same  to  fall  off  from  the  tree  before  its  maturity. 
The  insect  is  one-half  of  a  centimeter  long;  of  a  black  color  in  the  ground, 
although  with  some  yellow-whitish  spots  and  lines;  the  wings  are 
transparent  and  crossed  by  four  yellow  and  black  ribbons ;  the  belly 
peduncular  and  round  behind.  The  female  possesses  a  borer  with  which 
it  pierces  the  skin  of  the  fruit  to  place  an  egg  in  the  hole  thus  prepared. 
This  egg  produces  a  grub  which  disorganizes  the  pulp  of  the  fruit  and 
makes  it  fall  to  the  ground,  where  it  suffers  its  last  metamorphosis.  The 
female  deposits  her  egg  when  the  oranges  are  still  small.  By  the  time 
the  putrid  orange  falls  down,  the  grub  has  already  arrived  at  its  com- 
plete development,  and  left  the  same,  penetrating  in  the  earth  to  pro- 
ceed to  its  transformation.  This  winged  insect  appears  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  spring.  The  grub  does  much  harm  to  the  orangeries  of  the 
South. 

Ants  and  spiders. — Ants  not  only  injure  the  fruit  but  impart  to  it  a 
somewhat  disagreeable  smell  and  flavor ;  they  frequently  establish  them- 
selves at  the  foot  of  the  trees  and  form  galleries  in  all  directions 
amongst  the  roots,  causing  such  trees  as  are  attacked  to  languish  and 
ofttimes  to  perish  from  the  formic  acid  spread  around  them,  which  acid 
burns  the  young  roots.  In  this  case  it  may  occasion  damage  to  the 
trees.  When  an  ant-hill  is  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  a  tree,  the  fol- 
lowing is  recommended  as  an  excellent  remedy,  viz,  to  take  a  flower 
pot,  closing  the  hole  in  its  bottom,  and  placing  it  upside  down  at  the 
side  of  the  hill.  The  ground  is  then  well  watered,  and  the  ants,  finding 


562        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

this  convenient  shelter,  shortly  shift  their  quarters  there,  taking  with 
them  their  wives  and  grubs,  so  as  to  keep  them  warmer.  By  repeating 
this  operation  two  or  three  times  they  disappear. 

Spiders  are  carnivorous  and  feed  on  the  blood  of  the  insects  they  may 
catch,  for  which  reason  they  occasion  little«or  no  damage  to  the  orange 
tree. 

PARASITIC  PLANTS. 

(1)  Demathium  monophyllum  or  Carbon.    This  is  the  most  common, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  most  dangerous.     The  unseen  stamens  and  pis- 
tils of  these  plants,  although  but  slightly  adherent  to  the  vital  parts 
of  the  orange  tree,  multiply  with  an  inconceivable  facility.     Some  call 
itfumago  citri  on  account  of  the  smoky  appearance  presented  by  the 
shoots  attacked  by  the  disease.     Its  appearance  is  that  of  a  black 
powder,  the  congregated  particles  of  which  extend  sidewise  and  form 
a  species  of  very  thin  crust,  which  finishes  by  covering  the  trunk  and 
branches.     An  infinity  of  small  and  fine  peduncles  grow  out  of  said 
crust,  bearing  on  their  apex  a  cellule  or  black  spongy  substance,  which 
contains  the  spores  or  seed.    It  is  a  true  arthrosporic  excrescence,  in 
which  the  reproductive  organs  appear  in  abundance  and  confounded 
with  those  of  the  vegetation  of  the  cryptogainia.     This  fabulous  quan- 
tity of  germs  naturally  causes  the  reproduction  of  the  parasite  to  be 
exceedingly  rapid,  especially  in  damp  and  shady  spots,  but  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  it  but  slightly  adheres  to  the  sides  of  the  orange  tree. 
The  aspect  of  an  orchard  infested  by  this  parasite  is  sad  and  disconso- 
late;   the  bright  and  cheerful  verdure  of  the  brilliant  leaves  of  the 
orange  trees  completely  disappears ;   the  branches  and  foliage  acquire 
a  blackish  and  dark  shade,  and  the  fruit  loses  its  yellow  or  golden  color, 
being  also  covered  with  a  dark  incrustation,  or  black  smut,  and  falling 
off  fche  trees  entirely  altered. 

(2)  .Lichen  aurantii.    This  is  the  other  cryptogamia,  equally  parasitic, 
and  likewise  occasions  much  damage  to  the  orange  tree.     It  presents 
itself  in  the  form  of  a  thin  substance,  not  thick  in  growth,  and  of  a 
whitish  gray  color,  covered  with  small  protuberances,  which  have  the 
appearance  of  organs  of  fructification.     This  plant  is  really  more  detri- 
mental and  dangerous  than  the  other,  in  consequence  of  the  tenacity 
with  which  it  fastens  itself  on  the  different  parts  of  the  orange  frees,  but 
it  is  fortunately  rarer,  and  the  late  years  of  dry  weather  have  caused  it 
to  disappear  from  .various  gardens  of  the  Mediterranean  littoral,  which 
were  infested  with  it. 

For  the  destruction  of  both  parasites,  slaked  lime  is  recommended, 
but  the  better  system  for  destroying  not  only  these  but  also  all  other 
lichens,  existing  like  parasites,  which  fix  themselves  on  the  trunks  and 
branches  of  trees,  paralyzing  the  functions  of  same  and  rendering  them 
unfit  to  produce  an  ordinary  crop,  is  to  well  prune  the  trees,  so  that  the 
air,  wind,  light,  and  solar  rays  may  thoroughly  penetrate  them.  In  such 


CULTIVATION    OF    THE    ORANGE    TREE    IN    SPAIN.  563 

gardens,  where  the  trees  are  very  numerous  and  where  the  trunks  are 
very  close  together — above  all  in  such  spots  as  the  hollows  of  valleys  or 
humid  plains — the  trees  should  be  thinned  out  in  such  a  manner  that 
the  branches  of  the  trees  can  not  interlace,  and  that  the  atmospheric 
fluids  may  have  free  access  on  all  sides. 

Ulcers. — When  a  tree  receives  a  wound  penetrating  to  the  ligneous 
part  and  leaving  the  same  exposed  to  the  air,  atmospherical  humidity, 
and  rain-water,  it  alters  the  exterior  coats  of  whiteness  and  promotes 
the  spilling  or  wasting  of  a  dark  liquid  of  much  acridity.  This  spilling 
or  wasting  impedes  the  formation  of  small  excrescences  on  the  edges  of 
the  wound,  which  are  the  commencement  of  its  cicatrization,  so  that  in- 
stead of  the  wound  closing  up,  it  continues  opening  more,  little  by 
little,  gradually  changing  the  bark  around  it  and  the  ligneous  part  of 
the  tree.  Such  a  wound  may  cause  the  death  of  the  tree.  This  disease 
is  known  by  the  name  of  "  Ulcer  "  or  "  Gutter."  The  ulcers  are  pro- 
duced with  much  greater  facility  when  the  wounds  present  a  less 
united  superficies  and  are  more  separated  from  the  vertical,  as  in  such 
cases  the  rain- water  is  better  retained  in  them.  The  most  efficacious 
remedy  to  be  employed  in  such  cases  is  as  follows  :  Commence  by  re- 
moving all  the  altered  part  until  a  perfectly  clean  wound  is  presented, 
which  should  be  left  in  this  state  and  in  contact  with  the  air  for  one  or 
two  days  to  dry  it  up,  after  which  it  should  be  completely  anointed 
with  ointment.  Several  ointments  have  been  proposed  as  effective, 
viz,  first,  the  "  Ointment  of  San  Fiacre,"  composed  of  clayey  soil,  cow 
dung  and  goats'  hair  or  wool,  and  afterwards  a  grafting  mastic,  which 
should  be  composed  of  substances  not  liable  either  to  melt  under  the 
influence  of  the  sun,  or  crack  from  frost.  One  of  the  best  compositions 
is  the  following: 

Per  cent,  of  weight. 

Resin 28 

Burgundy  pitch 28 

Yellow  wax _. 1(5 

Tallow 14 

Sifted  asbes  orocher 14 

100 

This  mixture  should  be  applied  sufficiently  warm  as  to  be  in  a  liquid 
state,  but  not  so  much  so  as  to  effect  the  texture  of  the  trees,  applying  it 
with  a  brush.  This  ointment  should  be  preferred  to  those  which  become 
defective  through  heat  and  are  washed  off  by  rains. 

The  disease  of  the  orange  tree,  known  by  the  name  of  Mai  de  Goma, 
is  the  most  to  be  feared,  as  it  causes  such  immense  losses  to  cultivators. 
This  disease  consists  of  a  gummy  oozing,  generally  occurring  either  in 
the  spring  or  in  the  autumn.  It  attacks  either  the  trunks  of  the  trees 
just  above  the  surface  of  the  soil,  or  else  the  roots  themselves.  This 
disease  commences  to  show  itself  by  some  drops  of  gum  appearing  on 
the  trunk,  which  still  appears  sound,  but  this  spilling  continues  increas- 
ing, the  bark  is  perforated,  and  the  flow  of  gum  augments,  being  fluid, 


564  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

turbid,  grayish  in  color,  and  of  bad  smell  5  the  bark  then  raises,  drying 
or  rotting  on  the  roots,  and  the  plant,  which  commences  turning  yellow, 
weakens  and  dies. 

Eecent  studies  of  this  disease  have  proved  that  its  existence  is  to  be 
attributed  to  a  microscopic  fungus  belonging  to  the  group  of  spheroids. 
Where  this  fungus  does  not  exist  there  is  no  disease  ;  where  the  germs 
of  it  do  not  reach  the  disease  can  not  unfold  itself  5  and  where  the  con- 
ditions of  life  are  wanting  for  this  small  vegetable,  whether  proceeding 
from  nature  or  occasioned  artificially,  the  fungus  dies  and  the  disease  is 
extirpated.  The  fruit  of  this  fungus  forms  itself  about  the  end  of  July 
or  August,  being  preserved  during  the  winter  for  propagating  its  spores 
in  the  spring. 

The  best  remedy  against  this  disease,  and  which  from  experience  has 
given  the  best  result,  is  sulphurous  acid,  mixing  15  bulks  of  sulphurous 
acid,  concentrated  at  66°  Bauine",  with  100  liters  of  water. 

Method  of  application. — Remove  the  earth  round  about  the  tree  for 
the  circumference  of  a  meter  or  so,  until  no  diseased  roots  are  met  with. 
The  hole  should  then  be  dug  deeper,  but  with  great  care,  so  as  not  to 
injure  the  sound  roots  near  the  trunk,  to  about  the  depth  of  half  a  meter 
if  possible.  The  earth  extracted  should  be  piled  up  to  burn  it  in  a  hor- 
miguero.  All  the  roots  that  have  completely  lost  their  bark  should  be 
cut  off,  as  also  those  which  are  in  a  state  of  putrefaction,  and  these 
roots  should  be  burned.  Afterwards  all  the  sickly  portions  of  the 
trunk,  until  the  bark  is  saturated,  are  well  moistened  with  the  prepared 
liquid,  as  are  likewise  the  diseased  parts  of  the  roots  that  may  be  met 
with  in  such  condition.  It  is  estimated  that  about  five  liters  are  suffi- 
cient, and  another  five  liters  for  irrigating  in  the  vicinity  of  the  tree. 
The  hole  is  then  filled  up  either  with  the  burned  earth  or  with  new  soil, 
and  afterwards  watered  lightly. 

Ten  liters  of  this  water  saturated  with  sulphurous  acid  are  more  than 
sufficient  for  a  tree  somewhat  grown,  but  practice  will  teach  the  greater 
or  less  quantity  that  should  be  employed. 

BlCHARD  LOWENSTEIN, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Grao  of  Valencia,  June  30,  1883. 


WESTERN  ANDALUSIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  OPPENHEIM,  OF  CADIZ. 
(Republished  for  Consular  Reports,  No.  41|.) 
ORANGE  CULTURE  IN  WESTERN  ANDALUSIA. 

In  pursuance  of  instructions  contained  in  Department  circulars,  dated 
Washington,  December  4,  1883,  I  have  the  honor  to  inclose  herewith 


ORANGES  IN  WESTERN  ANDALUSIA.  565 

a  report  upon  orange  culture  in  this  district.  I  have  also  prepared  a 
report  on  olive  culture.  Kaisius  are  not  prepared  within  my  consular 
jurisdiction,  this  branch  of  fruit  culture  being  localized  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  of  Spain,  and  I  have  therefore  omitted  that  subject.  The 
same  will  apply  to  dried  figs,  which  are  not  produced  here.  Though 
the  fruit  is  raised  largely  in  Cadiz  and  neighboring  provinces,  it  is  gen- 
erally eaten  fresh,  and  the  very  small  percentage  which  is  dried  turns 
out  very  mediocre  in  quality,  and  hardly  enters  into  commerce  at  all. 

Varieties  and  maturity. — The  leading  varieties  of  oranges  produced  in 
Western  Andalusia  are:  1st,  the  Chinese  orange  (Naranja  china  legiti- 
mas),  of  which  the  pulp  is  very  sweet  and  juicy,  with  thin  and  smooth 
rind ;  this  variety  is  the  most  highly  prized  ;  2d,  the  common  orange 
(Naranja  comun),  having  sweet  but  not  very  juicy  pulp,  the  rind  rugose, 
very  thick,  and  easily  detached ;  3d,  seedless  oranges,  of  excellent 
quality,  first  cultivated  by  Carthusian  monks  at  Seville;  4th,  the  sour 
orange  (Naranja  agria),  having  a  somewhat  bitterish  acid  flavor;  5th, 
the  sour-sweet  orange;  6th,  the  Mandarine  orange,  a  very  small  fruit  of 
reddish  pulp  and  exquisite  taste  and  flavor ;  the  last  is  not  extensively 
cultivated. 

The  orange  tree,  when  raised  from  a  cutting  (which  is  the  most  usual 
mode),  comes  into  bearing  five  years  after  planting,  though  the  acme 
of  productivity  is  not  reached  with  most  varieties  before  some  ten  or 
twelve  years  more.  How  long  they  remain  fruitful  is  an  undetermined 
question ;  that  is  to  say,  when  the  trees  are  in  favorable  environment 
and  well  cared  for.  There  are  in  the  garden  of  the  Alcazar,  at  Seville, 
several  orange  trees  yet  in  bearing  to  which  very  old  age  is  attributed, 
one  being  said  to  have  been  planted  at  the  time  of  King  Pedro  I,  about 
1350  to  1366;  several  others  dating  from  the  time  of  Charles  I  are  in  a 
better  state  still,  and,  although  the  trunks  are  hollow,  the  foilage  is 
luxuriant,  and  they  rise  to  a  height  of  from  13  to  15  meters.  Their 
trunks  measure  from  1.24  meters  to  1.40  meters  in  circumference,  and 
the  age  ascribed  to  them  is  about  three  hundred  and  forty  years. 

Planting. — The  trees  are  occasionally  raised  from  seed,  but  this  mode 
although  practiced  by  careful  growers  is  not  generally  resorted  to  in 
this  district,  on  account  of  the  longer  time  required  in  bringing  the  or- 
chards into  bearing.  The  best  time  for  putting  the  seed  into  the  ground 
is  the  month  of  April,  when  the  mean  temperature  is  about  18°  centi- 
grade. With  this  temperature  and  the  proper  conditions  of  humidity 
the  orange  seeds  germinate  in  less  than  a  fortnight.  In  Seville  and  ad- 
jacent provinces  the  seed  of  the  sour  orange  is  preferred  to  all  others, 
as  it  appears  to  develop  more  rapidly,  the  trees  thus  raised  being  later 
on  grafted  with  any  variety  desired.  Some  experts  (Riso)  hold,  how- 
ever, that  the  plants  raised  from  the  seed  of  the  Chinese  variety,  al- 
though of  slow  growth,  are  of  a  more  robust  habit  and  withstand  cold 
weather  more  successfully.  When  raised  from  seed,  the  usual  mode  is 
to  keep  the  shoots  in  the  seed-boxes  or  hot-beds  from  four  to  five  years, 


566        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

when  the  grafts  are  inserted  j  the  plants  are  then  kept  four  to  five  years 
longer  in  the  nursery,  thus  taking  from  eight  to  ten  years  before  the 
tree  is  permanently  located  in  the  orchard. 

The  general  mode  of  propagation  is  by  cutting.  Large  fine  twigs  of 
last  summer's  growth  are  planted,  either  in  November  or  in  February. 
In  Western  Andalusia  the  cutting  is  originally  chosen  from  the  variety 
which  it  is  desired  to  reproduce,  and  of  course  no  further  operation  is 
necessary.  In  Valencia,  however,  and  adjacent  districts,  the  cuttings 
are  chosen  in  reference  to  other  points  (they  are  often  taken  from  the 
lemon  tree),  and  then  grafting  or  budding  is  resorted  to,  the  graft  or 
bud  being  of  the  variety  it  is  desired  to  raise.  The  operation  is  usually 
performed  during  the  winter  of  the  following  year,  and  the  grafts  are 
inserted  at  a  height  of  about  10  centimeters  above  ground. 

Insect  pests  and  fungous  growth. — Orange  trees  are  exposed  to  the 
attacks  of  both  insects  and  of  parasitic  growths.  The  latter  are,  in  this 
section  at  least,  considered  as  by  far  the  most  formidable,  and  will 
therefore  claim  our  first  attention.  These  parasitic  growths  are  all  low 
cryptogamic  plants,  and  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two  classes,  viz, 
those  attacking  the  roots,  and  such  as  confine  their  action  to  the  exposed 
parts  of  the  tree. 

Among  this  class  the  most  frequent  is  a  species  of  white  mold,  be- 
longing to  the  genus  Byssus,  which  surrounds  the  roots  of  the  tree  with 
its  mycelium.  The  white  filaments  of  which  it  is  composed  form  a  dense 
network  around  the  roots,  and  have  given  it  its  popular  name  of  bianco 
de  las  r aices  (Anglice,  "  white  of  the  roots  ").  A  well-known  Spanish 
carpologist  writes  about  this  pest  in  the  following  terms  : 

This  parasite  surrounds,  exhausts,  aud  dries  up  the  roots  of  the  tree,  which,  how- 
ever, does'  not  greatly  alter  in  appearance  during  the  wet  season,  but  when  the  rising 
of  the  sap  takes  place  in  the  spring  (and  in  a  few  cases  somewhat  later)  the  affected 
trees  quickly  succumb.  Indications  of  the  evil  are  a  certain  backwardness  in  bud- 
ding and  blossoming,  accompanied  by  pallor  of  the  leaves  and  general  vegetative 
weakness.  This  shows  that  the  Byssus  has  attacked  the  roots.  In  order  to  counteract 
its  effects  it  is  necessary  to  completely  expose  the  roots  of  the  affected  tree,  remove 
the  filaments  of  the  fungus,  and  cover  the  roots  with  fresh  soil,  ^hole  should  be  dug 
around  the  tree  until  the  roots  are  laid  bare ;  the  moldy  surfaces  should  then  be  care- 
fully and  thoroughly  scraped,  and  such  parts  as  show  deep  injury  or  have  begun  to 
putrefy  are  to  be  cut  off.  The  usual  practice  has  been  to  wash  or  bathe  the  clennsed 
roots  in  water  strongly  charged  with  cow-dung,  but  1n  Valencia  excellent  i..-,ults 
have  been  obtained  from  the  use  of  hydrosulphide  of  lime,  of  a  solution  or  sulphide 
of  copper,  and  also  of  protoxide  of  iron.  When  refilling  the  cavity  around  the  tree 
the  fresh  soil  should  be  carefully  screened,  in  order  to  eliminate  all  fragments  of  dead 
roots  or  of  rotten  wood,  as  it  is  upon  such  matter  that  the  Byssus  develops  most 
readily.  It  is  further  advised  to  place  upon  the  roots  thus  cleansed  and  treated  a 
small  quantity  of  well-rotted  cow- manure,  and  above  this  fresh  earth,  mixed  with 
salt,  lixiviated  ashes,  and  pulverized  bones. 

There  are  undoubtedly  a  number  of  the  noxious  fungoid  growths  to 
the  attacks  of  which  the  roots  are  exposed,  but  the  general  features, 
both  of  the  development  of  the  parasites  and  of  the  approved  mode  of 
combating  them,  are,  in  the  main,  as  described  above.  One  of  them, 


ORANGES  IN  WESTERN  ANDALUSIA.          567 

however,  deserves  special  mention,  as  it  proved  extremely  destructive 
in  the  Spanish  provinces  of  \ralencia  and  Castellon  (in  1867-'69),  and  is 
believed  to  be  identical  with  the  parasite  that  destroyed  nearly  half  the 
•Mange  trees  on  the  Hyeres  Islands  in  1849-'51.  This  parasite  is  now 
known  as  the  Sphwrium  Wolff ensteiniani,  in  honor  of  a  distinguished 
mycologist  who  published  an  exhaustive  monograph  on  the  subject  in 
J878.  At  the  time  of  the  first  appearance  of  this  parasite — or  orange 
disease,  as  it  was  then  called — in  the  Peninsula,  the  Spanish  Govern- 
ment appointed  a  commission  to  investigate  the  disorder.  The  recom- 
mendations embodied  in  the  report  of  said  commission  were,  in  the 
main,  similar  to  those  mentioned  above.  The  roots  are  to  be  uncovered, 
all  the  attacked  parts  removed  and  buried ;  copious  irrigation  is  to  be 
avoided,  as  also  the  use  of  all  manure  not  thoroughly  rotted,  and 
especially  its  application  close  to  the  roots.  If  the  soil  is  humid — and 
this  seems  a  strongly  predisposing  cause — thorough  draining  is  neces- 
sary. As  efficacious  remedies  are  mentioned  tar,  soot,  and  protosulphate 
of  iron,  which  act  as  antiseptics  ;  also,  powdered  lime  and  sulphate  of 
copper.  Otto  Wolffenstein,  the  mycologist  above  referred  to,  gives  it 
as  his  opinion  that  the  most  efficient  curative  agent  is  a  solution  of 
hydrated  sulphuric  acid,  which,  according  to  said  writer,  unites  the 
following  desiderata :  First,  it  kills  all  the  spores ;  second,  it  penetrates 
the  soil  to  a  sufficient  depth  without  oxidizing;  and  third,  it  does  no 
injury  whatever  to  the  roots.  Ten  liters  of  the  solution  is  stated  to  be 
sufficient  for  a  tree  of  a  fair  size ;  the  solution  to  be  applied  in  the  month 
of  November,  as  this  is  the  time  when  the  spores  are  most  easily 
stamped  out. 

There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  consensus  of  opinion  as  to  the  greater 
or  lesser  liability  of  the  different  varieties  to  the  attacks  of  these  para- 
sitic pests,  nor  does  such  consensus  exist  upon  the  comparative  resist- 
ance of  seedlings  and  the  grafted  or  budded  trees.  It  is,  however, 
conclusively  established  that  low  ground,  lack  of  proper  drainage, 
and  insufficient  cultivation  are  the  most  favorable  conditions  for  the 
development  of  the  fungous  parasites  of  this  class. 

The  most  widely  spread  and  probably  also  the  most  damaging  para- 
site of  this  class  is  the  Demathium  monophyllum,  believed  to  belong  to 
the  genus  Torula  (Person),  and  commonly  called  tizne  (Anglice,  smut)  in 
Spain.  It  looks  somewhat  like  black  dust  or  soot,  extending  in  parallel 
lines  and  forming  a  thin  crust  or  coating  over  the  stems  and  branches. 
From  this  crust  soon  arise  an  incalculable  number  of  minute  pedicles, 
each  one  bearing  its  black  sporangium  filled  with  seed-spores.  The  re- 
production of  this  parasite  is  incredibly  rapid  and  vigorous,  but  fortu- 
nately it  does  not  adhere  strongly  to  the  tree,  hence  its  removal  is  not 
attended  with  great  difficulty  ;  the  important  thing  is  not  to  allow  it  to 
get  too  much  headway.  The  treatment  after  the  removal  of  the  mold 
is  to  cover  the  affected  parts  with  a  solution  of  lime,  which  may  best  be 
applied  with  a  brush.  Another  cryptogam,  called  by  Du  Breuil  Lichen 
156A 12 


568        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

aurantii,  attaches  itself  chiefly  to  the  trunk  and  larger  branches.  It 
forms  a  thin  coating,  grayish  or  yellowish-white  in  color,  with  numerous 
small  protuberances  that  appear  to  be  the  reproductive  organs  of  the 
plant.  This  parasite  is  not  common,  but  it  is  considered  very  damaging 
on  account  of  the  great  tenacity  with  which  it  adheres  to  the  trees. 
There  are,  however,  a  number  of  lichens  wHich  attach  themselves  to  the 
trunks  and  limbs  of  the  orange  tree  without  causing  any  apparent  in- 
jury to  its  growth  or  to  its  bearing  power. 

Great  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  want  of  light  and  of  ventilation, 
are  known  to  favor  the  development  of  all  these  cryptoganiic  forms, 
and  orchards  most  affected  by  them  are  such  as  occupy  low,  close  situ- 
ations, and  do  not  have  the  trees  placed  at  sufficiently  large  intervals. 
A  sufficiency  of  space  for  the  free  circulation  of  air  and  the  free  admis- 
sion of  sunlight  is,  therefore,  along  with  proper  cultivation,  the  best 
preventive. 

A  species  of  phylloxera,  first  observed  on  the  islands  of  Naxos  and 
Paros,  is  known  to  attack  the  roots  of  the  orange  tree,  but  this  pest 
has  not  up  to  now  made  its  appearance  in  the  Spanish  orchards.  Lan- 
derer,  the  writer  who  first  described  this  microscopic  parasite,  recom- 
mends the  use  of  a  solution  of  carbolic  acid,  and  of  a  mixture  of  sulphur 
and  lime,  the  latter  to  be  spread  around  tbe  tree. 

The  insects  causing  most  damage  to  orange  orchards  are  several 
Hemiptera,  one  of  the  Diptera,  and  a  few  Ooleoptera. 

Among  the  Hemiptera  the  chief  varieties  are  the  following : 

Chermes  hesperidum  (Linn.).  This  insect  is  oval  in  shape,  with  hemi- 
spherical back,  and  is  of  a  glossy  brownish  hue.  In  the  spring  the  shell 
of  the  female  contains  a  large  number  of  eggs  resting  upon  a  layer  of 
whitish  downy  matter.  The  eggs  hatch  rapidly,  and  the  small  larvae 
are  turned  loose  upon  the  twigs,  leaves,  and  buds,  feeding  upon  the 
juices  of  the  tree.  They  finally  attach  themselves  permanently  (usually 
to  the  lower  surface  of  the  leaves),  remaining  there  until  the  following 
spring,  when  a  new  generation  is  produced. 

Chermes  olece  (Ber.).  This  species  is  found  upon  the  orange  tree, 
although  its  more  usual  habitat  is  the  olive.  The  shell  of  the  female  is 
hemispherical,  of  a  grayish  brown,  and  has  two  deep  transversal  fur- 
rows, giving  it  a  roughened  appearance. 

Chermes  aurantii  (Du  Breuil).  Has  been  chiefly  noticed  in  Sbutheru 
France  and  in  Algeria.  It  is  a  large  insect,  in  the  shape  of  an  oval, 
and  of  a  brownish-black  hue. 

Chermes  wccineus  (Du  Breuil)  is  hemispherical  in  shape,  of  a  vivid 
red  color,  has  two  largish  antennae  of  great  mobility,  and  six  white  legs. 
This  insect  confines  itself  to  the  leaves,  upon  which  it  lays  from  10  to 
15  small  eggs,  that  produce  an  equal  number  of  small  larvae  of  apearly- 
whitish  color.  When  they  have  reached  a  length  of  about  half  a  mil- 
limeter, the  insects  assume  the  red  coloring 5  they  are  frequently  moving 
about  with  great  rapidity  in  the  vicinity  of  their  meeting  places,  and 
are  usually  found  in  small  swarms  or  colonies. 


ORANGES  IN  WESTERN  ANDALUSIA.          569 

For  the  destruction  of  all  the  above-mentioned  insect  pests  the  liberal 
application  of  powdered  sulphur  is  recommended,  such  application  being 
probably  most  thoroughly  affected  by  using  bellows.  In  many  districts, 
however,  the  method  usually  followed  is  to  thoroughly  scrape  and 
cleanse  the  attacked  branches,  removing  the  badly-damaged  parts,  and 
thereafter  applying  to  the  affected  surfaces  a  solution  of  lime  (as  advo- 
cated by  Du  Breuil)  or  strong  vinegar  (according  to  M.  Goreau),  using 
a  brush  for  such  applications. 

Aphis  aurantii  (Blanchere)  and  Aphis  citris  (Du  Breuil)  are  by  some 
thought  to  be  identical.  This  is  a  very  large  group,  and  exact  scientific 
identification  is  therefore  difficult.  The  most  common  variety  encoun- 
tered here  is  theputyon  del  naranjo  (Anglice,  flea  of  the  orange  tree), 
which  is  a  small  insect,  green  in  color,  with  black  stripes,  having  large 
antennae  and  black  extremities.  They  are  most  plentiful  in  September. 
During  spring  and  summer  they  multiply  rapidly,  usually  taking  theif 
stand  upon  the  distal  ends  of  tender  shoots,  where  a  certain  number  re- 
main during  winter  in  a  lethargic  state. 

For  the  destruction  of  the  Aphis}  Du  Breuil  strongly  urges  fumiga- 
tion with  tobacco,  for  which  the  bellows  may  be  used  with  advantage. 
One  thorough  fumigation  ought  generally  to  be  sufficient,  but  if  this  is 
not  found  to  be  the  case  the  process  may  be  repeated  until, the  insect  is 
extirpated. 

Amongst  the  noxious  Coleoptera  the  most  generally  known  is  the 
Othiorhynchusmeridionalis  (Schoeul).  This  insect  is  about  one  centime- 
ter in  length,  of  a  reddish-black  hue,  and  has  striated  elytra.  Dur- 
ing the  day  it  hides  on  the  ground  near  the  trees,  where  it  is  most  easily 
pursued  and  destroyed ;  at  night  it  climbs  upon  the  tree  and  ascends 
to  the  highest  parts,  usually  seeking  for  the  most  tender  buds  and  leaves. 

All  of  the  above-mentioned  species  limit  their  ravages  to  the  branches, 
leaves,  and  buds.  There  are,  however,  some  insects  not  less  noxious 
which  chiefly  attack  the  fruit  of  the  orange  tree.  The  most  dreaded 
of  this  class  is  the  cochineal  bug  (Coccus  citri).  This  insect  is  of  a 
lengthened  oval  shape,  with  convex  back  and  somewhat  rounded  abdo- 
men ;  its  color  varies  from  an  ashy  grey  to  a  pale  yellow,  and  at  certain 
times  it  is  covered  with  a  white,  fluffy  dust ;  it  has  peculiar  prolonga- 
tions or  processes  on  the  sides,  and  the  posterior  extremities  are  longer 
than  the  others.  The  male  differs  from  the  female  in  having  two  large 
transparent  wings.  The  female  secretes  a  whitish, cottony  down,  wherein 
yellowish  eggs, varying  in  number  from  150  to  400,  are  deposited.  When 
the  larvae  are  liberated  they  attach  themselves  to  the  tenderest  buds 
and  shoots.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  a  fixed  season  for  the  liberation 
of  the  larvae,  further  than  that  the  hatching  process  is  most  abundant 
during  periods  of  high  temperature.  The  damage  caused  by  this  insect 
is  noticed  more  especially  by  the  great  loss'of  fruit,  amounting  in  some 
cases  to  half  or  even  two-thirds  of  the  usual  harvest.  In  the  French 
departments  of  the  Var  and  Alpes  Maritimes,  as  well  as  in  Mentone, 


570 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


this  pest  has  been  especially  severe.  A  French  entomologist,  M.  de  la 
Blanchere,  has  observed  that  this  cochineal  bug  has  itself  an  enemy  or 
parasite  in  a  species  of  Syrphus,  which  places  its  larvae  near  the  unde- 
veloped bugs,  upon  which  the  larvae  feed.  To  this  valuable  auxiliary 
the  same  author  attributes  the  disappearance  of  this  pest  from  certain 
parts  of  the  Mediterranean  coast.  De  Breuil  recommends  sprinkling 
the  trees  attacked  by  the  cochineal  bug  and  larva?  with  a  solution  of 
lime. 

Among  the  Diptera  the  only  known  dangerous  enemy  of  the  orange 
grower  is  the  Ceratitis  Hispanica,  commonly  called  mosca  del  naranjo 
(Anglice,  fly  of  the  orange  tree").  This  fly  deposits  it  larvae  in  the  pulp 
of  the  fruit,  which  is  thereby  prevented  from  developing,  and  generally 
drops  from  the  tree  in  an  immature  state.  The  full-grown  insect  is  about 
one-half  centimeter  in  length  ;  it  is  black  in  color,  having,  however,  yel- 
lowish-white spots  and  strias ;  its  wings  are  transparent  and  crossed 
transversely  by  four  yellow  and  black  bands ;  the  abdomen  is  peduuc- 
ulated  and  spherical  at  the  posterior  end.  The  female  is  provided  with 
a  "  borer,"  with  which  it  pierces  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  in  order  to  deposit 
its  ova  therein  ;  the  larvae  feed  upon  the  pulp,  and  cause  the  fruit  to  fall 
off  and  decay.  The  orange  grower  can  only  protect  himself  against  this 
insect  by  great  watchfulness  in  at  once  removing  all  the  attacked  fruit, 
and  thereby  preventing  excessive  propagation  of  the  pest. 

Laying  out  the  orchards. — In  the  province  of  Seville,  and  Western 
Andalusia  generally,  the  usual  distance  between  the  trees  is  8  meters. 
In  localities  where  the  trees  reach  a  good  size  it  is  advised  to  enlarge 
the  distance  to  9,  and  even  to  10  meters.  Of  course,  with  small  or  dwarf 


A,- 


Marco  real. 


varieties  the  intervals  may  be  decreased.    In  Valencia  and  Castellon  6 
meters  is  the  usual  distance.    At  intervals  of  8  meters  there  will  be  156 


ORAN3ES    IN   WESTERN   ANDALUSIA. 


571 


trees  per  hectare  (1  hectare=2.4711  acres),  and  allowing  only  6  metrrs 
the  number  will  be  276.  The  mode  of  planting  usually  resorted  to  is  iu 
parallel  lines  (here  called  "  iriareo  real "),  the  distance  between  such 
lines  being  equal  to  the  interval  between  the  trees,  thus  causing  each 
lour  trees  to  occupy  the  four  angles  of  a  perfect  square,  A,  as  shown  in 
the  diagram.  The  objection  to  this  mode  is,  that  supposing  the  roots 
to  extend  in  circles,  it  leaves  between  each  such  four  circles  a  large 
space  unutilized  save  by  roots  of  a  length  greater  than  the  radius  of 
the  circle.  In  order  to  reduce  this  loss  the  "  diamond  n  plan  is  resorted 
to  (tres  bolillo),  which  the  second  diagram  illustrates.  The  equilateral 


Tresbolillo. 

triangle  B  serves  as  a  basis  in  this  plan,  and  it  is  evident  that  the 
spaces  between  the  circles  are  considerably  reduced,  as  compared  with 
the  arrangement  in  squares. 

Sites  and  soils. — The  orange  tree,  which  in  the  interior  of  Andalusia 
is  hardly  found  beyond  latitude  37°  30',  thrives  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast  of  Spain  up  to  42°.  This  is  explained  by  the  well-known  modera- 
ting influence  which  the  vicinity  of  large  bodies  of  water  has  upon  the 
climate.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  orange  culture  can  not  well  be 
carried  on  where  the  mean  winter  temperature  is  much  below  9°  to  10° 
centigrade,  or  where  a  fall  below  —4°  centigrade  is  experienced.  The 
trees  are  injured  by  lengthened  periods  of  cold  weather,  especially  when 
accompanied  by  frost  and  snow.  These  facts  would  of  themselves  afford 
the  grower  some  guidance  in  the  selection  of  a  proper  situation.  There 


572  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

• 
are  some  very  fine  prolific  orchards  in  the  rear  of  Tarifa,  on  the  Straits 

of  Gibraltar,  as  well  as  ou  the  delta  and  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Gua- 
dalquivir. On  hillsides  or  uplands  the  trees  thrive  well,  provided 
the  altitude  is  not  such  as  to  act  virtually  in  the  sense  of  latitude. 
It  is  not  common,  I  believe,  to  find  productive  orchards  in  this  sec- 
tion at  an  altitude  exceeding  250  meters  above  sea-level.  It  is  also  con- 
sidered desirable  to  have  the  trees  sheltered  from  very  strong  winds 
from  any  quarter.  In  Andalusia  winds  from  the  north  and  east  are 
the  most  prejudicial,  the  first  as  being  cold  and  raw,  and  the  east 
wind  as  having  a  desiccating,  withering  eifect.  Very  steep  hillsides 
are  an  undesirable  location  on  account  of  the  insufficient  retention 
of  moisture;  very  low  grounds  are  open  to  the  contrary  objection,  and 
though  large  yields  are  frequently  made  in  such  localities,  the  trees 
are  liable  to  suffer  in  wet  seasons,  and  expensive  drainage  is  usually 
imperative.  Of  more  importance  far  than*  the  merely  topographical 
features  of  the  soil  is  its  composition,  which  will  be  treated  further  on, 
as  also  its  stratification.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  orange 
tree  extends  its  roots  primarily  in  a  vertical  direction,  thus  requiring  a 
permeable  subsoil.  Whenever  an  impervious  stratum  is  reached  whilst 
this  vertical  development  of  the  roots  is  still  going  on,  the  trees  suffer, 
and  in  many  cases  perish.  Fine  orchards,  composed  of  trees  of  from 
thirty  to  forty  years  of  age,  have  been  known  thus  to  waste  away. 

These  few  remarks  are  sufficient  to  show  that  categorical  information 
as  to  the  influence  of  topography  upon  yields  is  most  difficult  to  give. 
Vicinity  to  the  sea  seems  to  be  anything  but  injurious,  though  I  do  not 
recollect  ever  having  seen  orchards  in  immediate  proximity  to  the  sea 
without  some  natural  or  artificial  shelter.  In  the  valley  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir, both  above  and  below  Seville,  very  fine  orange  crops  are  raised, 
the  altitude  probably  not  exceeding  80  meters  above  sea-level.  The 
soil  of  one  of  the  best  orchards  of  that  section,  on  being  subjected  to 
levigation.  was  found  to  be  composed  as  follows : 

Per  cent. 

Sand 43 

Clay 31 

Calcareous  salts : 15 

Organic  matter 11 

1      100 

Soil  of  this  character,  or  of  somewhat  similar  type,  when  accompanied 
by  permeability  of  the  subsoil,  may  be  looked  upon  as  well  adapted  to 
orange  culture.  Soils  having  impervious  subsoil,  or  such  as  are  water- 
soaked  or  difficult  to  drain,  are  especially  to  be  avoided  j  in  such  situa- 
tions the  upper  layer  of  soil  is  frequently  very  rich,  and  on  that  account 
an  orchard  may  appear  to  thrive  luxuriantly  at  first,  but  as  soon  as  the 
roots  strike  deeply,  disaster  will  overtake  the  trees. 

Irrigation  and  cultivation. — Orange  groves  in  Western  Andalusia  re- 
quire irrigation  during  the  hot  season  at  intervals  varying  from  ten  to 


ORANGES  IN  WESTERN  ANDALUSIA.  573 

fifteen  days,  according  to  the  greater  or  lesser  porosity  of  the  soil.  The 
first  irrigation  commonly  takes  place  after  the  dropping  of  the  blossoms, 
though  many  practical  growers  recommend  not  to  begin  before  July, 
alleging  that  irrigation  before  that  period  is  generally  hurtful.  It  seems, 
however,  a  fair  presumption  that  the  conditions  of  humidity  prevailing 
during  the  previous  spring  are  a  factor  to  be  considered  in  this  respect. 
Irrigation  is  to  be  discontinued  in  October.  The  system  most  in  vogue 
is  to  have  circular  excavations  surrounding  each  tree,  said  excavations 
being  connected  by  small  gutters  or  canals,  into  which  the  water  is  al- 
lowed to  flow.  This  is  the  most  economical  method,  and  that  is  its  strong 
point  in  a  country  like  this,  where  the  rain-fall  is  light.  Some  of  the 
more  careful  orchardists  are,  however,  opposed  to  this  mode, urging  that 
the  practice  supplies  an  excess  of  water  to  the  main  roots  (which  leads  to 
asphyxia),  whilst  the  eccentric  rootlets  are  insufficiently,  or  rather,  not 
supplied  at  all.  Where  there  is  no  scarcity  of  water  it  would  certainly 
be  rational  to  experiment  upon  the  effects  of  irrigation  upon  the  entire 
surface  of  the  orchard,  thus  supplying  the  outlying  rootlets  with  the 
needful  humidity. 

March  is  the  month  when  plowing  is  first  applied  to  the  orchards,  at 
which  time  the  irrigating  ditches  are  restored  or  renewed.  This  is  also 
the  proper  time  for  putting  on  manure,  which  should  be  placed  around 
the  trees,  in  zones  of  1  to  2  meters  in  radius,  this  being  done  before 
plowing  has  begun.  Where  the  trees  are  planted  in  squares  (marco 
real)  cross-plowing  at  right  angles  is  in  order;  where  the  u diamond" 
(ires  bolilla)  plan  is  adopted,  the  first  furrows  may  be  crossed  and  re- 
crossed  with  advantage.  The  second  plowing  takes  place  at  the  end 
of  May.  A  plow  making  a  furrow  of  from  20  to  30  centimeters  in  depth 
is  generally  used.  In  August  the  soil  should  be  hoed  thoroughly  ;  this 
process  to  be  repeated  in  September  or  October.  The  best  growers 
affect  the  use  of  the  harrow  after  each  plowing,  as  it  leaves  the  soil  in 
a  mellower  condition,  breaks  up  the  clods,  and  destroys  the  weeds. 

Before  the  orange  trees  have  attained  their  full  size  (usually  for  five 
or  six  years  after  placing  them  in  the  orchard)  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
raise  some  leguminous  or  root  crop  on  the  land,  taking  care,  however, 
to  leave  a  circle  of  one  meter  in  radius  around  each  tree  unoccupied. 

Fertilizers.— The  raising  of  successive  orange  crops  year  after  year 
must  necessarily  end  in  withdrawing  from  the  soil  all  available  mate- 
rial for  such  culture,  hence  the  attention  of  agronomists  has  been  long 
devoted  to  devising  means  for  ascertaining  the  exact  nature  of  the  con- 
stituents withdrawn,  as  well  as  the  best  mode  of  resupplying  the  soil 
with  such  constituents  or  their  equivalents  in  an  assimilable  form.  The 
following  analyses  taken  from  a  recent  treatise  by  a  well-known  Spanish 
agronomist,*  show  what  these  constituents  are  and  their  relative  quan- 
titative proportions: 

*Don  Luis  Maria  Utor,  "  La  Agriciiltnra  moderna." 


574         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Composition  of  the  ashes  of  the  fruit  of  the  orange  tree. 


Constituents. 

Analysis 
No.  1. 

Analysis 
No.  2. 

Potash         

20.15 

15  28 

Soda 

10  22 

12  14 

Liine     ...                   ... 

30.12 

30  24 

Magnesia  

9.02 

8.10 

Phosphoric  acid 

20  04 

18  24 

Sulphuric  arid  ....     ..   

1.08 

4.  14 

Siliceous  acid 

4  50 

5  82 

Oxide  of  iron  ..                                       ..      .. 

4.25 

4.75 

Residue  unaccounted  for 

0  62 

j.29 

100.  00 

100.  00 

Weight  of  the  ashes  of  100  kilograms  of  fruit:  Analysis  No.  1,  3.57  kilograms;  analysis  No.  2,  3.48 
kilograms. 

Composition  of  the  ashes  of  the  trunk,  branches,  and  leaves  of  the  orange  tree. 


Constituents. 

Analysis  No. 
3.—  Trunk  and 
hranches. 

Analysis  No. 
4.  —  Leaves. 

Potash 

14.15 
16.67 
31.57 
10.64 
18.  82 
4.89 
2.82 
0.44 

10.18 
10.82 
41.22 
6.54 
19.47 
4.53 
5.48 
1.76 

Soda                ..                    ...                 .               

Phosphoric  ac'ul    .....................................  

Siliceous  acid        .  .        ..     .....  .. 

100.  «0 

100.  00 

Weight  of  ashes  per  100  kilograms:  Analysis  No.  3,  6.32  kilograms?  analysis  No.  4,  6.20  kilograms. 
Nitrogen:  Analysis  No.  3, 1.57  per  cent. ;  analysis  No.  4, 1.60  per  cent. 

Leaving  out  of  account  the  material  required  for  the  yearly  produc- 
tion of  leaves  and  buds,  as  to  which  precise  data  are  wanting,  and  tak- 
ing analysis  No.  1  as  a  basis,  the  cropping  of  16,000  kilograms  of  fruit 
from  one  hectare  will  withdraw  from  the  soil  571  kilograms  of  mineral 
constituents,  in  the  following  proportions : 

Kilograms 

Potash 115.00 

Soda 58.36 

Lime 171.99 

Magnesia 51.50 

Phosphoric  acid 114.  43 

Sulphuric  acid ^      6.17 

Siliceous  acid 25. 69 

Oxide  of  iron  (and  residue) 27.80 


Total 571.00 

Nitrogen,*  0.85  per  cent,  of  16,000  kilograms. 

The  absolute  and  proportional  percentage  of  the  mineral  constituents 
of  stable  manure  is  of  course  extremely  variable.  The  following  figures 

*  Gasparin,  an  eminent  French  writer  on  orange  culture,  allows  1.19  kilograms  of 
nitrogen  per  1,000  oranges.  Taking  the  average  weight  per  thousand  at  140  kilo- 
grams, a  crop  of  16,000  kilograms  of  fruit  will  require  136  kilograms  of  nitrogen, 
equal  to  about  0.85  per  cent  of  the  weight  of  crop. 


ORANGES    IN    WESTERN    ANDALUSIA. 


575 


are  given  as  the  quantity  of  such  constituents  usually  contained  in 
30,000  kilograms  of  what  may  be  called  stable  manure  of  the  normal 
type  : 

Kilograms. 

Potash 121 

Soda 8 

Lime 144 

Magnesia 60 

Phosphoric  acid 51 

Sulphuric  acid 30 

Siliceous  acid ir>0 

Oxide  of  iron 102 

Hydrochloric  acid y 

Total 675 

The  general  composition  of  these  30,000  kilograms  of  stable  manure 
may  be  summed  up  thus : 

Kilograms. 

Mineral  constituents 675 

Nitrogen 120 

Carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen ...,  .    5.205 

Moisture .* 24,000 


30,000 

Suppose  30,000  kilograms  of  such  manure  to  have  been  applied  to  one 
hectare  of  ground  from  which  a  crop  of  16,000  kilograms  of  fruit  has 
been  raised,  let  us  see  what  mineral  constituents  have  been  replaced 
and  what  proportion  is  still  wanting. 


Constituents. 

Contained  in 
crop. 

Supplied  by 
mail  ure. 

Deficiency. 

Potash 

Kilogram*. 
115  06 

Kilograms. 

m 

Kilograms. 
Excess 

Soda 

58.36 

8 

50  36 

Lime  

171.99 

144 

27.99 

MM9Mtfe 

51  50 

60 

Excess. 

Phosphoric  acid     ....                     .              .................. 

114.  43 

51 

63.43 

6.17 

30 

RxcfeMi 

Siliceous  acid                             .                        ...   ...            ... 

25.69 

150 

27.80 

102 

Excess. 

9 

Excess. 

The  deficiency  of  lime  may  be  left  out  of  consideration  here,  as  there 
is  generally  a  very  large  amount  of  this  constituent  stored  up  in  the  soil ; 
there  remains,  therefore,  to  be  dealt  with  the  deficiency  of  soda  and  of 
phosphoric  acid.  The  first  may  be  met  by  the  addition  of  common  sea- 
salt  to  the  extent  of  300  kilograms.  The  63  to  64  kilograms  of  phos- 
phoric acid  may  be  supplied  by  adding  either  1,000  kilograms  of  fowl 
manure,  400  kilograms  of  guano,  or  300  kilograms  of  ground  bones. 

The  nitrogen  withdrawn  by  a  crop  of  16,000  kilograms  weighs  136 
kilograms ;  supplied  in  30,000  kilograms  of  manure,  120  kilograms- 
showing  a  deficiency  of  16  kilograms,  for  the  supply  of  which  may  be 
added  either  ordinary  stable  manure,  4,000  kilograms ;  fenta  desecada 


576  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

(dry  cow-dung),  1,000  kilograms  ;  or  pigeon-dung,  guano,  or  bones,  300 
kilograms. 

From  the  above  data  it  appears  that  the  following  mixture  may  ad- 
vantageously be  applied  to  each  hectare  thus  cropped  : 

Kilograms. 
Manure  .................  ..................................................     30,000 

Ground  bones  ............................................................  600 

Seasalt  .............  .  .....................................................          300 


Yield  and  cos£.—  The  yield  of  the  orange  tree,  admitting  all  other  con- 
ditions to  be  equal,  must  necessarily  vary  according  to  age  and  species. 
In  Castellon  the  product  is  stated  at  from  400  to  500  oranges  per  tree 
at  tea  years  old,  but  full  productivity  is  not  reached  before  from  six- 
teen to  twenty  years.  In  Valencia  the  product  per  hectare  is  given  at 
15,000  kilograms,  equivalent  to  about  107,000  oranges,  allowing  about 
140  kilograms  per  1,000.  Very  large  single  trees,  of  course,  give  occa- 
sionally extraordinary  yields.  There  are  in  Mairena  del  Alcon  (province 
of  Seville)  two  colossal  trees  known  as  u  Los  Migueletes,"  of  which 
each  has  been  known  to  yield  up  to  38,000  oranges  in  one  year.  Large 
and  robust  trees  having  attained  their  full  growth  frequently  yield  from 
2,000  to  5,000  each,  but  in  planting  on  a  large  scale,  from  800  to  1,000 
per  tree  is  all  that  can  be  assumed  as  a  fair  average  yield.  In  the  dis- 
trict of  Seville  the  product  of  an  orchard  of  full-grown  trees  is  reckoned 
at  180  cases,  worth  on  the  ground  about  10  pesos  ($1.93)  per  case.  The 
cost  of  exploitation  is  summed  up  approximately  as  iollows  : 

Pesos  per 
.  hectare. 

Rent  of  ground  ;  also  interest  and  amortization  of  working  capital  invested.  .  500 

Irrigation  (raising  water,  usually  by  animal-power)  ........................  80 

Manure  (34,000  kilograms)  ................................................  272 

Hoeing,  weeding,  pruning,  and  harvesting  .................................  250 

Plowing  (with  oxen  usually)  ..............................................  90 

Proportion  of  cost  of  keeping  one  horse  or  mule  for  hauling  ................  70 

Sundries  and  unforeseen  expenses  ...............  .  ..........................  60 

Total  expenses  annually  ............................................       1,  322 

Taking  gross  product  as  above  at  ..........................................       1,  800 

Leaving  net  profit  ..................................................          478 

From  which,  however,  an  impost  of  20  per  cent,  must  be  deducted, 
leaving  the  grower,  therefore,  382.40  pesos  per  hectare  (equal  to  $29.87 
per  acre)  as  final  net  income.  Calculating  the  total  annual  cost  of  cul- 
tivation at  1  ,500  pesos  per  hectare,  this  represents  a  return  of  something 
over  25  per  cent,  on  the  rolling  capital  thus  employed.  The  total  yield 
of  the  orange  and  lemon  orchards  in  Spain  was  (in  1879)  estimated  at 
119,437,439  kilograms,  which,  at  the  rate  of  12  pesos  per  100  kilograms, 
gives  a  total  value  of  14,332,492  pesos,  and  the  area  cultivated  was 
given  as  8,362  hectares.  The  rate  of  12  pesos  per  100  kilograms  is  a  low 
one,  and  is,  moreover,  only  applicable  to  the  fruit  in  the  orchards,  before 
packing  and  transportation  expenses  have  been  incurred.  There  seems 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  BARCELONA. 


577 


good  reason  also  to  believe  that  the  quantity  of  the  crop  was  under- 
estimated, as  by  deducting  the  quantity  exported  in  that  year  the  re- 
mainder for  home  consumption  would  be  deinoustrably  below  even  a 
very  moderate  estimate. 

Exports. — The  following  are  the  latest  official  figures  showing  the 
total  exports  of  oranges  and  lemons  from  Spain  : 

ORANGES. 


Years. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Pegof. 

A vera tre  of  5  years,  from  1877-'81 M..             673,199  10,366,003 

Calendar  year  1881 M..             599,562  8,993,430 

Calendar  year  1882 kilograms..      116,667,600  'J9.166.900 

LEMONS. 

Average  of  5  years,  from  1877-'81 kilograms..         4,971,089  694,790 

Calendar  year  1881 do....          5,392,916  970,725 

Calendar  year  1882 do....         5,415,503  974,791 

The  destination  of  these  exports  for  the  year  1882  is  given  as  follows: 

Countries.                                                              Oranges.  Lemons. 

Kilograms.  Kilograms. 

Germany 81,760  929,952 

Algeria 17,500  8.530 

Belgium 817,880  69,175 

France 19.448,660  1,094,568 

Holland 203,840  248,019 

Great  Britain 87,131,800  1,229,033 

Italy 2,240  16,358 

Sweden 4,060  29,644 

United  States « 8,843,240  1,695,302 

Porto  Rico 116,620    

Russia 27,525 

Portugal 2,000 

Denmark 53,125 

Gibraltar _ 4,180 

Morocco 392 

Dominion  of  Canada 7,680 

Total 116,667,600  5,415,503 


NOTE. — Up  to  1881,  inclusive,  the  orange  exports  were  entered  in  thousands. 

ERNEST  L.  OPPENHEIM, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Cadiz,  February  29,  1884. 


BARCELONA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  SCHEUCIT. 
ORANGES. 

Varieties. — Not  all  the  varieties  of  orange  trees  are  known  to  fls,  for 
behfg  indigenous  to  the  tropical  regions  of  Asia,  not  all  were  brought 
over  to  Europe  where  about  one  hundred  and  seventy  species  have  been 


578        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

described  by  botanists ;  but  seventy-seven  kinds  are  particularly  known 
and  divided  into  thirty-two  of  sour  and  forty-five  of  sweet  oranges.  Of 
the  latter  only  the  ten  species  mentioned  in  my  report  of  1874  are  culti- 
vated for  their  commercial  importance,  in  this  province;  of  these  the 
most  valuable  is  the  common,  middle-sized  orange,  heavy  in  hand,  of 
very  fine  peel,  aromatic  smell,  and  containing  a  great  amount  of  juice 
of  great  sweetness,  spiced  by  an  agreeable  dash  of  sourness.  Although 
there  is  also  another  very  sweet  orange  called  Imperial  and  Orange  of 
the  Queen,  this  early  orange  makes  its  appearance  in  the  market  at 
the  end  of  October,  when  the  same  is  exported  to  France  and  Algiers, 
and  consumed  in  Spain.  None  of  these  oranges  are  exported  to  the 
United  States  nor  to  England,  where  they  are  not  liked,  for  they  are  of 
too  great  a  sweetness,  without  tartness,  and  found  unpalatable,  there- 
fore of  a  limited  cultivation. 

The  best  results  in  this  country  are  yielded  by  the  open  orchards  in 
the  districts  of  Alcira,  Oarcajente,  and  of  Gandia,  in  the  valley  between 
the  city  of  Valencia  and  the  mountain  chain  which  limits  the  province, 
facing  the  south  and  being  sheltered  from  the  north  winds  by  said 
mountains;  these  orchards  produce  the  finest  and  sweetest  oranges, 
enjoying  higher  prices  in  the  market  than  those  of  the  district  of  Cas- 
tellon,  less  shielded  from  the  north  winds,  and  producing  oranges  of  a 
more  inferior  quality  and  prices ;  they  also  ripen  later  than  the  first. 

/Situation. — Some  years  ago  a  Frenchman  founded  in  this  port  an 
important  agricultural  establishment  called  "  La  Malvarosa,"  situated 
about  half  a  mile  from  the  very  sea-shore  where  he  cultivates  with  ex- 
cellent results  oranges  on  a  large  scale.  Notwithstanding,  on  the  road 
from  this  port  (Grao)  to  Valencia,  distant  about  3  miles,  and  in  the 
public  gardens  in  and  round  this  city,  they  grow  very  poorly,  yielding 
only  a  few  small  and  sour  fruits,  while  in  the  botanical  garden  on  the 
west  end  of  the  city  they  grow  with  satisfactory  results. 

The  soil  of  this  locality  is  very  sandy,  and  the  subsoil  may  want  cer- 
tain] elements  and  proper  consistency  in  order  to  form  a  soil  able  to 
produce  oranges  in  perfection.  Before  risking  his  capital  the  owner  of 
the  land  should  examine  its  topographic  situation,  analyze  the  surface 
and  subsoil  to  the  depth  of  1£  to  2  meters,  and  consider  the  possibility 
of  irrigation. 

The  best  soil  of  Alcira,  Carcajente,  and  Gandia  analyzed,  gave: 
Sand  (silicate),  70  per  cent. ;  clay,  10  per  cent.,  and  salt  of  lime  (car- 
bonate), 20  per  cent. 

Cultivation. — Excepting  some  rare  cases,  such  ground  is  not  culti- 
vated, and  when  so,  then  the  distance  between  the  rows  of  the  trees, 
which  generally  is  from  3  to  5  meters,  must  be  from  6  to  7  meters,  and 
consequently  at  the  expense  of  a  certain  number  of  trees  planted  less 
in  a  given  space. 

An  intelligent  orange-grower  never  cultivates  the  ground  between  the 
trees,  as  such  would  make  difficult  the  free  access  of  airing  the  same,  and 
tilling  of  the  ground  round  each  tree  in  a  space  of  3  meters  in  diame 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  BARCELONA.         579 

ter,  the  irrigation  of  trees  from  the  top  by  pumps,  and  examines  the  roots 
in  case  of  certain  diseases.  Moreover,  the  plants  cultivated  between  the 
trees  would  act  as  parasites,  exercising  a  pernicious  influence  upon  the 
trees  and  fruits,  which  become  less  in  quality-,  quantity,  and  size,  and 
are  more  exposed  to  diseases.  This  is  also  the  reason  why  the  oranges 
grown  in  closed  gardens,  where  the  ground  between  the  trees  is  often 
cultivated,  are  less  valuable  than  those  grown  in  orchards  with  free 
ground. 

Yield. — The  creation  of  an  orchard  should  always  be  executed  by  the 
owner  of  the  laud  and  not  by  a  farmer,  because  then  all  will  be  done  in 
due  order  j  he  will  select  a  good  plantation  and  prepare  the  ground  con- 
veniently ;  he  will  not  cultivate  the  ground  between  the  trees;  all  the 
labor  can  take  place  in  due  time  and  the  unfolding  of  the  trees  will 
progress  more  uniformly  and  better.  At  the  end  of  ten  years  he  will 
have  recouped  himself;  moreover  the  benefit  and  the  orangery  will  be 
in  a  better  shape  of  production,  duplicated  or  triplicated  the  value  of 
the  land  and  consequently  also  the  rent  and  assured  the  progressive 
augmentation  of  production  after  the  end  of  the  first  ten  years. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  give  with  exactness  a  valuation  of  the  yield 
and  cost  of  an  orchard,  which  may  vary  accordiug-to  circumstances,  but 
all  circumstances  being  equal,  the  production  must  be  by  far  greater  in 
the  vigorous  and  virgin  soil  of  America  than  in  that  exhausted  of 
Europe. 

The  following  is  the  average  yield  and  cost  of  the  creation  and  culti- 
vation of  an  orange  orchard  in  a  field  of  8  hanegadas,  distant  2  miles 
from  a  town,  with  high  road  and  natural  irrigation  by  a  canal. 

One  hanegada  valenciana,  equal  to  831.10  square  meters,  or  the  -g^  of  1  acre. 
One  arroba  valenciaua,  equal  to  12.888  kilograms. 
One  real,  equal  to  5  cents  American  money. 

Cost  during  the  first  ten  year •«.* 

FIRST  YEAR. 

Reals. 

Two  hundred  and  eight  young  orange  trees  from  the  nursery  at  26  per  hane- 
gada, at  5  reals 1,040 

Their  carriage  to  the  place 30 

Four  men  to  plant,  at  8  reals 32 

Ten  arrobas  (128.880  kilograms)  guano,  at  18  reals  per  arroba 180 

Collocation  of  same 10 

Made  the  plantation,  digging  and  cost 220 

Improvement  of  the  conditions  of  the  soil  and  hormigueros  in  May: 

Journey  work 120 

Wood..  200 

320 

Six  irrigations  paying  1  real  per  hanegada 48 

Six  weeding  under  the  trees 72 

Contribution  of  the  field 182 

Perceiving  rent 1,080 

3,214 


580        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

SECOND   YEAR. 

Manuring  with  two  baskets  of  manure  for  each  tree,  being  42  loads,  at  5  reals.  210 

Carriage  of  the  manure 60 

Collocation  of  same 16 

Four  arations,  at  15  reals  each 60 

Irrigations 48 

Weediugs 72 

Contribution - 182 

Rent 1,080 

1,728 


THIRD  YEAR. 

Eighty  loads  of  manure 400 

Carriage 120 

Scattering 16 

Two  arations 30 

Irrigations 48 

Weedings 72 

Contribution 182 

Rent 1.080 

1,948 


FOURTH  YEAR. 

Two  aratious  and  made  hormigueros,  all  cost 350 

To  impulse  the  plantation,  adding  guano  for 480 

Collocation 10 

Irrigations 48 

Weedings 72 

Contribution 182 

Rent 1,080 


•  2,222 

FIFTH  YEAR. 

Manuring  this  year  with  160  loads  of  manure,  at  5  reals 800 

Carriage  and  collocation 200 

To  conserve  the  maturity,  for  want  of  water,  did  order  during  the  summer 

aration  after  each  irrigation,  and  expended 100 

Irrigations .v  48 

Weeding? 72 

Contribution 182 

Rent 1.080 

2, 482 

Calculating  now  at  the  rate  of  200  reals  per  hanegada  during  the  following 

five  years,  the  orchard  being  near  the  town,  would  result 8,000 

Contribution  910 

Rent 5,400 

14, 310 


Total 25,904 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  BARCELONA.          581 

Yield  during  the  first  ten  years. — First  year,  nothing;  second  year, 
took  off  the  fruit;  third  year,  collecting  8,000,  sold  at  60  reals  per 
1,000;  fourth  year,  collecting  31,000,  sold  at  CO  reals  per  1,000;  fifth 
year,  collecting  42,000,  sold  at  GO  reals  per  1,000. 

The  practical  farmer  calculates  that,  considering  the  -good  state  of 
the  orchard,  after  the  first  ten  years  the  oranges  collected  will  result  at 
the  rate  of  G,000  per  hanegada.  If  so,  8  hanegadas  at  6,000,  48  by 
10=480  thousands,  which  sold  at  60  reals  would  give  28,800  reals. 

Reals. 

Yield  in  tm  years 28, 800 

Cost  of  cult  i  vat  ion ,  etc 25, 904 

Benefit 2>896 

Maturity. — The  orange  trees  come  into  full  bearing  after  ten  years, 
and,  according  to  their  health  and  strength,  augment  and  remain  bear- 
iiig  for  many  years.  In  this  province  (Valencia)  exists  a  sweet  orange 
tree  called  the  arriero,  of  forty-four  years,  whose  yield  arrived  to  be  of 
8,000  and  10,000  oranges.  There  exists  another  of  the  age  of  fifty  years 
having  produced  14,000  oranges.  They  attain  a  very  high  age.  Some 
authors  assure  that  some  did  arrive  to  the  age  of  over  five  hundred 
years.  In  the  neighboring  province  of  Murcia  exist  several  trees  of  the 
age  of  two  hundred  years,  each  yielding  nearly  8,000  oranges. 

In  Nice  existed  an  orange  tree  of  an  unknown  high  age,  whose  trunk 
wanted  two  men  to  embrace ;  about  50  feet  high  ;  its  branches  covered 
a  table  of  forty  covers.  One  half  of  the  tree  yielded  every  year  from 
5,000  to  6,000  oranges,  whilst  the  other  half  reposed,  giving  only  a  few 
hundreds  ;  in  the  next  year  this  half  yielded  the  5,000  or  6,000  oranges, 
and  the  other  reposed,  and  thus  successively. 

LEMONS. 

Lemon  trees  are  cultivated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  orange  trees, 
belonging  to  the  same  family  of  the  Citrus  ;  those  grown  up  direct  from 
the  seed  are  generally  the  healthiest  and  yielding  more  and  better  fruits 
than  the  ingrafted.  The  export  and  cultivation  of  lemons  is  very  lim- 
ited in  this  province  (Valencia).  Some  trials  to  export  them  to  the  United 
States  were  without  success,  because  of  their  short  durability  and  inte- 
rior quality  ;  those  of  Malaga  are  better,  but  the  best  in  quality  and 
durability  are  those  of  Italy;  it  is  therefore  from  Italy  whence  those 
who  intend  to  create  a  lemon  orchard  should  procure  a  selected  seed. 

FREDK.  H.  SCHEUCH, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Barcelona,  February  15,  1890. 


582  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

MALAGA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MARSTON. 

Varieties. — The  names  of  best  varieties  for  profit  are  "  China"  oranges 
and  the  "  Castillian  "  lemons.  There  is  another  kind  of  lemon  called  the 
"Reales,"  which  is  large  and  long,  but  the  Castillians  are  more  pro- 
ductive. 

Location. — The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  named  above  are 
grown  in  all  parts  of  the  province  of  Malaga  where  there  is  water,  and 
generally  by  the  side  of  small  rivers  and  streams. 

The  distance  from  the  sea  is  about  2  kilometers,  and  the  elevation 
above  sea-level  100  feet.  Any  elevation  with  water  and  sun  will  answer. 
The  more  sun  the  better.  Level  land;  sandy  subsoil  is  the  best. 

Climatic. — Temperature  45°  to  90°  Fahrenheit ;  average,  about  78°. 
Nights  immaterial ;  for  both  oranges  and  lemons  moist  days,  or  ordi- 
nary atmosphere,  are  most  beneficial. 

No  record  of  rain-fall  is  kept  in  Malaga.  Rain-fall  is  always  good  for 
both  trees  and  fruit. 

Irrigation. — In  summer  only,  three  times  a  week,  at  any  stage  of 
growth  and  as  much  as  possible ;  never  water  for  ten  or  fifteen  days 
before  picking  fruit. 

Cultivation. — Twice  a  year  by  plowing  or  digging  around  the  roots. 

Fertilizers. — Stable  manure,  placed  around  the  trees  to  the  depth  of 
18  inches  or  2  feet,  in  the  month  of  January. 

Pruning. — After  four  years  old  begin  to  prune;  height  immaterial; 
if  plowed  with  horses  or  oxen,  then  prune  off  lower  branches ;  if  you 
dig  around  the  roots  by  hand  with  spade  it  is  immaterial. 

Picking. — Picked  when  nearly  ripe,  for  exportation ;  while  they  are 
green  and  before  they  turn  yellow ;  nothing  done  to  cure  them  here. 

Packing  and  shipping. — Packed  in  tissue-paper  first  and  placed  in 
cases  one-eighth,  one-fourth,  and  one-third,  and  sometimes  one-half 
chests  for  shipment. 

Planting  and  Propagating. — The  distance  the  trees  are  planted  apart 
is  12  yards;  they  are  propagated  from  seed  of  bitter  oranges,  and 
grafted.  The  best  varieties  are  seedling.  \ 

The  orchards  are  large  and  small. 

Maturity. — Begin  fruiting  at  four  years  of  age ;  largest  crop  at  about 
fifteen  years ;  twenty -five  years  full  maturity. 

Insect  pests. — Both  lemon  and  orange  trees,  in  certain  locations,  have 
been  attacked  by  some  kind  of  insect,  but  growers  here  are  ignorant  as 
to  its  name  or  nature. 

There  are  parasites,  but  their  names  are  not  known ;  they  injure  the 
fruit  by  eating  the  buds. 

Pacldng  and  curing. — Never  pick  either  oranges  or  lemons  while  wet 


CHANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  TURKEY.  583 

or  immediately  after  rain;  let  them  be  perfectly  dry.  They  are  both 
hard  and  green  when  picked  for  exportation  and  taken  to  the  place  of 
packing,  and  there  assorted  as  to  sizes.  The  United  States  prefer  the 
small,  England  and  France  the  large,  and  North  of  Europe  the  medium 
sizes.  They  are  then  wrapped  in  fine  tissue-paper  of  different  colors  and 
placed  in  rows  in  the  case  or  box  by  women  and  girls,  who  are  remark- 
ably adept  at  the  work.  The  package  is  then  taken  by  men,  the  lids 
nailed  on  and  strapped  with  the  ordinary  wooden  hoop-pole  split  in  two 
pieces,  branded,  and  then  they  are  ready  for  shipment.  The  season  for 
picking  lemons  is  September  and  October,  and  for  oranges  November 
and  December  each  year. 

H.  C.  MARSTON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Malaga,  December  6,  1889. 


TURKEY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  HEAP,  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE. 
(Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41£.) 

Varieties. — Although  there  are  other  kinds  in  the  Levant,  only  three 
varieties  of  oranges  and  four  of  lemons  are  commonly  grown,  of  which 
the  oranges  known  as  "  Candiaii,"  "  Syrian,"  and  "  Mandariuian,"  and 
the  lemons  as  "  Caudian,"  "  Ohio,"  "  Paros,"  and  "  Messina,"  are  con- 
sidered the  best.  There  is,  however,  a  variety  of  lemon  (the  Citrus 
lumia) called  the  "sweet  lemon,"  of  which  the  juice  is  sweet.  This  is 
much  used  by  calico  printers  in  patterns  with  dyes  containing  iron,  to 
prod  ace  greater  clearness  in  the  white  parts. 

Propagating. — The  trees  are  grown  both  from  seedlings  and  from 
grafts.  Lemons  are  generally  propagated  first  from  the  seeds  of  the 
wild  orange,  as  it  has  been  found  that  the  wild  fruit  tree  bears  the  cold 
belt* T.  When  three  years  old  the  plants  from  these  seeds  are  taken 
up  and  replanted  in  other  places,  and  the  year  following  the  lemon 
plants  proper  are  grafted  upon  them.  Five  years  afterwards  they 
begin  to  bear  fruit,  and  at  fifteen  years  they  reach  maturity.  When 
great  care  is  bestowed,  inarching  is  practiced,  but  growers  generally 
prefer  to  propagate  by  grafting,  while  always  rearing  a  portion  of  the 
trees  from  seedlings  and  from  cuttings,  especially  the  latter. 

Insect  pests. — Unless  carefully  tended,  both  orange  and  lemon  trees 
are  frequently  injured  by  small  canker-worms  and  moths,  which  eat  the 
leaves,  etc.  Powdered  charcoal  ash  is  placed  on  and  around  the  trees, 
which  destroys  the  eggs  of  the  worms,  etc.  Sometimes  a  mixture  of 
charcoal,  soot,  and  strong  vinegar  is  sprinkled  on  the  treeouce  or  twice, 
as  may  be  deemed  necessary. 
15GA 13 


584        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Disease. — Unlike  the  orange,  which  presents  a  fine,  close  head  of 
deep-green  foliage,  the  lernon  forms  a  straggling  bush  or  small  tree  10 
or  12  feet  high,  with  paler,  more  scattered  leaves,  and  short,  angular 
branches,  with  sharp  spines  in  the  axils. 

In  damp  valleys  the  lemon  is  liable  to  be  attacked  by  a  fungus  (the 
Dematium  monophyUum),  which  covers  the  stem,  leaves,  and  fruit  with  a 
black  dust.  Trees  grown  in  the  shade  and  not  properly  exposed  to  the 
sunlight  suffer  most  severely  from  this  cause.  Syringing  with  milk  of 
lime  when  the  young  insects  are  hatched,  and  before  they  have  fixed 
themselves  on  the  plants,  is  found  to  be  the  most  effectual  remedy  known 
for  these  pests. 

Planting. — In  some  places  7  to  8  paces,  say  18  feet,  is  considered  a 
sufficient  distance  between  both  kind  of  trees,  but  generally  there  is  no 
strict  rule  for  either. 

Situation. — Orchards  and  orange  gardens  are  to  be  found  thriving  in 
almost  every  situation  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  the  grape,  but 
they  give  the  best  results  when  situated  on  hill-sides  or  gentle  slopes, 
where,  together  with  a  good  supply  of  moisture  under  ground,  they  are 
exposed  to  a  gentle  heat  by  day,  and  fresh,  cool  breezes  by  night.  As 
before  mentioned,  they  suffer  and  fade  when  deprived  of  light  as  well  as 
warmth,  and  they  never  prove  successful  when  the  ground  is  damp  for 
long  in  summer  or  is  not  properly  drained.  Both  oranges  and  lemons 
thrive  in  a  rich  soil,  and  succeed  well  in  good,  strong  clay  with  moder 
ate  care  and  attention. 

Although  it  is  not  the  best  situation  for  them,  both  lemons  and 
oranges  can  be  grown  close  to  the  sea-coast,  especially  lemons,  which 
are  more  hardy  than  oranges. 

They  are  strongest  in  the  Archipelago,  and  on  some  of  the  islands 
they  flourish  almost  anywhere  as  long  as  their  roots  do  not  come  in  con- 
tact with  salt  water. 

Irrigation. — When  the  trees  are  young  they  are  generally  well  watered 
by  haud  during  the  summer,  but  there  is  no  system  of  artificial  irriga- 
tion in  general  use,  and  the  ground  receives  a  similar  treatment  to  that 
bestowed  on  the  vineyards  cultivated  by  the  natives,  as  before  men- 
tioned. * 

Yield. — Oranges,  when  gathered  for  export,  should  be  quite  ripe. 
Those  fully  formed  and  with  the  color  just  turning  from  green  to  yel- 
low are  choseik  They  are  wrapped  in  fine  paper  or  in  the  husk  of  In- 
dian corn.  A  tree  20  feet  in  height  and  occupying  a  space  of  about  20 
feet  in  diameter  will  frequently  yield  from  3,000  to  4,000  oranges  in  the 
course  of  the  year.  Many  trees  live  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years.  As  lemons  are  more  profitable  to  grow  than  oranges 
on  account  of  their  keeping  qualities  and  their  being  less  liable  to  injury 
during  voyages,  their  cultivation  is  preferred  in  many  parts  of  the  Le- 
vant. The  lemons  are  gathered  green ;  the  finest  are  picked  out  and 
packed  in  cases  containing  about  420  fruits  j  also  in  boxes,  three  ot 


ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  IN  TURKEY.  5.85 

which  are  equal  to  two  cases,  each  lemon  being  separately  wrapped  iu 
paper. 

Habitat.— Tku  little  island  of  Aiidros  produces  10,000,000  lemons 
annually;  they  are  exported  to  Constantinople,  the  ports  of  the  Black 
Se;i.  and  those  of  the  Danube,  realizing  au  average  price  of  $4.80  to 
$5.75  per  1,000.  A  similar  quantity  of  excellent  quality  is  exported 
from  the  larger  island  of  Ohio,  where  they  are  gathered  in  May,  and  a 
second  crop  in  November  and  December. 

Great  numbers  of  "  sweet  lemons  "  are  grown  in  the  islands  of  tho 
Archipelago  and  the  districts  around  Smyrna. 

The  greater  part  of  the  oranges  are  grown  in  Candia  and  in  Syria, 
especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jaffa.  In  Paros,  Mitylene,  Tenedos, 
and  Samos  both  oranges  and  lemons  are  largely  cultivated  for  exporta- 
tion. The  dried  and  candied  rind  of  the  bitter  orange,  known  as  "orange 
peel,"  is  largely  used  in  flavoring  confectionery. 

C.  H.  HEAP, 

Consul-  General 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE  GENERAL, 

Constantinople,  April  10, 1884. 


OLIVES. 


587 


CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA, 
MOROCCO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MATHEWS,  OF  TANGIER. 

(Republislied  from  Consular  Reports,  No.41£.) 

THE  OLIVE. 

Varieties. — Several  varieties  are  grown,  wild  and  domestic.  It  is  im- 
possible to  proclaim  in  an  absolute  manner  which  variety  produces  the 
best  results,  as  in  every  country  one  is  preferred  which  suits  best  the 
locality  and  climate ;  and  it  happens  that  a  variety  which  prospers  in  a 
certain  climate  in  others  fails  to  produce  the  same  results ;  therefore  it 
must  be  ascertained  by  trials  of  the  best  and  hardiest  varieties. 

The  varieties  which  will  stand  the  severest  cold  weather  are  those 
nearest  to  the  wild,  such  as  the  Odessa  and  the  Beaked  olive  (Olea  Eu- 
ropea  rostrata,  Clem.) ;  the  olives  of  these  trees  are  not  large,  but  of  a 
medium  size. 

There  are  nineteen  denned  varieties  of  olives ;  the  principal  ones  are, 
the  Royal  Seville,  of  large  fruit,  which  is  gathered  in  a  green  state  for 
pickling ;  the  Queen  of  Commerce,  of  very  large  fruits,  with  small,  white 
spots,  also  gathered  while  green,  for  pickling ;  the  Eicholine,  of  long, 
oval  shape.  The  Empeltre  olive  tree  produces  a  small  olive,  oval- 
shaped,  bearing  abundantly  on  the  sixth  year  of  its  plantation,  and  in- 
creasing every  successive  year ;  the  fruits  ripen  very  early  and  yield 
abundant  oil  and  of  a  superior  quality  ;  is  a  variety  greatly  cultivated 
in  Aragon,  Spain ;  a  similar  variety,  but  neglected,  grows  near  Meque- 
nez,  in  this  country. 

The  province  of  Soos,  south  of  Morocco,  produces  great  abundance  of 
oil.  The  plantations  of  olive  trees  in  this  province  are  very  numerous; 
many  of  the  trees  are  of  great  size  and  beauty,  and  are  planted  in  a 
very  whimsical  and  peculiar  manner  in  the  neighborhood  of  Messa,  the 
<•au.se  of  which  I  learned  from  Governor  Gilali  Benhamos  :  that  one  of 
the  emperors  being  on  his  journey  to  Soudan  encamped  here  with  his 
army,  that  the  pegs  with  which  the  cavalry  picketed  their  horses  were 
cut  from  the  olive  trees  in  the  neighborhood,  and  that  these  pegs  being 
left  in  the  ground  on  account  of  the  sudden  departure  of  the  army,  the 
olive  trees  in  question  sprung  up  from  them.  I  have  seen  the  Moors  in 
the  province  of  Angora,  between  Tangier  and  Ceuta,  planting  olive, 
pomegranate,  and  quince  trees  by  cutting  bits  of  wood  of  these  trees, 

589 


590  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

from  18  to  20  inches  in  length  and  3  in  circumference,  which  they 
knocked  into  the  ground  with  a  large  stone  while  the  ground  was  soft 
after  a  rain ;  two  years  after  I  saw  these  pegs,  most  of  which  had  taken 
root  and  were  in  a  fair  way  of  becoming  good  trees. 

The  province  of  Soos  produces  abundant  oil,  which  is  brought  to 
Mogador  and  shipped  to  England  and  France.  The  people  of  Bas-el- 
Wad  make  two  sorts,  Tabaluht  and  Zit-el-aud.  The  former  is  made  from 
the  olives  when  green  and  nearly  ripe,  with  which  they  frequently  grind 
limes  or  wild  thyme.  This  oil  is  very  rich  and  white,  and  not  inferior 
to  the  best  Florence  or  Lucca  oil.  The  Zit-el-aud  is  made  from  the 
olives  when  they  are  quite  ripe  and  black,  and  after  they  had  laid  on 
the  ground  some  time.  In  this  state  they  yield  the  greatest  quantity 
of  oil,  but  it  has  a  strong  taste,  which  is  not  disliked  by  the  natives. 
It  is  used  in  Europe  in  the  woolen  and  soap  manufactories. 

Cultivation. — In  the  countries  where  the  olive  tree  is  cultivated  they 
generally  plant  it  on  the  worst  soils  on  the  hillsides ;  they  are  raised 
from  seed,  stakes,  slips,  cuttings,  from  young  shoots,  layers,  and  by 
grafting  or  budding. 

Vegetables,  such  as  beans,  peas,  etc.,  can  be  cultivated  between  the 
rows  of  olive  trees,  provided  the  stubble,  stalks,  leaves,  etc.,  while  still 
green,  are  returned  to  the  soil  and  worked  in  around  the  trees. 

Propagation. — Propagation  from  seed,  owing  to  the  oily  nature  of  the 
pulp  attached  to  the  olive  seed,  is  tardy,  unless  these  are  placed  in  lye- 
water  made  of  potash  or  ashes  for  three  days,  which  will  remove  the 
greasy  substance  and  allow  the  water  when  sown  to  penetrate  into  the 
small  kernel  inside.  The  soil  should  be  light,  well  manured,  and  worked 
deep ;  the  beds  laid  out  in  an  open,  warm  situation.  The  seeds  should 
be  sown  a  foot  apart  in  drills.  The  best  time  for  sowing  is  early  in  the 
autumn  and  watered.  The  plants  will  come  up  the  following  year,  and 
the  earth  may  be  stirred  between  them  while  the  weeds  are  being  re- 
moved. The  second  season,  when  the  plants  are  a  year  old,  they  should 
be  budded  with  known  varieties — with  those  producing  the  largest  fruit, 
if  intended  for  preserving  and  speculating  with  the  olives,  or  with  va- 
rieties rich  in  oleous  properties,  if  chiefly  desired  for  the  extraction  of 
oil.  A  year  after  budding  they  may  be  planted  in  rows  3  feet  apart, 
and  the  plants  2  feet  from  one  another,  in  case  their  final  spot  is  not 
ready  to  receive  them,  or  else  they  may  at  once  be  transplanted  in  the 
place  where  they  are  to  remain.  In  all  this  lifting  and  transplanting 
much  care  is  necessary  lest  the  roots  should  suffer  any  mutilation  or 
injury.  Thus  followed  the  young  tree  will  commence  to  bear  olives  on 
the  third  year,  and  be  in  full  bearing  in  its  tenth  year. 

The  propagation  by  slips  or  stakes  does  not  require  budding  nor  graft- 
ing, and  they  make  the  best  olive  orchards;  all  the  orchards  and  groves 
in  Morocco,  and  in  Andalusia,  Spain,  where  we  see  some  of  the  finest 
trees  in  the  world,  are  from  slips  or  stakes.  These  should  be  chosen 
from  the  knottiest  parts  of  the  branches  of  the  olive ;  they  must  be  four 


THE    OLIVE    IX    MOROCCO.  591 

or  six  verdures  old,  at  least,  in  rows  where  the  soil  has  been  worked 
and  mixed  with  well-rotted  animal  manure,  and  so  placed  as  to  admit 
irrigation.  The  slips  or  stakes  should  be  planted  half  a  yard  apart, 
and  one  yard  at  least  from  each  row.  In  catting  the  slips  or  stakes  the 
top  part  exposed  to  the  air  and  sun  should  be  at  once  covered  with  the 
varnish  used  by  grafters  to  prevent  cracking  or  decay  by  the  rains. 
There  should  be  no  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  length  buried  in  the 
ground  when  they  are  2  or  3  feet  in  length.  There  are  several  other 
modes  of  propagation  from  the  protuberances  of  the  roots  cut  in  pieces, 
and  planted  in  rows  13  inches  apart,  and  watered  until  the  shoots  are 
3  feet  high,  when  they  are  again  separated  and  transplanted ;  also  by 
layers,  and  from  suckers,  etc.  The  time  for  these  operations  is  from 
the  middle  of  autumn  to  the  first  of  March.  In  plowing  the  ground 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  go  near  the  tree  and  injure  the  roots ;  the 
ground  around  the  tree  must  be  worked  lightly  with  a  dented  hoe ;  the 
vegetable  and  animal  manure  must  be  buried  in  a  ditch  dug  around 
each  tree,  but  distant  from  it  from  3  to  8  feet,  according  to  its  age  and 
size,  in  order  not  to  disturb  the  roots. 

Queen  olives. — There  are  two  varieties  of  trees  which  produce  the  large 
olives  of  commerce : 

(1)  The  Royal  or  Queen,  Sevillian,  known  as  Olea  regia  Boz.,  and 
Olea  regalis  Clem.    The  wood  of  this  tree  is  less  hard  and  lighter  in  color 
than  that  of  the  wild  olive.    The  branches  are  tall  and  straight,  the 
leaves  long,  and  the  fruit  plum-shaped,  its  pulp  adhering  tenaciously  to 
the  stone,  tardy  in  maturing,  and  is  gathered  green  for  pickling.    When 
ripe  the  fruit  is  of  dark  violet  color.    It  ripens  with  difficulty,  produc- 
ing a  clear  oil  of  sweet  flavor. 

(2)  The  Sardal  Sevillian  olive  (Olea  Hispalensis  Clein.),  (Olea Hispan- 
ica).    The  branches  are  less  vertical  than  the  former  variety,  the  leaves 
are  larger,  the  fruit  is  walnut-shaped  and  aromatic.     It  is  very  com- 
mon in  Seville,  Yera.  and  other  parts  of  Andalusia.     I  have  seen  a  few 
trees  of  these  two  varieties  prospering  in  private  gardens  near  Tan- 
gier, reared  from  slips  brought  from   Seville,  the  fruit  retaining  its 
original  quality.    The  queen  olives  of  commerce  are  not  the  selected 
fruit  of  the  common  olive,  but  a  particular  species  of  itself,  as  above 
described. 

Maturity. — In  warm  climates,  and  on  its  favorite  soil,  the  olive  tree 
comes  into  full  bearing  on  the  tenth  year  from  its  grafting,  or  from  the 
plants  of  slips,  cuttings,  or  stakes.  In  colder  climates  they  come  into 
full  bearing  some  years  later.  The  olive  tree  remains  fruitful  for  centu- 
ries. There  is  an  olive  between  Villefranche  and  Nice  which  was  famous 
for  its  old  age  in  the  year  1515.  It  measures  at  its  base  42  feet  in  cir- 
cumference; its  average  yield  of  oil  per  year  amounts  to  150  kilograms. 
(A  kilogram  has  34  ounces.)  In  Spain  and  in  the  island  of  Mallorca 
there  are  olive  trees  which  were  old  at  the  time  of  the  Moorish  occupa- 
tion, and  which  at  present  continue  to  produce  enormous  crops  of  fine 
olives. 


592        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

field. — The  acre  is  not  known  in  the  olive  countries ;  lands  are  meas- 
ured by  the  hectare.  A  secular  olive  tree  of  great  size,  occupying  100 
square  yards  of  land,  will  yield  on  an  average  40  gallons  of  olives,  which 
is  not  at  all  exaggerated,  as  there  are  many  which  yield  100  and  even 
120  gallons  of  olives. 

The  adult  field  olives  of  moderate  size  yield  from  20  to  40  gallons 
of  olives.  Short  olive  trees,  occupying  only  25  square  yards  of  ground, 
yield  on  an  average  about  20  gallons  of  olives. 

In  the  orange  region  a  mature  olive  tree,  well  cultivated,  will  produce 
15  gallons  of  oil.  If  the  trees  stand  at  a  distance  of  30  feet  from  each 
other,  or  at  about  the  rate  of  75  trees  to  the  acre,  there  will  be  a  yield 
of  1,125  gallons  of  oil  per  acre. 

In  Spain  they  calculate  on  an  average  yield  of  140  hectoliters  (1 
hectoliter  measures  20  gallons)  of  olives  per  hectare  of  ground  every 
two  years,  yielding  1,750  liters  oil  in  this  form : 

Pesetas. 

1,000  liters  of  refined  oil  at  a  medium  price  of  1  peseta  and  25  centimes .     1, 250 

750  liters  of  inferior  oil,  at  75  centimes 526 

Total 1,775 

(A  peseta  is  equal  to  20  cents;  5  pesetas  to  a  dollar;  100  centimes  to  a  peseta. 
Deducting  700  pesetas  as  cost  of  cultivation  leaves  a  net  product  of  1,561  pesetas 
every  two  years. ) 

When  the  trees  are  at  a  distance  of  10  meters  from  each  other  they 
yield,  on  an  average,  6,000  kilograms  of  oil  per  hectare,  of  the  value  of 
12,000  pesetas. 

Planting. — The  trees  are  planted  from  30  to  40  feet  apart. 

Picking. — They  are  picked  one  month  before  the  olives  are  quite  ripe, 
when  they  are  of  a  yellow-green  color,  for  oil,  and  in  the  month  of 
November,  when  the  olive  changes  its  color  from  violet  to  black,  when 
intended  for  pickles* 

Pickling.— The  olives  are  kept  in  water  until  their  bitter  taste  is  en 
tirely  removed.    The  water  must  be  changed  occasionally.    Then  they 
are  ready  for  pickling  either  in  salt  and  water  or  with  sweet  herbs,  such 
as  thyme,  slices  of  lemon,  etc.    The  Moors  bruise  first  the  olives,  and 
afterwards  pack  them  with  salt. 

Oil. — The  process  for  extracting  oil  consists,  first  of  all,  in  gathering 
the  olives  when  they  turn  black,  about  the  month  of  NovembeV,  on  a 
fair  day,  separating  those  found  under  the  tree  on  the  ground,  and  all 
discolored  ones,  with  which  the  second  quality  of  oil  is  made;  they 
must  be  cleaned  of  all  foreign  matters,  such  as  leaves,  etc.;  in  gather- 
ing the  olives  must  not  be  beaten,  but  picked  by  hand  or  with  a  hook 
made  on  purpose.  The  olives  are  spread  in  a  hall,  the  floor  of  which  is 
of  glazed  tiles  and  having  a  slope  in  order  to  allow  the  water  which 
oozes  out  of  the  olives  to  run  out.  The  olives  are  turned  over  several 
times,  taking  care  uot  to  allow  them  to  ferment,  as  it  would  produce  a 
rancid,  inferior  oil,  and  in  this  care  lies  the  secret  of  success  in  obtain- 
ing a  superior  sweet  oil.  It  is  recommended  when  pressing  the  olives 


THE    OLIVE    IN    MOROCCO.  593 

not  to  break  the  stone,  as  it  contains  a  small  almond  which  neu- 
tralizes the  ilavor  of  the  first-class  oil.  In  the  second  process  in  press- 
ing the  stones  should  be  crushed  in  order  to  obtain  the  oil  still  left  ad- 
herent to  the  stone  and  on  the  kernalor  almond,  which  will  be  a  second- 
ary class  of  oil.  Every  utensil  in  the  mill  must  be  perfectly  clean.  It 
is  essential  that  the  entablature  where  the  olives  are  pressed  and  ground, 
tht»  baskets  where  the  paste  is  placed  for  pressing,  the  receivers  of  the 
oil,  etc.,  should  not  have  been  used  in  preparing  rancid  oils  or  of  bad 
Ilavor.  The  virgin  oil  of  first  pressure  must  be  extracted  without  the 
addition  of  the  boiling  water,  which  always  alters  its  quality.  With 
these  cares  a  very  superior  first-class  oil  will  be  obtained  from  the  first 
pressing. 

On  the  second  operation,  the  paste  still  contains  a  good  deal  of  oil 
which  the  press  by  itself  is  not  sufficient  to  extract,  but  with  the  assist- 
ance of  boiling  water*  and  a  more  efficacious  pressure,  an  oil  is  obtained 
very  good  for  kitchen  purposes,  and  which  unscrupulous  merchants  mix 
with  cotton  or  other  tasteless  oils  and  sell  in  bottles  as  "  huile surperflne 
<f  olive."  After  the  second  pressure,  the  mass  of  skin,  stone,  etc.,  is 
boiled  and  repressed  with  more  force  and  through  a  peculiar  process, 
obtaining  an  oil  that  is  very  much  in  demand  for  the  manufacture  of 
castile  and  other  soaps.  Thus  three  qualities  of  oil  is  obtained  :•  the 
fine  virgin  oil  for  table  use;  the  ordinary  oil  obtained  with  the  boiling 
water  and  employed  in  the  kitchen;  and  last,  the  gross  oil  of  inferior 
quality  used  for  industrial  purposes. 

The  American  inventive  genius  will  produce  not  only  superior  mills  and 
presses  more  active  and  economical  than  those  now  used  in  Europe,  but 
also  pulping  machines  to  separate  the  pulp  of  the  olive  from  the  stone, 
KO  soon  as  we  have  in  the  country  forests  of  the  truly  surface  gold 
mines,  olive  orchards. 

Situation. — Best  results  are  obtained  on  gentle  slopes  and  hillsides ; 
good  results  may  t>e  obtained  in  table-lands,  provided  the  soil  is  not 
adobe  or  compact,  and  having  good  drainage.  The  orchards  are  in 
some  places  only  a  distance  of  200  or  300  yards  from  the  sea. 

Soil. — The  olive  -tree  will  thrive  in  all  soils  excepting  low,  damp 
grounds.  It  will  prosper  and  yield  abundantly  on  the  top  and  side  of 
mountains,  amongst  rocks — matters  not  the  shallowness  of  the  soil — 
in  gravelly  and  stony  ground  where  neither  wheat,  barley,  nor  oats  will 
grow. 

On  calcareous  and  volcanic  grounds  the  olive  produces  the  finest 
(jiiality  of  oil;  all  those  precipitous  side-hills  and  canons,  so  numerous 
in  some  of  the  counties  of  California,  all  along  the  Coast  Range  east- 
ward of  San  Diego,  following  up  San  Bernardino,  Santa  Barbara,  Los 
Angeles,  San  Luis  Obispo,  San  Juan,  Contra  Costa ;  all  the  sides  of 
Mount  Diablo,  up  north  to  the  mountains  siding  the  Klamath  River, 
4L*  degrees  north  latitude.  North  of  this  the  olive  will  grow  and  fiower, 
but  will  not  mature  the  fruit,  even  if  raised  from  seed. 


594        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  great  value  and" importance  of  the  olive  tree  is  that  it  will  thrive 
and  prosper  in  soils  where  nothing  else  of  value  would  grow.  Those 
dry  soils  of  arid  aspect  in  many  parts  of  California  are  the  genuine 
lands  for  raising  the  most  productive  forests  of  olives,  worth,  in  due 
time  and  at  not  distant  period,  millions  of  money.  In  Africa,  in  Greece, 
and  in  some  parts  of  Spain  lands  once  abandoned  for  their  sterility  are 
now  the  source  of  wealth  and  revenue  to  communities  and  to  the  Gov- 
ernment. 

Irrigation. — None.  The  olive  trees  require  no  irrigation.  They  are 
only  watered  when  transplanted  until  secured. 

Rainfalls. — Thirty  inches  is  the  average.  The  rain-fall  in  the  year 
1881-'82  was  52  inches. 

Pruning. — Of  all  the  questions  raised  and  argued  with  regard  to  the 
culture  of  the  olive  tree,  none  has  been  more  debated  than  the  pruning  ; 
not  only  every  country  has  its  ways  of  pruning,  but  every  district  has 
its  manners  and  notions.  On  the  other  hand  there  are  parts  where  the 
olive  is  never  pruned. 

The  olive  tree  must  undergo  a  certain  amount  of  pruning,  not  to  the 
extent  of  the  orange  ;  the  old  and  bare  wood  must  be  removed  j  the 
branches  must  be  kept  in  such  a  trim  so  as  not  to  exclude  altogether 
the  sun  and  air  from  the  head ;  suckers  must  be  avoided  and  those  only 
left  required  to  fill  a  clear  place  of  the  head ;  the  foliage  of  the  head 
must  be  kept  equally  balanced.  The  olive  produces  flowers  on  the 
branches  and  wood  of  the  preceding  year.  It  is  rarely  necessary  to  cut 
large  branches :  some  branches  which  have  produced  fruit  for  several 
years  in  succession  and  at  last  present  an  appearance  of  dryness  about 
them,  must  be  removed.  By  so  doing,  towards  the  end  of  winter  it  will 
soon  produce  new  shoots,  which  on  the  following  year  will  bring  forth 
flowers.  Olives  must  be  thus  pruned  only  every  other  two  years.  Fol- 
lowing this  practice  from  the  beginning  on  young  trees,  the  pruning  will 
be  but  slight  and  easy  to  perform. 

On  pruning  it  is  well  to  cover  up  at  once  the  wounds  on  the  tree  with 
a  mixture  of  earth  and  fresh  cow's  dung  well  mixed,  which  is  just  as 
good  for  the  purpose  and  more  economical  than  the  varnish  used  by 
grafters. 

The  branches,  leaves,  etc.,  from  pruning,  which  in  some  countries  are 
given  to  the  cows  and  goats,  are  the  proper  manure  for  olive  t^ees,  and 
it  should  be  buried  while  green  around  the  trees,  as  well  as  all  the  oily 
waters  and  residue  of  the  mills  where  the  oil  is  made ;  these  wastes  are 
great  fertilizers. 

Besides  the  frosts  and  excessive  cold,  the  olive  has  other  enemies  in 
the  shape  of  insects,  to  combat  which  washes  of  vinegar  or  lime-water 
and  whitewashing  the  trees  are  necessary.  It  is  highly  beneficial  to 
keep  the  trees  clear  of  moss  and  parasite  vegetation. 

FELIX  A.  MATHEWS, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Tangier,  April  2,  1884. 


CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 

MEXICO. 
LOWER  CALIFORNIA. 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL  VIOSOA,  OF  LA  PAZ. 

Varieties. — The  Andalusia  or  Sevilla  variety  of  culture  of  olives  com- 
poses the  best  quality  for  pickling  in  the  District  of  Mulege,  a  country 
and  town  bordering  the  gulf  side  of  Lower  California,  and  in  latitude 
26°,  45'  north,  which  place  supplies  pickled  olives  in  barrels  to  the  state 
of  Sonora,  Sinaloa,  and  this  portion  of  the  territory. 

From  time  immemorial  a  kind  of  an  olive  tree  of  the  native  genus  has 
been  in  cultivation  in  the  towns  and  valleys  of  Mulege,  San  Igna&io, 
Pnrising,  and  Comondu,  bearing  very  small  but  oily  olives  in  abundance. 
It  is  considered  the  best  oil  and  the  tree  of  more  productiveness ;  nev- 
ertheless, for  some  reason  or  other,  the  oil  made  in  this  country  is  very 
insignificant  in  quantity. 

Situation. — The  towns  in  the  valleys  above  described  contain  the 
principal  olive-grove  trees  in  the  peninsula,  the  first  bordering  the  sea 
gulf,  and  the  others  located  on  an  average  of  50  miles  from  sea.  Hilly 
or  level  land  is  immaterial  for  its  growth,  but  the  exposure  to  the  sun 
is  necessary. 

Climate. — Kain-fall  is  an  assistance,  although  their  dependence  has 
to  be  entirely  on  irrigation.  In  watering  the  olive  trees,  the  water  is 
made  to  run  and  form  a  pool  around  within  3  feet  from  the  tree  and 
never  to  touch  the  stem. 

Pruning. — Pruning  takes  place  in  October,  and  picking  in  the  begin- 
ning of  September,  that  is  for  pickling,  and  for  oil  in  the  latter  part  of 
October,  when  the  fruit  is  ripe. 

Maturity. — The  trees  commence  fruiting  after  seven  years  old. 

Planting. — Distance  apart  planted,  25  feet  or  more.  Olive  trees  are 
generally  propagated  by  cuttings  over  a  year  old. 

Insect  pests. — A  very  injurious  worm  sometimes  causes  great  detri- 
ment to  the  tree,  but  it  is  destroyed  by  the  use  of  a  solution  of  ashes 
mixed  with  lime.  When  the  skin  of  the  tree  becomes  very  tight  to  the 
principal  stem,  a  few  slashes  or  perpendicular  cuts  of  the  skin  with  a 
sharp  knife  will  enhance  the  tree's  growth  and  make  it  prolific  in  fruit 
bearing. 

595 


596  FKUIT    CULT  VISE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Soil. — The  soil  selected  for  olives  is  light,  loamy,  and  limish,  requir- 
ing water  every  second  day  when  first  set  on  the  ground,  and  no  ma- 
nure until  after  the  tree  is  three  years  old. 

I  am  sorry  to  say  that  there  is  no  printed  matter  or  statistical  reports 
on  horticulture  in  existence  here,  and  the  above  is  the  best  information 
obtainable  on  the  treated  subject. 

JAS.  VIOSCA, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

La  Paz,  December  21, 1889. 


ECUADOR. 

There  appears  to  be  no  reason  for  doubting  that  in  portions  of  Ecua- 
dor olives  might  be  grown  in  perfection,  for  similar  conditions  of  cli- 
mate and  soil  exist  to  that  of  France  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  where  the  best  olives  in  the  world  are  produced.  So  far  as 
can  be  ascertained,  growing  olives  in  Ecuador  has  never  been  tried. 

HORATIO  N.  BEACH, 

Consul. 
GUAYAQUIL,  1884. 


VENEZUELA. 

The  cultivation  of  the  olive  is  unknown  here,  owing  doubtless  to  the 
fact  that  the  climate  is  too  hot  and  the  season  too  dry. 

Whatever  of  care  or  attention  for  fruits  that  the  people  are  inclined 
to  bestow  is  devoted  to  the  orange  and  banana,  though  neither  these 
nor  any  other  orchard  fruits  are  exported,  and  only  enough  are  raised 
to  satisfy  the  domestic  demand;  yet,  in  view  of  the  favorable  character 
of  the  soil  and  climate,  it  is  doubtless  true  that,  with  a  good  foreign 
demand  and  speedy  transportation,  the  growth  of  tropical  fruits  here 
might  assume  important  proportions  and  prove  amply  remunerative. 

WINFIELD  S.  BIRD, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

La  Guayra,  November  15,  1889. 


WEST  INDIES. 

BERMUDA. 

Mr.  Heyl,  fruit-grower,  of  Hamilton,  to  Consul  Beckwitli. 

At  one  time  olive  plants  were  imported  here  by  the  country,  but  as 
no  care  was  given  them,  they  have  since  dwindled  away,  only  a  few 
trees  here  and  there  remaining,  but  the  fruit  is  put  to  no  use.  A  little 


Tin;    OLIVE    IN    THE    WEST    INDIES.  597 

more  energy  and  enterprise  are  needed  in  the  island  toadvaiice  various 
branches  of  agriculture  and  fruit  culture,  which  at  present,  being 
carried  on  in  a  shiftless  manner,  bring  no  profit. 


TRINIDAD. 
Mr.  J.  H.  Hart,  government  botanist,  to  Consul  Sawyer. 

Trees  grow  rapidly  and  exist  for  years,  but  have  never  been  known 
to  produce  fruit. 

CUBA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  WILLIAMS,  OF  HAVANA. 

With  respect  to  olives,  I  have  to  say  that  a  few  experiments  have 
been  made  by  the  florists  in  the  suburbs  of  Havana  to  cultivate  this 
tree,  but  so  far  as  I  can  learn,  it  has  not  borne  fruit. 

EAMON  O.  WILLIAMS, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Havana,  November  24,  1889. 

GUADALOUPE. 

Director  of  Botanical  Garden  at  Basse-terre,  to  Consul  Bartlctt. 

Olive  trees  are  very  scarce,  perhaps  not  a  dozen  of  them  in  the  island. 
Olives  are  not  grown  for  exportation. 

ST.  FELIX  CLABDEAU. 


CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 

ASIA  MINOR.* 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  EMMETT,    OF  SMYRNA. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  for  pickling  is  the  round  olive  5  the  best 
variety  for  olive  oil  is  the  "  coloves  n  (stemless).  The  other  choice  vari- 
eties for  pickles  (eating)  and  oil,  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit,  are 
the  "Adramitti"  olives. 

Situation. — The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  above  given  are  grown 
in  valley,  hillside,  table  land,  and  plain,  and  near  the  sea  and  many 
days  from  it ;  elevation  above  sea-level  is  3  to  6,500  feet ;  exposure  to 
sun  is  immaterial,  as  the  climate  here  is  mild  and  agreeable. 

The  trees  are  grown  in  every  soil,  and  good  results  are  obtained  on 
valley,  hill-side,  or  table-land,  except  where  the  soil  is  marshy.  The 
character  of  the  soil  and  subsoil  is  calcareous. 

Climatic  influence. — The  olive  tree  does  not  thrive  in  the  open  air 
except  in  latitude  43°,  and  where  the  temperature  is  not  lower  than  15° 
to  20°  Fahrenheit. 

Temperature. — Minimum,  32° ;  maximum,  95° ;  average,  68°  Fahreii 
heit. 

Rain-fall. — The  annual  rain-fall  at  Mitylene  is  about  25  inches.  Eain 
is  always  very  good,  but  after  September.  If  it  rains  during  the  flow- 
ering of  olive  trees — April  and  May — and  when  the  fruit  is  very  small — 
June,  July,  and  August — the  crop  is  not  likely  to  be  good,  as  it  falls  off 
prematurely. 

Irrigation. — When  a  plantation  of  olive  trees  is  made  it  should  be  im- 
mediately irrigated  and  the  irrigation  is  to  be  repeated  every  two  weeks 
for  three  years,  during  the  months  of  April,  May,  June,  July,  and  Au- 
gust, according  as  the  weather  may  be  more  or  less  dry ;  but  after  three 
years  no  irrigation  of  any  kind  is  needed  here. 

Cultivation. — Olive  groves  are  ploughed  in  the  spring  to  tbe  depth  of 
1  inch  in  the  clear  spots,  and  2  to  3  inches  deep  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
trees;  but  after  the  ploughing  is  over  they  always  dig  the  soil  round 
the  trees  with  a  spade. 

Pruning. — At  Mitylene  we  prune  the  olive  trees  every  year  after  the 
crop  with  great  attention,  removing  the  dried  and  high  branches, 
because  it  is  not  necessary  that  the  olive  tree  should  be  higher  than 
20  feet. 

*  From  information  supplied  by  the  United  States  consular  agent  at  Mitylene,  an 
extensive  olive  cultivator. 
598 


THE    OLIVE    IN    ASIA    MINOR.  599 

Picking. — About  the  end  of  November  the  harvest  begins. 

ridding. — The  best  time  for  pickling  green  olives  is  the  end  of  Sep- 
tember, always  after  the  first  rain;  and  the  best  time  for  pickling  ripe 
black  olives  is  the  end  of  November,  during  the  harvest. 

Oil  manufacture. — Next  step,  after  picking,  the  olives  are  sent  to  the 
mills  for  grinding  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  Mitylenists  put  the  green  olives  in  fresh  water  for  five  or  six 
days  and  change  it  every  day;  after  that  they  cork  the  olives  in  jars 
with  pickle.  They  prepare  black  olives  for  table  use  in  the  common 
manner,  in  pickle. 

The  process  for  extracting  oil  is  as  follows  :  After  the  olives  become 
pulverized  by  grinding  under  millstones  they  are  put  in  goafs-hair 
bags  and  pressed  in  either  iron  or  wooden  presses,  and  the  oil  is  put 
into  large  earthen  jars,  barrels,  or  skins,  for  sale. 

Maturity. — The  trees  commence  fruiting  the  fifth  year  after  planting. 

Yield. — The  average  yield  per  acre  per  annum  of  mature  trees  is  $25 
to  $30. 

riant  I  ay  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  planted  at  a  distance  of 
-5  ieet  from  each  other,  and  are  propagated  by  the  planting  of  branches 
or  striking  from  branches ;  by  the  planting  of  pieces  of  root ;  by  the 
cultivation  of  wild  olive  trees  and  transplanting  to  the  field,  and"  from 
seed. 

Insect  pests. — Insect  pests  do  not  exist. 

W.  C.  EMMETT, 
Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Smyrna,  January  15,  1890.  . 


ASIA  MINOR. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  STEVENS,  OF  SMYRNA. 
[Republislied  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41^.] 

Situation. — The  olive  is  not  as  extensively  cultivated  here  as  in  the 
inlands  of  the  Archipelago  and  Mediterranean — the  Sporades,  Cyclades, 
and  Ionian  Islands.  The  reason  for  this  is  easily  understood.  The  olive 
will  not  thrive  inland ;  it  must  be  planted  near  the  sea-coast.  Plan- 
tations are  prepared  in  this  manner:  Vigorous  young  trees,  which  grow 
wild  upon  the  sides  of  the  neighboring  mountains,  are  taken  up  and  trans- 
planted in  the  plain  or  hill-side.  After  remaining  two  years  in  the  field 
they  are  grafted.  Seven  or  eight  years  after  the  grafting  process  the\ 
begin  to  bear;  reaching  the  maximum  of  productiveness  from  the  eight- 
eenth to  the  twenty-fifth  year.  They  yield  every  other  year.  When 
156A 14 


600  ,  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

transplanted  the  young  trees  must  be  watered  once  a  fortnight  during 
summer  until -they  reach  their  fourth  year.  If  well  protected  they  will 
continue  fruitful  for  two  hundred  years  or  longer.  Trees  planted  on 
stony  hill-sides  yield  more  abundantly  and  of  a  better  quality  than  trees 
planted  on  plain  land.  They  should  be  planted  about  30  feet  apart. 

Cultivation — The  manner  of  cultivating  olive  trees  is  to  plow  or  dig 
over  the  ground  every  year  about  a  foot  in  depth,  adding  manure  every 
third  year  at  the  foot  of  each  tree  and  covering  it  up  with  earth.  The 
mature  tree  will  yield  about  580  pounds  of  olives  yearly. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  which  give  the  best  results  are  known  as 
"  Thrillies  "  and  a  Adramitis,"  after  the  localities  where  they  are  grown. 
The  "  queen  olives  of  commerce"  are  produced  from  an  improved  tree 
grown  at  Adramitis. 

There  are  two  species  of  olives,  and  these  are,  when  ripe,  green  and 
black,  respectively.  Those  intended  for  pickling  for  table  use  are  gath- 
ered green-ripe ;  they  are  put  in  salted  water  and  allowed  to  remain 
until  ready  for  use.  These  are  of  the  black  variety.  Green  olives  also 
yield  good  oil  for  table  use,  but  in  much  smaller  quantity. 

The  most  productive  olive  orchards  in  this  province  are  at  a  distance 
of  1  to  3  miles  from  the  sea- coast. 

Picking  and  expressing  oil. — A  description  of  the  manner  of  gathering 
this  fruit  and  expressing  and  preparing  the  oil  may  prove  interesting. 

During  the  season  of  the  crop  the  fruit  is  collected  and  salted,  then 
stored  away  from  one  to  three  months.  At  Mytilene  and  A'ivali  the 
olives  are  kept  even  during  live  or  six  months  before  the  oil  is  abstracted. 
It  is  claimed  that  the  larger  the  quantity  of  salt  used  in  this  process 
the  finer*  the  quality  of  oil  obtained.  The  fruit,  packed  in  baskets  con- 
taining 50  pounds  each,  is  put  into  boilers  and  boiled  for  half  an  hour ; 
then  it  is  withdrawn  and  spread  on  a  circular  surface,  where  it  is  ground 
under  a  large  millstone  driven  by  horse-power.  The  horse  is  always 
followed  by  a  workman  whose  care  is  to  throw  the  olives  under  the 
stone  with  a  shovel.  The  olives,  first  coarsely  ground  and  then  care- 
fully pounded,  are  placed  in  bags  made  with  goats'  hair,  which  are  put, 
from  20  to  24  at  a  time,  under  a  powerful  press,  operated  by  two  work- 
men, and  then  squeezed  until  no  oil  flows  out ;  6f  pounds  of  good  olives 
give  2J  pounds  of  oil.  The  oil  gathers  in  a  trough  placed  un^er  the 
press,*  and  is  then  withdrawn  and  poured  into  casks.  The  olives  in- 
tended to  be  used  at  table  are  put  into  stone  jugs  or  barrels,  after  hav- 
ing been  carefully  washed,  and  are  covered  over  with  strong  brine.  In 
this  condition  they  will  keep  good  for  a  whole  year. 

W.  E.  STEVENS, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Smyi  na,  February  28,  1884. 


THE   OLIVE    IN   PALESTINE.  601 

PALESTINE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  Q1LLMAN,  OF  JERUSALEM. 

Varieties. — The  finest  olives  of  this  country  grow  on  Mount  Lebanon 
and  in  the  hill  country  of  Judaea.  Those  near  the  sea-coast  are  inferior. 
Five  kinds  or  varieties  of  olives  are  generally  distinguished  here:  the 
white;  the  large  black,  known  as  Bakkar  (fat),  good  for  pickling,  as  is 
the  preceding,  but  not  good  for  oil;  the  small  black,  Zmehri,  which  is 
good  for  oil;  the  large  green,  called  Sourri  (navel),  from  its  resem- 
blance to  that  part  of  the  human  body,  and  which  is  used  for  pickling, 
and  the  small  green,  named  also  Sourri,  and  which  is  of  like  use  to  the 
large  variety.  There  is  also  the  wild  or  uugrafted  olive  called  Barri 
(wild),  the  fruit  of  which  is  not  used  either  for  oil  or  pickles.  The  best 
variety  for  pickled  olives  is  the  large  black  (Bakkar).  That  best  for 
olive-oil  is  the  small  black  (Zmehri).  All  the  varieties  mentioned  grow 
throughout  Palestine,  and  are  found  from  the  sea-coast,  and  the  plains, 
onjy  a  few  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  to  the  elevation  of  3,000  feet 
or  more.  The  trees  have  usually  a  full  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  hilly 
or  even  mountainous  country  seems  best  adapted  to  them.  The  poorest 
olives,  for  instance,  are  found  at  Jaffa,  where  their  cultivation  is  being 
gradually  superseded  by  that  of  the  orange,  lemon,  and  grape.  The 
soil  which  prevails  over  the  greater  part  of  this  country  is  a  stiff  red 
clay,  with  a  small  proportion  of  sand  occasionally,  and  in  this  the  olive 
flourishes.  The  subsoil  is  also  clay,  with  rock  frequently  underlying. 

Climate. — As  to  the  temperature  and  rain-fall  the  remarks  made  in 
connection  with  the  orange,  lemon,  and  fig  apply  equally  here.  It  is, 
however,  said  that  in  dry  seasons  the  olive  produces  more  abundantly 
and  better  fruit.  The  trees  bear  a  full  crop  only  every  second  year. 
This  is  attributed  to  the  fact  that  in  securing  the  fruit  the  trees  are 
beaten  and  roughly  handled,  breaking  off  the  small  fruit- bearing  shoots, 
,  and  so  preventing  an  abundant  production  in  the  succeeding  year,  which 
is  known  as  the  "  off  year,"  when  but  a  small  crop  is  secured.  The 
fellaheen  (peasants)  also  say  that  in  those  years  the  grape  produces 
abundantly,  the  olive-tree  yields  but  a  poor  crop,  and  vice  versa. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  never  used  in  connection  with  the  culture  of 
the  tree  except  when  young  and  first  planted. 

Cultivation. — A  plowing  once  a  year,  in  the  autumn,  is  considered 
sufficient  culture ;  but  as  frequently  other  crops  are  planted  between 
the  trees  they  thus  receive  more  care  and  attention  than  they  would 
otherwise  get.  In  exposed  places,  where  the  rains  have  washed  away 
the  soil  from  the  roots  of  the  trees,  small  fences  of  stone  are  built  to 
protect  them.  These,  surrounding  the  trunks,  are  filled  with  earth,  and 
are  of  good  service  in  shielding  them  from  the  summer  sun.  Also, 
where  a  tree  is  partially  hollow  with  decay,  it  is  the  habit  to  build  up 
the  aperture  with  stones,  the  object  being  to  arrest  the  rot. 


602   .      FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  only  practiced  to  the  extent  of  removing  the 
dead  or  dying  timber. 

Picking. — Olives  designed  for  pickling  are  gathered  a  short  time  before 
ripening,  lest  they  should  be  too  soft  for  the  purpose. 

Pickling. — On  being  placed  in  baskets  (the  flexible  basket  in  general 
use  being  employed)  the  olives  are  salted  and  then  receive  a  gentle 
pressure.  Af  cer  three  or  four  days  they  are  removed  from  the  baskets, 
and,  without  any  other  preparation  or  process,  are  simply  placed  in  jars 
or  barrels.  This  is  all  that  is  required,  and  for  common  use  no  other 
care  is  given  the  olive,  which  will  keep  in  this  way  for  two  or  three  years, 
or  perhaps  even  longer  where  greater  care  is  observed.  In  towns  the 
fruit  is  often  pickled  in  vinegar ;  but  in  the  country  this  is  unknown  to 
be  followed. 

Oil  making. — Where  the  olives  are  required  for  making  oil  they  are 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  trees  till  quite  ripe,  when  they  are  picked  or 
beaten  with  long  poles  from  the  branches.  Allowed  to  lie  in  heaps  for 
a  period  extending  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  days,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  they  are  usually  quite  soft,  they  next  are  crushed  in  the  rude  stone 
mills  common  in  the  country — the  oil-mills  of  Palestine,  which  probably 
date  back  to  biblical  times.  They  are,  however,  first  placed  in  the  large 
flexible  baskets  already  described.  Heavy  pressure  being  applied,  the 
oil  strains  through  the  baskets  into  the  trough  placed  to  receive  it.  The 
oil  obtained  from  this  first  pressure  is  the  best,  or  of  first  quality,  and 
will  bring  in  the  market  as  high  as  $4  per  gallon.  Two  subsequent 
pressures  complete  the  extraction  of  the  oil.  It  is  all  one  of  the  most 
simple  of  processes.  The  oil  of  the  second  pressing  is  considered  good, 
and  may  be  sold  for  $3  per  gallon,  but  that  of  the  third  and  last  pressing 
is  invariably  poor  or  bad,  and  is  only  used  for  burning  in  lamps  or  mak- 
ing soap.  The  oil  of  the  first  and  second  grades  is  often  mixed,  and  the 
result  disposed  of  to  the  dealer.  In  fact  this  is  a  common  practice,  of 
course  deteriorating  the  oil  of  the  first  quality,  which  it  is  often  sold 
for.  The  expressed  oil,  without  further  manipulation  or  other  process, 
is  emptied  from  the  trough  into  skins,  and  so  conveyed  to  the  oil  mer- 
chant, that  intended  for  export  finally  being  transported  to  Jaffa.  Here 
it  is  stored  in  great  cemented  cisterns,  which  are  specially  prepared 
for  the  purpose,  from  which  it  is  emptied  into  barrels  or  casks  when 
required  for  shipment.  The  greater  portion  of  the  oil  is  exported  to 
France,  where,  having  undergone  the  mysterious  mixings  and  adulter- 
ations known  only  to  the  dealer,  it  is  placed  upon  the  market,  and 
reaches  the  public  at  large  labeled  pure  French  olive-oil.  The  oil  pro- 
duced from  olives  grown  on  the  mountains  is  far  superior  in  flavor  and 
quality  to  that  made  from  fruit  grown  on  the  low-lying  plains.  The  oil- 
cake or  refuse  remaining  after  the  extraction  of  the  oil  is  not  thrown 
away,  but  carefully  preserved,  it  bringing  a  high  price  for  fuel,  being 
specially  adapted  for  certain  uses.  For  example,  the  bakers  of  Jerusa- 
lem prefer  it,  and  consume  large  quantities  of  it  in  heating  their  ovens. 


THE    OLIVE    IN   PALESTINE.  603 

Maturity. — Trees  commence  fruiting  from  the  tenth  to  the  fourteenth 
year.  This  includes  the  time  from  the  first  starting  of  the  young  wild 
olive  trees.  Where  a  very  young  wild  tree  is  grafted,  fruit  may  be 
produced  in  six  years 5  but  this  is  exceptional. 

Yield. — It  is  difficult  to  arrive  at  the  average  yield  per  tree  or  acre. 
A  very  small  tree  may  produce  about  two  measures  of  olives,  or  nearly 
48  pounds,  while  a  large  tree  in  full  bearing  yields  a  crop  of  as  many 
as  twelve  measures.  An  average  yield  for  a  medium-sized  tree,  under 
fair  conditions,  ought  to  reach  from  five  to  eight  measures,  or  from 
about  120  to  190  pounds.  It  is  computed  that  it  takes  a  measure  of 
olives,  or  nearly  24  pounds  of  the  fruit  to  produce  three  quarts  of 
oil.  The  yield  per  acre,  depending  on  so  many  variable  conditions, 
such  as  the  age  of  the  trees,  their  distance  planted  apart,  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  the  culture  bestowed,  etc.,  can  not  be  given  with  any  cer- 
tainty, especially  as  no  statistics  are  kept  here. 

Planting. — The  usual  distance  apart  at  which  trees  are  planted  is 
30  feet ;  but  this  varies.  Often  very  old  trees  are  seen  within  4  or  5 
feet  of  each  other,  and  even  closer,  in  groups  of  from  three  to  five  indi- 
viduals. These  would  seem  to  be  the  descendants  of  one  original  tree, 
the  trunk  of  which,  having  reached  extraordinary  dimensions,  has  de- 
cayed at  the -center,  leaving  those  outstanding  parts  of  the  circum- 
ference separated,  and  finally  forming  several  trees  oat  of  one.  In  fact, 
unless  utterly  rooted  out  an  olive  tree  appears  to  be  indestructible 
and  may  live  to  an  indefinite  age,  and  when  cared  for  will  continue 
bearing  to  the  last.  Tradition  says  that  some  of  the  older  trees  of  Pal- 
estine date  back  to  the  time  of  the  Romans.  The  very  old  trees  in  the 
Garden  of  Gethsemane  are  supposed  to  be  of  the  time  of  Christ.  They 
are  unquestionably  of  extreme  age,  and  the  oldest  olive  trees  I  have 
ever  seen,  yet  those  venerable  trees  bear  annually  a  crop  of  fruit. 

Propagating. — The  olive  tree  is  propagated  by  being  grafted  on  young 
trees  of  the  wild  olive,  which  are  grown  for  the  purpose.  The  young 
wild  trees,  being  planted  at  a  distance  apart  of  about  30  feet  and  at  suf- 
ficient depth  to  prevent  the  disturbance  of  their  roots  by  the  plow,  for 
other  crops  are  always  grown  between  the  trees,  are  generally  watered 
to  insure  their  taking  and  more  rapid  growth.  But  irrigation  is  not 
absolutely  necessary  even  at  this  stage,  and  where  there  is  difficulty  in 
procuring  water,  or  expense  attending  it,  it  is  omitted.  Irrigation, 
however,  unquestionably  produces  a  more  luxuriant  and  satisfactory 
growth.  At  the  age  of  from  eight  to  ten  years  the  young  trees  are 
grafted  with  whatever  varieties  it  is  desired  to  propagate,  and  they  com- 
mence bearing  in  from  three  to  four  years. 

\Vli«»re  tiws  are  totally  neglected  they  frequently  cease  bearing,  but 
it  is  astonishing  how  quickly  they  recover  from  the  most  shameful 
usa^*,  immediately  responding  with  a  crop  to  kindly  treatment. 

There  are  no  printed  reports,  information,  or  statistics  issued  by  the 
Government  or  otherwise. 


604        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Insect  pests. — Insects  injurious  to  the  olive  are  unknown  in  Palestine 
nor  have  any  special  observations  been  made  of  insects  beneficial  to 
the  tree  j  in  fact  we  are  remarkably  free  from  all  trouble  on  the  score 
of  insect  pests,  consequently  little  or  no  attention  has  been  called  to 
the  subject. 

HENRY  GTLLMAN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Jerusalem,  February  10,  1890. 


SYRIA. 
ALEPPO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  POCHE, 
[Republished  from  Consular  Report  No.  41|.] 

In  reply  to  the  circular  which  you  did  me  the  honor  to  address  me 
under  date  of  February  12,  I  make  it  my  duty  to  bring  to  your  notice 
that  oranges  and  lemons  are  not  cultivated  in  Aleppo  owing  to  the 
severely  cold  weather  here  in  winter,  which  is  so  injurious  to  these 
trees. 

OLIVES. 

Varieties. — Four  varieties  are  cultivated  in  this  district : 

(1)  Khul-Tchali,  which  is  only  used  for  pickles  or  preserved  in  vine- 
gar.   This  variety,  which  is  the  best  for  eating,  is  included  in  the  cate- 
gory of  ordinary  olives.    It  is  sweetened  by  being  immersed  in  spring 
water,  in  which  11  to  12  American  pounds  of  natural  soda  have  been  sat- 
urated, with  3  pounds  of  lime  for  about  150  pounds  of  olives.  This  immer- 
sion is  made  when  the  water,  mixed  with  these  matters,  has  become  cold. 
The  olive  berries,  after  being  deposited  in  that  water,  should  be  removed 
without  disturbance,  and  they  lose  their  bitterness  in  from  sixteen  to 
twenty-four  hours.    This  result  being  obtained,  the  olives  are  imme- 
diately placed  into  another  tub  of  well  or  spring  water,  which  must  be 
occasionally  renewed  till  the  taste  of  the  lime  is  removed.    After  this 
operation  the  olives  are  placed  in  pure,  fresh  water,  sufficient  to^  cover 
them,  and  the  tub  is  then  covered  with  a  lid.     They  are  then  left  twenty- 
four  hours,  after  which  they  are  pickled,  and  thus  the  operation  is  com- 
pleted.    Olives  can  also  be  sweetened  by  being  bruised  and  placed  in 
pure  water,  which  is  repeatedly  changed  till  the  fruit  loses  all  its  bitter- 
ness.   When  thus  prepared,  the  olives  are  generally  eaten  in  salad  or 
in  stew. 

(2)  Shami. — This  variety  is  only  gathered  when  the  fruit  has  become 
of  a  dark  color  and  thoroughly  ripe.     When  pressed  till  quite  dry  the 
olives  are  salted  and  preserved  to  be  eaten  with  salad. 

(3)  Zeiti. 

(4)  HuzromiNizibli. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    SYRIA.  605 

These  two  varieties,  although  smaller  than  the  two  others,  are  used 
for  oil,  which  is  obtained  by  means  of  a  lever  or  screw  press,  and  they 
are  gathered  when  the  fruit  has  become  reddish  and  ripe.  The  sweet  oil 
is  obtained  by  a  cold  extraction.  The  olives  after  being  crushed  in  a  mill 
are  placed  in  bags  and  put  under  press.  The  lamp-oil  and  that  used 
for  the  manufacturing  of  soap  is  obtained  by  the  hot  system;  that  is  to 
say,  after  the  first  pressure  the  bags  containing  the  olives  are  submerged 
in  boiling  water  and  pressed  out  again.  The  best  oil  is  obtained  from 
olives  before  they  are  fully  ripe.  A  shumbul,  equal  to  about  147  to  150 
pounds,  gives  12  to  14  pounds  of  oil  in  the  vicinity  of  Aleppo,  while  here 
this  quantity  is  reduced  to  one-half. 

Cultivation. — The  olive  tree  is  reproduced  by  burying  a  piece  of  root, 
having'  many  slips,  in  a  rut  one  yard  deep.  When  these  slips  shoot  forth 
one  of  them  is  cared  for  without  irrigation,  while  the  others  are  de- 
stroyed. At  the  end  of  ten  years  this  tree  begins  to  give  fruit  in  small 
quantities,  but  when  it  reaches  its  fourteenth  year  it  gives  every  other 
year  from  35  t$  38  American  pounds.  The  soil  best  suited  for  the  grow- 
ing of  these  trees  is  the  reddish  or  light  yellow  one ;  the  latter  is,  how- 
ever, preferable.  The  plantation  is  made  without  irrigation  or  manure ; 
a  space  of  about  20  feet  is  left  between  each  tree ;  the  soil  is  plowed  two 
or  three  times  a  year.  The  ground  around  the  tree  should  also  be  dug 
and  turned  over,  and  the  root,  as  well  as  a  part  of  the  trunk,  covered 
with  earth  in  the  form  of  a  mound.  The  tree,  however,  should  be  regu- 
larly pruned  of  the  dry  twigs  every  year. 

F.  POCHE, 
Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Aleppo,  April  16,  1884. 


BEIRUT.* 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  KISSINGER. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  of  olives  in  this  country  are  the  Balady,  the 
Somulimoky  and  the  Soory;  but  the  best  of  these  for  pickling  and  oil 
is  the  Balady.  The  trees  grow  in  the  littoral  and  middling  high  lands. 

Climate. — A  cold  climate  does  not  suit  olive  trees. 

Ii-r'njntion. — Olive  trees  planted  in  soil  suitable  for  irrigation  are 
watered  twice,  when  necessary. 

Cultiration. — The  land  should  be  plowed  four  times  in  the  year. 
OIKV  in  the  beginning  of  winter  in  order  that  the  rains  may  be  absorbed 
by  the  soil,  and  three  times  in  the  spring. 


*Tho  several  reports,  herewith  from  Syria,  with  the  exception  of  the  report  from 
I);iiiiascii.s,  \vcic  forwnrded  l>y  Consul  BisMM^rr.  l»»'in«r  prepared  for  him  by  parties  iu 
the  districts  represented. 


606        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Pruning. — Dry  branches  are  cut  away  only. 

Picking  and  curing. — Olives  begin  to  fall  from  the  trees  in  October, 
and  those  that  do  not  fall  are  gathered  up  to  the  1st  of  January. 
Olives  for  pickling  should  be  picked  when  green. 

Maturity. — Olive  trees  commence  fruiting,  in  some  localities,  ten 
years  after  having  been  planted,  in  others  later. 

Yield.— Each  olive  tree  yields  from  28  pounds  to  112  pounds,  in  pro- 
portion to  its  growth  and  size. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  distance  planted  apart  is  about  18  feet- 
Olive  trees  are  propagated  by  planting  small  trees  in  March  and  April, 
which  must  be  grafted  as  soon  as  they  can  sustain  the  operation. 

ERHARD  BISSINGER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  February  12,  1890. 


BEIRUT. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ROBESON. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Report  No.  41^.] 

There  are  two  varieties  of  olives  cultivated  in  this  district  called,  1st, 
the  smuc-mucky ;  2d,  the  soury  (Tyrian).  The  fruits  of  the  first  variety 
are  poor  and  small,  while  the  soury  are  of  a  larger  size,  thicker  flesh, 
and  richer  sap.  The  best  results  are  obtained  during  the  twentieth  or 
thirtieth  year  after  the  wild  olive  tree  has  been  grafted.  There  are  two 
methods  adopted  in  the  cultivation  of  olives  in  this  district.  The  first 
is  to  transplant  the  wild  olive  shoots  from  their  native  soil  into  the  olive 
groves  and  to  graft  them  on  the  fourth  year  with  grafts  taken  from  a 
cultivated  tree.  Although  this  method  of  cultivation  does  not  procure 
early  crops,  yet  it  is  preferable  to  the  second  method  in  use,  which  is  to 
graft  the  wild  tree  as  soon  as  it  is  transplanted,  because  the  former 
proves  more  productive. 

The  land  where  olive  trees  are  planted  must  be  plowed  four  or  five- 
times  a  year.  Generally  in  this  district  where  the  soil  is  sandy  a  stone 
bench  about  15  inches  high  is  erected  around  the  trunk  of  eacA  olive 
tree  and  filled  with  clay  to  keep  the  soil  near  the  tree  somewhat  cool 
and  damp.  The  queen  olives  of  commerce  are  unknown  in  this  coun- 
try. However,  the  olives  exported  from  this  port  to  Egypt  and  other 
places  are  selected  from  the  Soury  variety.  Olive  trees  come  into  full 
bearing  five  or  six  years  after  they  are  grafted,  and  remain  fruitful  for 
a  great  number  of  years.  The  average  yield  per  acre  of  mature  trees 
is  about  200  Turkish  bushels  (8,250  pounds).  Five  gallons  of  olives 
produce  one  gallon  of  oil.  Olive  trees  are  commonly  planted  30  feet 
apart.  Olives  intended  for  pickling  are  gathered  about  the  end  of  No- 
vember, then  lightly  bruised,  and  after  being  spread  on  mats  to  dry  in 


THE    OLIVE    IN   SYRIA.  607 

the  air  for  a  few  days,  they  are  placed  in  earthen  or  glass  vases  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  salt  in  them  to  pickle. 

Olives  for  oil  are  picked  as  they  ripen  until  the  end  of  December. 
The  best  results  are  obtained  on  table-land  protected  from  high  winds. 
The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  olive  trees  is  a  reddish  porous 
land  or  dark -brown  rich  soil.  There  is  not  any  system  of  artificial  irri- 
gation in  use  for  olive  culture.  Olive  trees  are  never  watered.  In  re- 
gard to  the  yield  and  proceeds  they  are  as  stated  above.  The  cost  of 
cult  i  vat  ion  per  acre  per  annum  may  be  set  down  at  $10.50,  not  includ- 
ing the  Government  taxes.  The  nearest  olive  orchards  to  the  coast  are 
situated  at  about  1  mile  from  the  sea-side,  and  extend  from  that  dis- 
tance to  places  2,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  However,  those 
planted  in  the  high  mountains,  where  cold  is  intense  and  snow  falls  an- 
nually do  not  succeed  as  elsewhere. 

The  average  annual  rain-fall  in  this  district  is  38  inches,  but  the 
necessary  rain  for  the  growing  of  olives  is  30  inches,  which  is  quite 
enough.  Olive  trees  in  this  country  bear  good  crops  only  every  other 
year. 

.     JOHN  T.  ROBESON, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  May  3,  1884. 


DAMASCUS. 
REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  MESHAKA. 

Varieties. — The  names  of  the  best  varieties  for  pickled  olives  are 
tin-  u  Masaabee"  and  the  u  Julut"  olives,  and  the  name  of  the  best  va- 
riety for  olive  oil  is  the  "  Dan"  olives,  The  other  choice  varieties  for 
pickles  (eating),  and  oil,  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit,  are  the  u  Sas- 
safi ''  and  "  Maulee"  olives. 

The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  here  given  are  grown  in  the 
neighboring  villages  of  Damascus. 

Wtufirion. — They  are  located  at  a  distance  of  70  to  80  miles  from  the 
sea.  and  about  2.300  feet  above  sea-level. 

Olive  trees  are  well  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  grow  upon  hilly,  rolling, 
and  level  land,  but  the  latter  soil  is  the  best. 

Climatic  influence. — Olive  trees  are  not  affected  by  the  heat  or  cold. 

It  is  impracticable  to  tell  about  the  temperature  in  villages,  agri- 
culturists not  having  a  thermometer.  Damascus  temperature  in  winter 
in  Fahrenheit  is  not  lower  than  22°  and  in  summer  is  not  beyond  95° 
in  the  shade. 

Kfihi -fall— Thero  is  no  rain-gauge. 

Tin*  rain  fall,  in  December  and  January,  agrees  with  the  growth  of 
trees  and  fruits.  The  quantity  of  rain  can  not  be  stated  for  the  reason 
above  mentioned. 


608        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Irrigation. — Olive  trees  when  planted  are  irrigated  once  a  fortnight 
for  the  first  year,  excepting  February.  In  subsequent  years  they  are 
irrigated  twice  per  annum,  once  during  the  first  forty  days  of  the  winter 
season,  and  the  second  time  during  the  same  period  of  the  summer 
season. 

Cultivation. — Lands  of  olive  trees  are  cultivated  twice  a  year,  once  in 
December  and  another  time  in  March. 

Pruning. — Olive  trees  are  only  pruned  after  the  third  year  of  their 
planting  by  taking  away  what  may  be  growing  around  their  trunk. 

Picking. — Olive  fruits  are  picked  green  in  October  and  ripe  in  De- 
cember and  January.  The  fruits  are  picked  green  for  pickling  and  ripe 
for  pickling  and  making  oil. 

Curing. — The  next  step,  after  picking  the  green  olives,  is  to  prepare 
them  for  pickling,  and  the  ripe  olives  to  extract  their  oil  and  to  prepare 
them  for  pickling  also.  The  process  of  pickling  the  ripe  olives  is  to 
press  them  in  a  basket  several  days  until  the  bitterness  disappears,  then 
they  are  washed  with  water,  dried  a  little,  salted,  and  put  in  oil  for  use. 

The  green  olive  (the  Masaabee)  is  commonly  used  and  prepared  in 
the  following  manner:  One-half  pound  of  alkali  and  one-quarter  pound 
of  lime,  both  dissolved  in  water  and  put  with  5J  pounds  of  green  olives 
in  a  vessel  for  a  period  of  about  a  week,  with  a  little  shaking  every 
day  until  the  bitterness  disappears,  when  they  are  washed  and  put  in 
salt  water  for  use;  or  green  olives  are  put  in  salt  water  several  months 
until  the  bitterness  disappears,  then  bruised  gently  and  placed  in  oil 
for  use. 

The  process  of  extracting  oil  is  as  follows :  Ripe  olives  are  placed  in 
a  warm  place  for  about  four  days,  then  crushed  by  a  heavy  roller  and 
put  in  baskets  under  pressure  by  side  of  a  vat  until  the  juice  flows  into 
it.  There  the  oil  is  gathered  from  the  surface  of  the  water,  ready  for 
market. 

Maturity. — Olive  trees  commence  fruiting  at  three  years  of  age  after 
planting  and  are  in  full  bearing  at  about  twenty. 

Yield. — The  average  yield  of  a  mature  olive  tree  is  about  430  pounds 
of  olives,  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  soil ;  but  olive  trees  bear  only 
every  other  year. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Olive  trees  are  planted  at  17  to  20  feet 
apart,  and  propagated  from  young  olive  plants  springing  up  abound  a 
mature  olive  tree;  they  are  disjointed  with  a  piece  from  the  old  tree  to 
serve  as  a  root.  If  the  soil  where  they  are  to  be  transplanted  is  not 
stony  a  few  stones  are  placed  under  them ;  most  of  their  trunks  are 
wrapped  in  straw  and  some  clay  is  put  upon  the  top  of  these  plants  for 
their  protection  from  the  sun  and  birds  during  the  first  year's  growth. 

Insect  pests. — When  hail  falls  upon  the  olive  fruits  a  small  worm 
infests  them,  but  there  is  no  treatment  therefor. 

NASIF  MESHAKA, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY,  Consular  Agent. 

Damascus,  January  10,  1890. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    SYRIA.  609 

HAIFA. 
REPORT  JiY  CONSULAR  AGENT  SCHUMACHER. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  for  pickling  is  the  "  Irrsezy  "  (Arabic 
name),  u  pale  green  olive,  with  a  thin  skin.  The  best  variety  for  oil  is 
the  "  Melisey,"  and  "  Syrian,"  a  dark  brown  olive. 

There  are  two  distinct  varieties  grown  in  this  district ;  the  one  is  called 
the  summer,  the  other  the  winter  olive;  the  first  produces  a  better  oil 
than  the  latter.  Both  kinds  are  pickled,  but  the  white  olives  are  pre- 
ferred. The  summer  olives  are  the  most  profitable,  and  can  be  recom- 
mended for  culture,  as  they  are  the  best  for  producing  the  finest  oil  and 
equally  good  for  eating. 

Situation. — The  natives  claim  that  trees  planted  on  hill  sides  produce 
a  finer  oil  than  those  in  the  plain.  The  distances  from  sea  are  quite  dif- 
ferent, as  the  olive  trees  are  spread  over  the  whole  country,  say  from  2 
to  100  miles.  The  trees  are  planted  from  10  to  500  meters  apart,  and  are 
exposed  to  the  sun  without  injury  even  in  the  hottest  weather.  The 
olive  trees  in  my  district  are  mostly  planted  on  hilly  land  in  sandy 
black  soil.  But  they  grow  also  well  in  rolling  and  level  land,  only  not 
so  luxuriant  as  in  the  above-named  soil. 

Climatic  influence.— &hv  climate  of  Syria  is  good  for  the  culture  of 
olive  trees,  as  frosts  hardly  ever  occur.  Temperature,  minimum  2°-f-R. ; 
maximum  33°  to  35°+  R.;  average  20°  to  25° 4-  E. 

Rain-fall  from  1  foot  7£  inches  to  3  feet  3  inches  all  year.  If  rain 
falls  after  the  summer  olives  are  ripe  it  is  disastrous  for  the  fruit.  The 
olives  become  bloated  and  filled  with  water,  and  the  oil  in  them  goes 
back  and  is  lost. 

Irrigation. — The  olive  tree  is  irrigated  only  for  the  first  two  or  three 
years,  but  not  more ;  say  once  a  week ;  after  that  no  irrigation  takes 
place. 

Cultivation. — The  best  time  for  cultivation  is  early  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son ;  say  after  the  first  rain  has  Mien  in  ^November,  or  December. 

Pruning. — The  trees  are  pruned  in  the  fall ;  the  foliage  must  not  be 
abundant.  The  natives  say  the  tree  must  be  pruned  so  that  one  can 
see  through  the  foliage. 

Picking. — The  fruit  is  picked  or  gathered  when  nearly  ripe,  both  for 
pickling  and  oil.  Olives  are  not  pickled  here  for  the  market;  for  home 
use  they  are  put  in  fresh  water  for  a  day  or  two,  and  then  put  into 
stone  jars  containing  salt  brine  and  well  covered. 

0/7. — The  natives  make  no  good  oil  here ;  they  take  large  heaps  of 
the  olives  and  then  grind  them  under  large  upright  circular  stones, 
which  revolve  on  a  circular  base.  The  pulp  is  then  put  in  round  press 
baskets,  made  of  cane  fibers,  and  pressed.  The  bulk  of  the  oil  pro- 
duced by  the  natives  is  not  fit  for  table  use;  it  is  mostly  exported  to 
France  for  illuminating  and  lubricating  purposes. 


610  FRtTIT   CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Maturity. — The  trees  begin  to  bear  after  seven  or  eight  years. 

Yield.—- The  average  yield  of  a  tree  is  100  to  150  kilograms. 

Planting  and  propagating. — They  are  planted  about  25  to  30  feet 
apart,  in  regular  rows.  They  are  planted  as  wild  saplings,  which  grow 
abundantly  on  the  mountains;  after  a  year  or  two  they  are  grafted. 

The  Government  makes  no  statistics,  neither  are  there  any  issued  by 
dealers  or  producers. 

Insect  pests. — There  are  no  insect  pests  here  that  injure  the  trees.  The 
greatest  danger  to  olives  is  the  hot  wind  (sirocco),  which  occurs  some- 
times during  and  after  blossoming,  which  causes  the  blossom  on  the 
young  fruit  to  fall  off,  so  that  some  years  the  entire  crop  is  lost  thereby. 

JACOB  SCHUMACHER, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Acca  and  Haifa,  December  5,  1889. 


SH  WAYFAT.  * 

Varieties. — The  best  olives  for  pickling  are  the  black  olive,  called 
Shatawy,  and  the  green,  called  Sourri;  the  best  for  oil  are  the  black, 
of  the  Shatawy  kind,  which  have  small  pits  and  thick  flesh  if  sufficient 
rain-fall  takes  place,  while  the  Sourri  green  olives  are  good  for  oil, 
with  or  without  sufficient  rain.  Other  choice  varieties  are  the  Damas- 
cus and  Egypt  olives,  both  of  large  and  small  size. 

/Situation.— They  grow  in  the  littoral  in  general  and  in  high  places  up 
to  an  altitude  of  3,000  feet  and  even  higher.  The  particular  region  in 
the  vicinity  of  Beirut,  where  olive  trees  grow,  is  the  village  of  Sh way- 
fat,  in  the  "  Shoof "  district,  as  well  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  Tripoli, 
the  southern  part  of  the  Lebanon,  and  in  the  interior.  The  exposure  to 
the  sun  is  of  vital  importance.  Hilly,  rolling,  and  level,  but  the  latter 
is  the  best. 

Boil. — Olive  trees  grow  in  all  kinds  of  soil,  but  the  red  is  preferable. 

Climate. — Such  as  the  degrees  of  heat  which  prevail  in  Beirut  40°  to 
90°  Fahr.,  and  in  the  mountains  30°  to  88°  Fahr. 

Rain-fall  from  30  to  40  inches  is  needed  ;  less  than  30  would  injuri- 
ously affect  olive  trees,  especially  in  the  littoral.  Rain-fall  influences 
the  growth  of  the  tree  and  its  production;  as  to  quantity  of  the  same 
it  is  stated  above.  The  October  rains  benefit  the  fruit,  and  the  rains  in 
December  and  January  benefit  the  trees. 

Irrigation.— (y\\\^^  trees  prosper  best  with  rain-water;  irrigation  di- 
minishes the  quantity  of  oil  in  the  fruit,  while  it  increases  the  growth 
of  the  tree. 

*  Thin  report  was  prepared  by  the  proprietor  of  an  olive  grove  at  Shwayfat,  near 
Beirut,  for  Consul  Bissinger. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    SYRIA.  611 

Cultivation.— Plowing  must  be  done  early  in  the  spring,  not  less  thiui 
four  times  ;  live  times  is  still  better.  Plowing  is  still  done  by  means 
of  the  old  primitive  implement. 

Pruning. — Olive  trees  are  not  pruned;  the  dead  branches  only  should 
be  removed  before  the  tree  is  in  blossom  in  the  spring. 

Picking. — When  fully  ripe  and  turning  black;  the  green  in  Septem- 
ber and  October  and  the  black  after  this  date.  Olives  can  be  preserved 
when  green,  i.  e.,  before  they  get  black. 

Curing. — After  picking  the  olives,  heaping  together  should  be  avoided 
in  order  to  keep  them  cool  and  prevent  fermentation. 

Oil. — Olives  are  first  crushed  under  a  cylindric  millstone,  then 
placed  in  bags  made  of  goats'  skin  and  pressed  with  a  hydraulic  press. 
In  this  way  oil  is  extracted  from  olives.  Sweet  oil  is  obtained  from 
olives  that  are  fully  ripe.  Bitter  oil  is  produced  either  from  dried 
olives  or  from  olives  that  have  been  left  for  some  time  heaped  up 
together,  or  by  the  residue  of  olives  that  had  been  pressed.  This 
residue,  after  being  placed  in  large  boilers  over  the  fire  until  it  is 
heated,  is  sprinkled  with  water  and  pressed  again  with  hydraulic 
presses. 

Pickling. — The  process  of  pickling  olives  is  as  follows:  Olives  are 
gathered  before  they  turn  black ;  i.  e.,  when  they  are  yet  green,  and 
after  removing  all  the  dry  and  decayed  or  spoiled  olives  they  are  placed 
in  water  salted  to  a  degree  which  would  cause  an  egg  to  float  thereon. 
The  spoiled  olives,  and  even  the  good  ones,  are  sometimes  bruised  and 
pickled  in  salted  water ;  in  this  way  olives  get  sweet  quicker  than  when 
not  bruised.  The  process  of  pickling  black  olives  is  to  place  them  in  a 
shallow  receptacle  for  seven  days,  during  which  they  are  every  day 
sprinkled  with  salt  in  proportion  of  10  ounces  to  6  pounds  and  stirred 
up  so  as  to  be  well  soaked  with  salt,  after  which  they  can  be  either 
pickled  by  being  placed  in  vases  containing  the  salt- water  that  remains 
in  the  receptacle  or  in  one  containing  some  sweet  oil.  After  olives  are 
pickled,  as  above  stated,  it  is  always  well  to  sprinkle  some  salt  and 
spread  olive  leaves  on  the  surface.  Pickling  the  Damascus  green  olives 
is  effected  by  placing  them  in  water  in  which  alkali  (in  the  proportion 
of  2  ounces  to  the  6  pounds)  and  lime  (in  the  proportion  of  1  ounce  to 
the  6  pounds)  have  been  dissolved  for  twenty-four  hours.  After  which 
a  bath  of  sweet  water  is  to  be  applied  and  renewed  for  three  or  four 
days  until  the  taste  of  the  alkali  and  lime  has  disappeared;  they  are 
then  pickled  and  placed  in  vases  filled  with  salt  water.  Black  Damas- 
cus olives  are  pickled  as  follows :  Stir  them  for  a  week  in  salt,  then 
spread  them  in  the  sun  for  one  day  to  dry,  then  put  them  in  oil. 

Maturity. — Olive  trees  begin  fruiting  when  they  are  fifteen  years  old ; 
in  a  good  soil,  from  the  eighth  year. 

Yield. — The  average  annual  production  of  an  olive  tree  is  valued  at 
from  -J5  to  .'50  piasters  (89  cents  to  $1.07).  In  the  year  of  fertility  (olive 
trees  produce  every  other  year  only),  it  is  estimated  to  be  double  that 
amount. 


612        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Distance  planted  apart,  from  21  to  30  feet. 
Olive  trees  are  propagated  by  planting,  in  January  or  February,  to  the 
depth  of  2  feet,  the  suckers  that  grow  at  the  foot  of  the  mother  tree 
or  by  planting,  like  the  last,  wild  shrubs  and  grafting  them. 

Insect  pests. — No  insects  infest  olive  trees.  A  small  kind  of  worm  is 
sometimes  found  in  the  fruit,  but  no  special  process  of  treatment  is 
adopted  or  known. 

SIDON. 

Varieties. — "Belady"  for  pickling,  also  "Smuktnuky"  for  oil.  Other 
kinds  cultivated  are  the  "  Kolb-el-Tayar  n  and  "Korka-wa-Sisan." 

Situation. — Both  in  the  plains  and  in  the  mountains  near  the  coast, 
and  up  to  about  3,000  feet ;  sloping  and  hilly  land,  red  and  white 
clayey  soil  are  best. 

Climate. — Bountiful  rains  benefit  olives. 

Irrigation. — Not  needed. 

Cultivation. — Plowing  necessary  three  times  in  the  spring. 

Pruning. — Pruning  not  necessary. 

Picking  and  curing. — For  pickling  the  fruit  is  picked  whileyet  unripe ; 
for  oil  when  fully  ripe.  For  pickling  put  in  salt  and  water.  Olives  are 
crushed  by  large  rolling  stones,  then  put  either  under  heavy  pressure 
or  into  hot  water  and  the  oil  skimmed  off  the  surface. 

Maturity. — From  the  sixth  year  upward. 

Yield — Exact  yield  unknown. 

Planting. — About  20  feet,  and  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting. 

Insects. — No  insect  pests. 

ERHARD  BISSINGER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE*, 

Beirut,  February  12,  1890. 


SIDON. 

REPORT  EY  CONSULAR  AGENT  A  EEL  A. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41^.]  ^ 

Varieties. — Smuc-muky,  small  berry,  little  meat,  but  full  of  oil.  Belady, 
larger  and  more  meat,  and  is  the  best  variety. 

Cultivation. — Wild  olive  shoots  are  planted  and  then  grafted,  after 
which  the  only  care  they  receive  is  an  occasional  plowing,  except  that 
the  earth  is  often  banked  about  the  trunk  to  the  depth  of  10  inches. 
The  young  trees  are  set  out  at  a  distance  of  20  feet  apart.  No  irriga- 
tion whatever  allowed. 

Bearing. — After  being  planted  and  grafted  the  trees  soon  begin  to 
bear  berries,  but  the  growth  is  very  slow  and  the  increase  in  the  amount 
of  fruit  very  gradual. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    SYRIA.  613 

Oil. — As  nearly  as  can  be  estimated  the  average  yield  per  acre  is 
about  40  bushels  of  berries  for  mature  trees.  As  the  liquid  measure  of 
this  laud  is  based  on  the  weight  of  the  articles  measured,  it  is  custom- 
ary to  estimate  that  iv.  bushel  of  berries  will  produce  about  12  pounds 
of  oil ;  but  the  relation  of  the  yield  of  berries  to  the  amount  of  oil  is  a 
very  varying  one,  differing  according  to  the  season  and  the  rude  meth- 
ods used  for  extracting  oil.  After  the  olive  has  been  crushed  or  bruised 
the  pulp  is  treated  either  by  being  put  into  water  and  the  oil  is  skimmed 
from  the  top,  or  else  the  pulp  is  pressed  under  a  lever  with  weights  at 
the  end  or  by  a  screw-press.  All  these  appliances  are  of  the  most 
clumsy  pattern.  Two  methods  are  used  in  preparing  olives  for  table 
food,  according  as  green  or  black  olives  are  required.  For  green  olives 
the  fruit  is  picked  before  ripening,  and  only  those  berries  are  selected 
which  are  wholly  free  from  any  bruises.  The  fruit  is  placed  in  salt  and 
water,  and  takes  some  time  in  curing.  The  black,  ripe  berry  is  very 
soon  prepared  for  the  table  by  being  artificially  crushed  and  then  cured 
with  salt. 

Location. — The  olive  tree  is  very  hardy,  and  thrives  both  near  the 
coast  and  in  the  mountains,  where  it  is  found  at  an  elevation  of  3,000 
feet,  but  the  weight  of  snow  does  great  damage  by  breaking  down  the 
little  branches.  The  best  soil  is  the  red  porous  soil  of  the  hills  and 
stony,  rocky  ground.  The  annual  rain-fall  of  this  land  is  about  32 
inches.  As  most  of  this  falls  in  half  the  year,  the  olive  thrives  best 
when  planted  on  slopes  where  the  rain  soon  drains  off. 

SHIBLY  ABELA, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Sidon,  February  21,  1884. 


TRIPOLI. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  KISSINGER,  OF  BEIRUT. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  for  pickling  for  olive  oil  and  profit  is  the 
u  Sourri "  olive. 

Soil. — Bed  richly  manured  soil  is  best. 

Manure. — Manure  is  to  be  used  in  winter,  and  every  tree  needs  about 
112  pounds. 

Situation. — Distance  from  the  sea  is  immaterial.  The  position  should 
be  low,  protected  from  the  wind,  but  exposed  to  the  sun. 

Rains. — Plentiful  rains  benefit  the  fruit.  Early  rains,  i.  e.,  from  Sep- 
tember and  on,  are  preferable. 

Irrigation. — Olive  trees  need  not  be  irrigated. 

Cultivation. — Plowing  is  necessary  three  times  in  the  spring,  i.  e.,  once 
every  fortnight. 

Pruning. — Dry  branches  only  are  pruned. 


614        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

PicMing.—For  pickling,  olives  must  be  picked  while  yet  unripe  and 
before  they  get  black.  For  oil,  whenever  olives  drop  from  the  tree. 
The  fruit  that  remains  on  the  tree  is  picked  early  in  December. 

OH, — For  the  extraction  of  oil,  olives  must  be  spread  ten  or  twelve 
days  after  being  gathered,  then  pressed. 
Maturity. — At  the  age  of  from  seven  to  eight  years. 
Yield. — The  yield  is  proportional  to  the  growth  of  the  trees. 
Planting  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  planted  about  5  yards  apart, 
and  propagated  by  budding  or  grafting. 

ERHARD  BISSINOER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirvt,  February  12,  1890. 


TRIPOLI. 

REPORT  BY  ACTING  CONSULAR  AGENT  TANNI. 
[Republialied  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41$.] 

Varieties. — All  the  olives  of  this  district  are  of  one  kind,  known  as 
the  Olea  vulgaris. 

Orchards. — Olive  trees  are  planted  in  two  ways.  The  first  is  trans- 
planting, the  ground  is  prepared  by  digging  large  trenches  3  or  more 
feet  deep  in  which  old  domesticated  or  wild  olive  trees  are  planted.  The 
land  is  plowed  four  or  five  times  a  year.  The  wild  olive  is  grafted  in 
the  fourth  year  after  transplanting.  This  method  delays  the  crop,  but 
is  more  successful  than  that  employed  in  Lattakia,  where  the  wild  olive 
is  grafted  at  the  time  of  its  transplanting,  in  order  to  hasten  the  crop. 
The  loss  in  death  of  the  trees  is  very  heavy  in  consequence.  The  second 
method,  which  is  good  and  less  expensive,  is  to  plant  the  shoots  or 
suckers  grown  on  the  trunks  of  old  trees.  In  most  of  the  new  planta- 
tions the  mulberry  is  planted  at  the  same  time  and  place  with  the  olive 
shoot.  The  mulberry  grows  rapidly,  supports  the  olive  plant,  and  gives 
good  crops  of  leaves  for  the  culture  of  silk,  till  the  olive  tree,  which  is 
of  slow  growth,  begins  to  bear  fruit,  by  which  time  the  mulberry  dies. 
These  young  olive  trees  require  constant  care  to  hasten  their  growth. 
Neglect  in  cultivating  does  not  seem  to  greatly  affect  the  product  of  old 
trees.  To  keep  olive  trees  in  good  condition  they  require  either  fertil- 
izers or  a  change  of  earth  about  the  roots  of  the  trees.  The  latter 
method  is  usually  employed. 

1  am  unable  to  give  any  information  concerning  the  queen  olives  of 
commerce,  since  this  sort  is  not  found  in  the  districts  around  Tripoli. 

Maturity. — Transplanted  trees  come  into  full  bearing  after  their  tenth 
year,  while  plantations  of  shoots  do  not  attain  their  maturity  before 
their  twentieth  year.  As  to  the  age  these  trees  can  live,  it  is  not 
known,  but  it  is  estimated  that  the  groves  around  Tripoli  are  of  great 
antiquity. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    SYRIA.  615 

Yield. — If  we  suppose  an  acre  of  laud  to  contain  fifty  mature  trees,  well 
cared  for,  they  will  yield  about  1,800  pounds  of  olives,  worth  about  $25 ; 
the  cost  of  cultivation  should  not  exceed  $2. 

If  the  olives  are  of  £ood  quality,  1,800  pounds  will  yield  from  500  to 
550  pounds  of  oil. 

Wanting. — In  the  old  plantations  no  rule  is  observed,  but  in  the  new 
ones  a  space  of  30  or  40  feet  is  left  between  the  trees. 

Picking. — Olives  are  gathered  green  for  pickling.  Olives  are  gath- 
ered for  their  oil  when  ripe,  and  the  longer  they  remain  on  the  tree  the 
greater  the  amount  of  oil. 

Olives  arc  prepared  for  the  table  in  two  ways:  The  first  is  to  break 
the  fruit  by  a  slight  blow  of  a  hammer,  after  which  it  is  abundantly 
sprinkled  with  salt,  in  which  it  remains  two  or  three  days,  when  it  is 
put  iii  pickle.  This  method  gives  a  speedy  result.  The  second  method 
is  to  take  chosen  green  olives  and  put  them  in  pickle.  This  pickle  is 
tested  by  the  people  as  follows  :  an  egg  is  put  into  it  and  the  brine  is 
strengthened  till  the  egg  floats.  Olives  prepared  in  this  way  remain 
sound  and  good  for  a  long  time.  They  even  preserve  their  green  color 
for  three  or  four  years. 

Oil. — As  to  the  manner  of  extracting  the  oil  the  people  employ  one  of 
three  methods: 

The  presses  or  maassirs.  In  the  middle  of  a  large  room  is  a  circular 
stone  about  5  feet  in  diameter,  with  a  large  hollow  in  the  top.  Within 
this  hollow  a  millstone  is  made  to  revolve  on  its  edge  by  means  of  a 
shaft  and  an  upright  post.  The  millstone  is  driven  round  and  round 
either  by  men  or  horse-power,  crushing  the  olives  into  a  pulpy  mass. 
The  press  consists  of  the  trunk  of  a  tree,  which  has  been  hollowed  out 
by  a  mortise  some  .5  or  6  feet  long.  This  log  stands  upright  over  a  largo 
jar  or  cistern.  The  olive  pulp  is  put  into  small  hay  baskets,  which  are 
piled  in  the  hollow  log,  and  over  the  top  of  them  passes  a  long,  heavy 
bar,  which  presses  down  upon  these  baskets,  the  pressure  being  in- 
creased by  heavy  weights  suspended  at  the  end  of  the  bar.  The  oil 
descends  into  the  vessel  below,  which  is  partially  filled  with  water,  and 
the  workmen  use  their  hands  for  dipping  the  oil  from  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

These  mills  are  the  same  as  those  for  grinding  wheat.  The  only 
respect  in  which  they  differ  from  the  preceding  process  is  the  using  of 
revolving  knives,  which  cut  the  pulp  from  the  olive  seed  instead  of 
crushing  the  entire  berry. 

In  the  northern  districts  of  Lafita  and  Akkar  the  people  employ  a 
ruder  method  for  pressing  the  crushed  olives.  They  put  the  pulp  into 
vessels  of  water  and  press  it  with  their  hands,  and  finally  skim  the  oil 
from  the  surface  with  their  hands. 

Moil. — The  best  soil  for  the  olive  tree  is  the  alluvial.   In  limestone  and 
chalky  soils  the  trees  grow  more  rapidly,  and  become  strong,  but  are  less 
fruitful.    The,  quantity  of  oil  yielded  by  their  berries  is  much  less  than 
the  average  product  of  others. 
156A 15 


616        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Irrigation. — Olive  trees  are  Dot  irrigated. 

Situation. — At  Kaliuim  the  orchards  are  very  near  the  sea,  with  a 
northwestern  exposure. 

Rain-fall. — Though  we  have  no  meteorological  observatory  in  Tripoli, 
still  we  consider  the  rain-fall  in  the  city  a  little  more  than  ttiat  of  Beirut, 
say  about  40  to  42  inches  per  annum. 

G.  YANNI, 

Acting  Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Tripoli,  March  IS,  1884. 


AUSTRALASIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GRIFFIN,  OF  SYDNEY. 

Mr.  J.  H.  Maiden,  F.  E.  G.  S.,  curator  of  the  technological  museum^ 
Sydney,  and  author  of  an  interesting  and  valuable  paper  on  olives  and 
olive-oil,  mentions  two  species  of  oleas,  Oleapaniculata  and  Olcaapetala 
as  indigenous  in  New  South  Wales.  This  fact  he  thinks  shows  that  the 
climate  here  will  be  found  suitable  for  olives  generally.  It  is  certain 
that  many  varieties  of  the  olive  tree  producing  fruit  that  have  been 
planted  here  and  in  other  parts  of  Australasia  have  done  exceedingly 
well,  but  the  fact  nevertheless  remains  that  olive  culture  has  not  yet 
proved  to  be  of  any  commercial  or  economic  value,  except,  perhaps,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Adelaide,  in  South  Australia,  audjeveu  there  it  is  not  re- 
garded as  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  included  in  the  statistical  returns 
of  the  government  relating  to  area  under  crop,  but  the  returns  of  exports 
show  that,  in  1887, 517  gallons  of  olive-oil,  the  produce  of  the  colony, 
were  exported,  and  in  1888  419  gallons. 

Sir  Samuel  Davenport,  who  is  an  authority  on  olive  growing  in  Aus- 
tralia, informs  me  that  his  plantation,  which  is  the  largest  in  Australasia, 
contains  about  1,500  trees, 

placed  as  boundary  lines  inside  vineyards  and  in  occasional  odd  corner  lands.  Al- 
though you  may  meet  with  a  few  olive  trees  in  public  and  private  grounds,  where 
the  climate  is  adapted  for  their  growth,  there  are  only  a  few  individuals  wh^>  pay  the 
cultivation  any  attention.  Beyond  my  own  fruit,  I  usually  buy  olives  off  trees  in  my 
neighborhood,  so  that  annually  I  make  from  1,200  to  1,500  gallons  of  oil.  A  few  other 
persons  make  a  little  but  the  whole  production  is  relatively  insignificant,  nor  can  bo 
worthy  of  notice  until  our  people  wake  up  to  the  fact  that  the  olive  tree  is^me  that 
they  should,  in  their  own  interests,  largely  grow. 

Among  the  varieties  cultivated  by  Sir  Samuel  for  oil  are  the  French 
Blanquette,  Blanquettier,  Yerdale,  Pendulier,  Italian — that  of  Lucca; 
Spanish,  a  few  kinds,  whose  names  he  has  not  given  me.  He  has 
nearly  all  the  best  known  varieties  used  for  oil  and  several  that  are 
used  for  pickling,  such  as  the  big  Spanish,  which,  however,  gives  but 
little  oil. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    AUSTRALASIA.  617 

Sir  Samuel  Davenport  occasionally  supplies  truncheons  for  starting- 
plantations.  Several  thousand  of  these  were  sent  to  other  parts  of 
Australia  last  year  for  this  purpose,  the  truncheon  being  the  quickest 
and  surest  way  of  propagating  the  olive.  The  trees  begin  to  bear  at 
seven  years  of  age  and  give  about  one  gallon  of  oil  from  each  tree. 
The  fruit  ripens  in  June  and  picking  is  continued  through  July  and 
August.  There  is  a  plantation  of  100  acres  at  a  place  called  Stony 
Field,  not  far  from  Sir  Samuel  Davenport's  property.  The  land  is,  how- 
ever, very  poor,  and  it  is  said  will  not  grow  anything  but  olives.  A 
calcareous  soil  appears  to  be  the  best  suited  for  olive  culture.  Sir  Sam- 
uel Davenport  says: 

The  calcareous  nature  of  the  soil  around  Adelaide  and  the  wariu  and  dry  climate 
assist  in  bringing  the-olive  as  well  as  the  vine  to  perfection. 

He  adds : 

It  is  fortunate'  for  the  laborers  as  well  as  for  the  farmers  that  the  olive  harvest  fol- 
lows on  the  vintage,  as  the  vintage  follows  on  the  harvest  times  of  wheat  and  other 
grain. 

Sir  Samuel,  when  examined  by  the  Victorian  Royal  Commission  on 
Vegetable  Products,  stated : 

In  Adelaide,  and  from  100  to  200  miles  from  that  city,  there  is  a  very  sunny  entrance 
to  summer,  and  the  summer  itself  is  also  warm  enough.  The  characteristics  of  a 
cultivation  to  suit  a  dry  soil  consist  very  much  of  plants  which  have  a  woody  char- 
acter and  coM.sci|u<'iit]y  are  better  able  to  resist  the  effects  of  long  heats,  and  for  that 
purpose  all  the  South  Australian  soil,  he  thought,  should  be  worked  to  agreat  depth. 
The  olive  tree  is  delicate  when  flowering  and  will  not  fructify  if  much  moisture  is 
used. 

There  is  attached  to  the  Aadelaide  gaol  an  olive  plantation  of  about  50 
acres.  Some  of  the  trees  are  very  valuable.  The  soil  consists  of  choc- 
olate loam.  It  is  well  manured  and  irrigated.  The  yield  of  fruit  is 
something  enormous.  The  branches  are  often  so  heavily  laden  that 
they  have  to  be  propped  up  in  order  to  sustain  the  fruit.  Two  hundred 
and  fifty  of  the  best  trees  were  imported  from  the  grove  of  Count  Spada 
by  Mr.  \V.  II.  Boothby,  formerly  mayor  of  Adelaide,  and  the  trees  in 
the  plantation  are  usually  worked  from  the  same  stock. 

The  olive  groves  of  South  Australia  are  located  from  about  10  to  50 
miles  from  the  sea-coast  and  at  an  elevation  of  from  150  feet  to  200  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  average  [rain-fall  for  a  term  of  years  is  about  22 
inches,  although  in  some  years  it  falls  as  low  as  13  inches.  The  aver- 
age reading  of  the  barometer  is  30.652  inches,  and  the  average  temper- 
ature 6-i0  above  zero.  The  maximum  110°,  and  the  minimum  30°. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  OIL. 

The  method  pursued  by  Sir  Samuel  Davenport  is  to  take  the  ripe 
fruit  and  crush  it  into  pulp  in  mill  on  the  Chilian  mill  principle.  This 
mill  consists  of  two  granite  wheels,  each  weighing  7  tons,  revolving  in  a 


618        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

circular  granite  receptacle,  worked  by  horse-power  like  a  pudding-mill. 
About  100  pounds  of  fruit  are  pulped  at  one  crushing.  The  time  occu- 
pied is  usually  about  twenty  minutes.  The  pulp  is  then  placed  in  an 
oval  rice  sack  and  the  oil  pressed  out  in  a  press  of  rather  peculiar  con- 
struction. 

The  sacks  are  placed  one  on  top  of  another  inclosed  in  a  strong  iron-bound  frame, 
resting  on  a  cemented  bottom  with  a  false  bottom  grooved,  so  as  to  allow  the  oil  to  run 
away.  Pressure  is  applied  with  a  piece  of  wood,  called  a  tongue,  which  is  attached 
to  a  heavy  beam  or  lever. 

It  appears  that  this  kind  of  pressure,  which  is  perpendicular,  has 
been  found  by  experience  to  extract  the  oil  better  than  a  screw  press, 
which  it  is  said  confines  the  oil  in  the  pulp,  while  the  slow,  steady  press- 
ure of  the  lever  causes  it  to  trickle  through  the  bags.  The  oil  of  the 
first  pressure  is  called  u  virgin  oil,'7  and  the  report  on  some  sent  by  Sir 
Samuel  Davenport  to  Italy  was,  "that  it  resembles  the  *  sublime  'oil 
more  than  the  oil  of  commerce."  The  oil  of  the  second  pressure  is  of 
inferior  quality  and  is  run  into  slate  cisterns  kept  specially  for  its  re- 
ception. This  quality  of  oil  is  used  by  manufacturers  and  sold  at  a  lower 
price  than  virgin  oil.  The  utmost  cleanliness  is  practiced  in  the  process 
throughout,  the  mills  and  presses  being  washed  every  day  with  hot 
water  and  soda.  The  South  Australian  oil  commands  a  higher  price 
than  the  imported  oil  and  carried  off  the  first  prize  at  the  Vienna  Inter- 
national Exhibition.  The  oil  made  at  the  Adelaide  gaol  is  also  of  very 
superior  quality,  and  the  process  is  said  to  be  more  economical  than 
that  employed  by  Sir  Samuel  Davenport.  A  press  with  hydraulic  power 
is  used  at  the  gaol. 

Samples  of  the  Australian  oil  were  sent  to  the  Colonial  and  Indian 
Exhibition  in  London,  in  1886.  It  was  so  highly  refined  and  the  cost 
of  production  so  heavy  that  it  was  necessary  to  exclude  it  from  the 
manufacturer's  schedule,  namely.  2s.  (49  cents)  per  pound  quoted.  That 
exhibited  by  Sir  Samuel  Davenport  was  described  as  being  equal  to 
the  finest  Lucca  brands. 

GL  W.  GRIFFIN, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Sydney,  January  21,  1890. 


FIJI. 

Whether  olives  have  been  experimented  with  or  not,  I  am  unable  to 
say,  but  I  think  not.    That  they  are  not  grown  here  I  know. 

The  only  fruit  grown  here  for  export  is  bananas  and  pines,  both  of 
which  are  quite  extensively  grown. 

ANDREWS  A.  ST.  JOHN, 

Commercial  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  COMMERCIAL  AGENCY, 

Levuka,  January  11, 1890. 


CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 

FRANCE 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  TRAIL,  OF  MARSEILLES. 
THE   OLIVE  TREE  IN  THE  SOUTH  OF  FRANCE. 

The  olive  tree  (Olea  europea)  is  common  to  the  whole  of  the  south  of 
France,  and  when  nearing  the  south  by  rail  the  traveler  can  at  once 
detect  its  familiar  green  color  and  its  regular  shape.  For  miles  it  can 
be  seen  on  either  side,  sometimes  in  an  uncared  for,  almost  wild  state, 
and  sometimes  in  well-cared  for,  well-cultivated,  regular  plantations. 
It  grows  in  almost  any  soil,  in  rocky  or  stony  ground,  and  even  without 
attention  produces  fruit  that  is  a  small,  though  uncertain,  source  of 
income  to  the  poor  peasant,  but  when  well  cultivated  and  attended  to 
becomes  a  certain  revenue  to  any  farmer  who  takes  the  necessary  care 
and  trouble. 

The  olive  tree  is  essentially  the  tree  of  warm  climates  (it  is  said  to 
originate  from  Egypt),  but  not  of  tropical  heat,  therefore  the  Mediter- 
ranean district  suits  it  admirably.  It  succeeds  well  in  places  where  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  year  is  from  59°  to  61°  Fahrenheit.  It  does  not 
support  heat  above  104°  nor  cold  below  about  15°.  Frost  below  the 
latter  freezes  and  kills  all  the  branches,  and  one  is  obliged  to  cut  the 
whole  tree  down  to  the  ground  and  wait  till  it  has  grown  again.  It  is 
the  greatest  calamity  that  can  befall  an  olive  tree,  for  it  takes  about  teu 
years  to  regain  its  former  position,  and  even  then  it  is  often  far  from 
being  as  good.  In  1820  almost  all  the  olive  trees  in  this  consular  district 
were  killed  by  frost,  which  was  ruin  to  thousands,  oil  being  then  twice 
the  value  of  to-day. 

The  olive  tree  is  also  essentially  the  tree  of  dry,  stony,  hilly,  and  undu- 
lating ground.  Some  of  the  hills  and  mountains  along  the  coast  are 
covered  with  olive  trees,  and  inland  plains  are  also  planted  with  them ; 
but  the  fact  must  be  mentioned  too  that  in  some  districts,  notably  around 
Toulon  and  Hyeres,  olives  are  being  rooted  out  of  the  plains  and  vines 
planted  in  their  place.  Calcareous  ground  is  favorable  to  olives  for  fine 
oil ;  sandstone,  schist,  and  granite  soils  are  less  favorable.  When  tin- 
soil  is  rich  the4ree  itself  prospers  and  grows  to  a  great  size,  but  the 
fruit  is  less  abundant  and  inferior. 

The  best  is  n  .mixed,  fairly  dry,  ivd  or  calcareous  soil,  with  exposure 
to  the  south.  The  ground  must  not  be  too  dry  nor  too  moist.  Of  the 

619 


620        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

two  evils  a  too  dry  soil  is  to  be  avoided  most.  Drought  is  unfavorable 
to  olive  trees,  as  the  olives  dry  and  fall  off  before  they  have  attained 
maturity ;  but  a  good  rainy  winter  or  spring  suffices  to  give  enough 
moisture  for  the  following  summer.  After  a  very  rainy  winter  season  an 
olive  tree  will  stand  excessive  heat  mu'ch  better  than  after  a  dry  one. 

Now  olive  trees  uncared  for  and  left  to  themselves  produce,  under 
favorable  circumstances,  a  light  crop  about  every  two  years,  sometimes 
oftener  even,  and  sometimes  under  unfavorable  circumstances,  less  fre- 
quent; but  cultivated  and  well  cared  for  it  becomes  an  interesting,  im- 
portant, and  highly  profitable  branch  of  agriculture;  one  can  count 
upon  fairly  regular  annual  crops,  and  the  result  is  generally  satisfactory. 
The  importance  of  olive-growing  in  countries  that  suit  it  can  not  be 
overestimated. 

In  the  south  of  France,  and  all  around  the  Mediterranean,  the  olive 
plays  a  part  in  domestic  economy  of  which  little  is  known  in  other 
countries.  It  can  be  seen  on  tho  rich  man's  table  as  a  relish,  or  its  prod- 
uct, in  the  form  of  salad  oil  or  frying  oil,  is  used  daily  in  his  kitchen,  and 
a  handful  of  plain  olives  form  at  certain  times  the  daily  meal  of  many 
a  poor  peasant  and  farm  laborer.  In  countries  and  districts  where 
butter  is  scarce  and  dear,  olive-oil,  in  some  form  or  other,  is  used  in 
almost  every  dish  that  comes  upon  the  table,  and  a  fact  that  is  not  gen- 
erally known  is  that,  in  the  sv.uth  of  France,  olive  oil  is  even  preferred 
to  butter  for  frying  purposes. 

VARIETIES. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  olive  trees  and  many  that  have  simply 
changed  through  change  of  climate,  soil,  or  care,  but  the  chief  ones 
cultivated  in  this  district  are  these : 

(1)  The  Brown  olive  tree,  a  slow   growing,  hardy  tree  (especially 
against  cold),  that  gives  few  crops  but  usually  abundant  ones.    The 
ojives  are  of  a  darkish  hue,  fairly  good  for  pickling,  but  not  so  good  for 
oil.     This  variety  used  to  be  grown  very  much  but  is  less  cultivated 
now. 

(2)  The  "  Cayon"  or  white  olive  tree,  a  quick  growing,  small  tree,  with 
low  branches ;   is  sensitive  to  cold  but  grows  again  quickly  alter  a 
frost.     It  produces  olives  in  its  third  or  fourth  year,  and  gives^a  crop 
pretty  regularly  every  two  years.    Its  olives  are  reddish,  produce  good 
oil  that  retains  the  taste  of  the  olive,  a  fact  that  is  appreciated  in  these 
districts.     It  is  largely  cultivated  around  Marseilles  and  Toulon. 

(3)  The  "  Pendoulier  "  or  high-growing  olive  tree,  a  good  sized  tree 
with  large  branches  that  frequently  hang  down.    It  produces  a  good 
crop,  rather  late  in  the  season,  pretty  regularly  every  two  years.    Its 
olives  are  of  a  dark  hue,  and  produce  very  fine,  tasteless  oil  that  is 
much  appreciated  for  export,  and  which  is  almost  exclusively  used  in 
the  perfumery  trade.    This  variety  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  Grasse 
and  Mce  district. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    THE    SOUTH    OF    FRANCE.  621 

The  two  latter  kinds  are  excellent  varieties  for  profit,  and  aie  recom- 
mended for  general  purposes.  In  many  respects  the  Cayon  is  prefera- 
ble, chiefly  because,  being  a  lower  and  smaller  tree,  it  requires  less  room 
and  is  easier  to  attend  to.  Its  height  is  usually  from  12  to  16  feet. 
They  can  be  planted  at  a  distance  of,  say,  15  or  1C  feet  apart  each  way ; 
thus,  from  150  to  160  would  go  on  an  acre.  The  Peudoulier,  being  a 
much  larger  tree,  requires  about  30  feet  square  to  itself  in  order  to 
develop  fully ;  thus,  about  40  would  go  on  an  acre. 

CULTIVATION. 

The  cultivation  of  the  olive  tree  is  very  simple,  and  it  is  this 
that  makes  it  pay.  The  chief  points  are  digging,  fertilizing,  prun- 
ing. The  ground  ought  to  be  well  dug  up  around  the  tree  to  at  least  6 
feet  from  the  stem,  and  if  possible  kept  loose  throughout  the  rainy  sea- 
son. A  good  plan  is  to  dig  a  trench  around  the  tree  and  on  sloping 
ground  to  connect  these  trenches  one  to  the  other  by  ditches,  all  to  be 
closed  up  when  the  wet  season  is  over.  No  irrigation  is  then  necessary 
Artificial  watering  would  only  be  called  for  in  spring  if  the  whole  win- 
ter had  passed  without  any  rain  at  all,  a  circumstance  that  rarely,  if 
ever,  happens. 

FERTILIZING. 

Fertilizing  ought  to  be  done  at  the  same  time  as  digging,  that  is,  dur- 
ing winter  and  spring.  In  places  and  farms  where  stable  manure  is 
obtainable  at  a  reasonable  price  it  can  be  used  to  considerable  advan- 
;  in  towns  and  in  the  proximity  of  oil-mills  the  refuse  of  these  mills 
is  a  good  fertilizer,  and  the  dirty  water  that  comes  from  the  mills  can  be 
used,  mixed  or  diluted  with  pure  water.  Powdered  oil-cake  is  an  excel- 
lent stimulant,  and  ought  to  be  well  mixed  with  the  earth.  Finally,  the 
dead  leaves  that  fall  from  the  olive  tree  itself  and  the  small  branches 
cut  off  when  pruning,  well  dug  into  the  ground,  are  largely  used  as 
fertilizers,  and  are  by  no  means  to  be  despised.  Strong  fertilizers  must 
not  be  used  too  frequently. 

. — The  question  of  pruning  is  one  that  requires  study,  as  it 
a  great  deal  upon  circumstances.  An  olive  tree  usually  gives 
a  crop  every  second  year,  therefore  it  ought  to  be  pruned  every  second 
year,  and  then,  of  course,  shortly  after  the  gathering  ot  the  crop,  sa\ 
during  January  and  February.  But  as  cultivation  in  many  cases  makes 
the  tree  produce  a  crop  every  year,  it  is  right  in  this  case  to  prune  the 
free  slightly  every  year.  When  the  trees  are  pruned  every  year  it 
must  be  done  carefully  and  lightly  ;  in  fact  it  must  only  consist  of  a, 
slight  thinning  out.  The  chief  thing  to  be  borne  in  mind  when  pruning 
is,  that  those  twigs  that  have  blossomed  and  produced  fruit  once  never 
do  again,  therefore  that  pruning  must  consist  in  cutting  away  useless 
twigs  and  branches  to  give  light  and  air  and  make  room  for  fresh  and 
fruitful  twigs  and  shoots. 


622  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES, 

Pruning  depends  in  a  great  measure,  too,  on  the  position  and  expos- 
ure of  the  trees.  Olive  trees  exposed  to  high  winds  ought  to  be  kept 
low  and  rather  compact,  but  those  in  favorable  positions,  on  sheltered 
hill-sides,  for  instance,  can  be  allowed  to  grow  larger.  Thus  it  will  be 
found  that  olive  trees  along  the  shores  of  the  Rhone,  and  indeed  in  all 
the  Rhone  valley  exposed  to  the  pernicious  mistral,  are  little  more 
than  bushes  and  are  kept  as  such,  whereas  towards  Toulon  and  further 
on,  also  in  Tunis  and  other  parts,  the  olive  tree  grows  to  a  great 
height  and  size,  and  is  pruned  accordingly. 

PICKING  AND   CURING. 

The  blossoming  of  the  olive  tree  takes  place  in  April  and  May,  and 
if  the  rains  have  been  favorable  and  no  frost  occurs  the  crop  may  be 
considered  sure. 

The  gathering  of  green  olives  for  pickling  is  done  from  about  the  20th 
of  September  to  about  the  10th  of  October  and  must  be  done  by  hand. 
The  date  of  gathering  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  stage  of  the  fruit,  as 
it  ought  to  be  done  just  when  the  olive  has  reached  its  full  size  and  be- 
fore it  begins  to  turn  black.  G-reen  olives  can  not  be  eaten  as  they 
come  off  the  tree,  because  they  are  too  bitter,  but  are  pickled  by  the  very 
simple  process  of  soaking  them  in  brine  or  very  salt  water.  Sometimes 
ashes  are  used  as  well  as  salt.  As  soon  as  they  have  almost  lost  their 
bitter  taste  they  must  be  taken  out  of  the  brine  and  put  into  clear 
water,  if  possible  running  water,  and  washed.*  They  are  then  ready 
to  be  packed  in  kegs,  barrels,  bottles,  or  jars,  but  with  a  little  salt 
water  or  water  highly  seasoned  or  aromatized,  and  are  fit  for  export, 
for  storing,  or  for  immediate  use. 

Black  olives  for  pickling  are  gathered,  as  their  name  indicates,  when 
they  are  black,  say  during  November.  The  pickling  process  of  these 
is  left  to  nature,  i.  e.,  they  can  be  simply  spread  out  on  wicker-work 
hurdles  or  basket-boards  exposed  to  sun  and  wind  till  their  natural 
water  has  evaporated  and  with  it  their  bitter  taste.  T^ey  can  then  be 
eaten  in  their  natural  state,  but  are  more  palatable  well  seasoned 
with  salt,  pepper,  and  oil. 

The  gathering  of  olives  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  must  take  place 
when  they  are  black  and  quite  ripe,  generally  from  the  end  of  Illovem  - 
ber  till  the  end  of  January.  They  can  even  be  left  to  fall  to  the  ground 
and  then  gathered  up,  but  as  they  do  not  all  fall  off  together,  it  often 
takes  a  long  time  to  gather  in  the  complete  crop.  Care  must  be  taken 
not  to  let  them  rot  on  the  ground,  as  such  olives  would  spoil  the  oil  for 
table  purposes.  A  good  plan  is  to  wait  till  the  first  good  fail  has  taken 

*  The  usual  way  in  which  green  olives  are  pickled  in  this  district  is  as  follows:  They 
are  soaked  in  a  solution  of  potash  and  water  (1  pound  to  1£  pounds  of  potash  to  a  gal- 
lon of  water)  for  about  two  hours,  then  put  into  clean  water,  which  is  changed  once 
or  twice  a  day  until  the  water  remains  clear.  After  this  the  olives  are  ready  to  pack 
in  salt  water  for  keeping. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    THE    SOUTH    OP   FRANCE.  623 

place  and  then  to  set  about  gathering  in  the  whole  crop  either  by  shak- 
ing or  picking  off  all  the  rest.  Care  and  attention  must  be  exercised 
when  gathering  in  the  crop  for  oil-pressing  in  not  picking  them  before 
they  are  perfectly  ripe,  and  also  in  not  breaking  off  the  young  branches 
that  will  produce  fruit  the  next  year.  In  positions  favorable  to  the 
ripening  of  the  olives,  that  is,  where  the  olives  on  any  one  tree  ripen 
almost  simultaneously,  the  trouble  of  gathering  in  the  crop  is  rendered 
easier  by  stretching  out  coarse  sheets  or  cloths  under  the  trees  and 
simply  shaking  or  pulling  the  fruit  off  the  branches  into  them. 

Now  in  order  to  obtain  olive  oil  of  superior  quality  there  are  sev- 
oral  primary  conditions  to  be  observed.  Care  should  be  taken  in 
selecting  only  sound  olives  and  picking  out  all  bad  ones  and  foreign 
substances,  such  as  stones,  dirt,  leaves,  or  anything  that  may  have  been 
gathered  along  with  the  olives.  For  superfine  oils  it  is  therefore  advis- 
able to  press  olives  that  have  been  gathered  by  hand  only,  or  at  least 
shaken  into  cloths. 

Once  gathered,  the  olives  should  be  looked  over,  selected  and  separ- 
ated, and  taken  to  the  mills  with  as  little  delay  as  possible.  They  should 
not  be  left  in  heaps  or  in  baskets  for  any  length  of  time,  as  they  are 
liable  to  ferment,  which  is  detrimental  to  the  obtaining  of  really  fine 
oil.  In  some  old-fashioned  places  peasants  pretend  that  this  fermenta- 
tion facilitates  the  pressing  out  of  the  oil  and  even  increases  the  quan- 
tity ;  but  this  idea  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  the  slight  gain,  if 
gain  there  be,  in  quantity  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the  differ- 
ence in  quality.* 

Cleanliness  in  the  mills  is  a  great  point.  It  is  essential  that  all 
presses,  millstones,  casings,  recipients  be  perfectly  clean,  so  that  no  bad 
taste  nor  color  can  possibly  be  given  to  the  oil  during  the  process  of 
manufacture. 

The  simplest  and  the  primitive  way  of  manufacturing  oil  consists 
solely  in  placing  the  olives  in  a  mill  in  which  one  or  two  millstones  are 
revolved  either  by  hand,  by  oxen,  or  by  horses,  until  all  the  oil  is 
crushed  out.  But  this  altogether  primitive  and  imperfect  mode  can 
only  be  seen  now  in  country  places  at  great  distances  from  cities  and 
villages  in  Algeria,  Tunis,  and  in  some  parts  of  France.  It  has  long 
since  been  supplemented  and  superseded  by  other  more  perfect  and 
complete  processes. 

It  is,  however,  seldom  that  a  farmer  or  olive  grower  presses  his  own 
olives.  In  centers  and  districts  of  olive  cultivation  there  are  generally 
one  or  more  oil-mills  to  be  found.  Proprietors  of  oil-mills  can  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  viz,  those  that  are  simply  oil-crushers,  who 
crush  the  olives  and  make  the  oil  for  the  cultivator  who  brings  his 
crop  to  them ;  and  these  are  paid  in  kind,  i.  e.7  they  are  not  paid  in 

'  This  custom  of  allowing  the  olives  to  ferment  before  putting  them  into  the  oil 
presses  is  still  observed  in  many  parts  of  Spain,  and  for  this  reason  Spanish  olive-oil 
is  generally  of  an  unpleasantly  strong  taste. 


624 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


money,  but  by  agreement  retain  a  certain  percentage  of  the  olives 
brought  to  them.  This  system  often  gives  rise  to  certain  abuses  that 
are  difficult  to  suppress,  and  the  poor  peasant  frequently  finds  that  he 
has  been  very  far  out  in  his  calculation  of  the  quantity  of  oil  that  his 
crop  ought  to  have  produced.  The  other  class  of  oil-mill  proprietors 
is  composed  of  those  that  may  be  called  merchant-crushers.  These 
buy  olives  in  large  quantities  from  the  growers  and  dealers,  manu- 
facture the  oil,  and  sell  it  themselves.  There  are  several  large  man- 
ufacturers in  the  city  of  Marseilles  who  possess  mills  in  several  differ- 
ent centers  of  olive  cultivation  in  this  district  and  in  Algeria  and 
Tunis.  These  firms  have  very  naturally  acquired  a  certain  reputation 
for  their  several  marks,  and  many  can  command  higher  prices  in  the 
market  on  the  strength  of  their  reputation.  Each  manufacturer  pro- 
fesses to  have  a  special  method  of  his  own,  but  the  basis  is  the  same 
for  everybody.  The  only  difference  that  can  exist  is  in  the  way  of 
filtering  and  refining  or  clarifying  the  oil  before  it  is  finally  casked  or 
bottled. 

OLIVE-OIL  MANUFACTURE. 

The  process  of  manufacture  is  as  follows :  The  olives  ready  to  be 
pressed  are  first  put  into  a  mill,  similar  to  those  formerly  used  for  the 
whole  operation,  but  the  olives  are  only  half  crushed,  and  no  oil  is 
crushed  out,  so  that  they  form  a  shapeless  mass.  This  mass  is  then 
distributed  into  round  flexible  kinds  of  baskets  (French  name  "scour- 
tins")  made  of  sparto  grass  and  horse-hair,  something  in  the  shape  of 
short  sacks  with  mouths  only  half  closed,  containing  about  15  pounds 
of  the  crushed  olive  mass.  From  ten  to  twelve  of  these  bags  are  then 
placed,  one  above  the  other,  in  a  pile  under  the  regular  oil-press  and  in 
such  a  way  that  the  base  of  one  bag  rests  on  the  open  mouth  of  the  one 
below.  The  mouth  of  the  bag  being  smaller  than  the  circumference  of 
the  bag,  the  mere  fact  of  placing  one  above  the  other  closes  them.  At 
the  base  of  the  press  there  is  a  ledge  with  an  opening  on  one  side, 
below  which  the  receptacle  for  the  oil  is  placed.  When  all  is  in  its  place 
the  press  is  set  in  motion,  in  small  mills  by  hand,  in  large  ones  by  steam, 
and  the  oil  gradually  oozes  out  from  all  sides  of  the  baskets  and  flows 
into  the  vessel  below. 

The  oil  that  flows  from  this  first  pressing  is  the  best,  and  i£  called 
virgin  oil  (Huile  vierge). 

When  no  more  oil  flows  through  the  baskets  the  press  is  reversed  and 
the  crushed  and  hard  mass  of  olives  is  taken  out.  This  hard  and  appar- 
ently dry  mass  still  contains  a  good  quantity  of  oil  of  good  ordinary  qual- 
ity for  kitchen  purposes,  and  in  order  to  obtain  it  the  mass  must  be  broken 
up  and  mixed  with  boiling  water.  The  warm  mass  or  pulp  is  then  placed 
a  second  time  into  the  baskets  and  the  whole  is  pressed  in  the  same 
way  as  the  first  lot,  only,  during  the  operation  of  pressing,  boiling  water 
is  frequently  thrown  over  it.  The  oil  and  water  that  flow  from  this 


THE  OLIVE  TREE  IN  THE  SOUTH  OF  FRANCE.      €25 

pressing  are  received  and  left  to  stand  in  large  stone  vessels  or  nietal 
tanks,  and  the  oil  that  gradually  mounts  to  the  surface  is  the  second 
quality  oil. 

Now,  the  mass  that  is  found  in  the  baskets  after  the  second  press  is 
either  stored  to  dry  and  sold  as  oil-cake,  or  is  sold  to  special  mills  that 
extract  a  third  quality  of  oil  by  means  of  acids  and  other  agents.  But 
this  quality  can  not  be  used  for  table  purposes ;  it  is,  however,  very 
good  for  the  manufacture  of  soap,  and  is  largely  used  in  this  and  other 
industries. 

The  oil  that  comes  from  the  first  and  second  presses  is  not  generally 
sold  in  its  primitive  state,  but  is  refined  and  filtered,  and  it  is  in  this 
process  that  some  manufacturers  excel  others.  The  principle  of  refin- 
ing and  filtering  consists  in  letting  the  oil  remain  for  a  few  weeks 
in  tanks  or  immense  jars,  during  which  period  a  sediment  gradually 
deposits  itself  at  the  bottom,  and  then  passing  the  oil  minus  the  deposit 
through  filtering  papers  specially  prepared  and  sold  for  the  purpose. 
Some  manufacturers  even  pass  their  superfine  oil  through  specially  pre- 
pared cotton-wool,  which  is  certainly  an  expensive  process. 

After  being  filtered  the  oil  is  ready  to  be  casked  or  bottled  for  con- 
sumption. 

PRICES  OF  OIL. 

Concerning  the  prices  of  oil  it  is  difficult  to  give  any  good  idea,  as  so 
much  depends  on  freight  and  charges  on  the  oil  from  the  time  it  leaves 
the  mill  till  it  reaches  the  consumer.  .Really  good  oil  in  the  mills  in 
this  district  brings  from  100  to  120  francs  per  100  kilograms  ($8.75  to 
$10.00  per  100  pounds),  but  prices  of  olive-oil  in  the  Marseilles  market 
vary  from  95  francs  for  common  kitchen  oil  up  to  200  francs  for  the 
finest  possible  salad  oil  ($8.30  to  $21  per  100  pounds),  all  according  to 
quality  and  mark.  Oil  for  manufacturing  purposes  is  worth  from  80  to 
90  francs  ($7  to  $7.90  per  100  pounds). 

ADULTERATION. 

In  many  places  adulteration  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent  and  re- 
fined cotton  oil  is  largely  used  to  mix  with  olive  oil.  Cotton  oil  being 
from  20  to  30  per  cent,  cheaper,  and  being  tasteless,  lends  itself  very 
iid  \  iintageously  to  the  adulteration  of  olive  oil.  It  is  an  open  secret,  too, 
that  vast  quantities  of  pure  cotton  oil  are  shipped  and  sold  as  olive  oil 
to  those  markets  that  prefer  tasteless  oil.  Cotton  oil  is,  however,  used 
under  its  own  name  by  many  people  who  prefer  a  tasteless  oil  for  fry- 
ing purposes. 


From  the  foregoing,  it  will  be  readily  understood  that  olive-growing 
and  oil-pressing  are  two  distinct  professions  and  that  they  are  better  if 


626        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

kept  separate.  This  explains  the  existence  of  professional  oil-crushers 
who  do  nothing  but  press  oil  for  the  growers ;  otherwise,  unless  a 
grower  had  a  large  amount  of  capital  at  his -disposal  wherewith  to  work 
a  mill  and  pay  the  necessary  staff,  he  would  never  be  able  to  attend  to 
the  digging,  fertilizing,  and  pruning  of  his  olive  trees  with  due  care, 
as  this  ought  to  be  done  just  at  the  same  time  of  the  year  as  the  all-im- 
portant first-oil  pressing. 

The  olive-grower,  if  he  attends  to  his  task  properly,  has  plenty  of  work 
to  do  and  the  more  he  does  the  better  he  is  repaid.  As  already  men- 
tioned, an  olive  tree  left  to  itself  will  produce  fruit,  but  one  well  culti- 
vated will  repay  its  owner  tenfold.  Though  it  does  not  pay  to  be  too 
lavish  in  expenditure,  yet  an  outlay  of  about  $50  per  acre  per  year  is 
considered  a  sound  investment  in  these  regions.  Considerably  less 
is  spent  by  many  a  grower,  but  if  one  has  the  courage  to  lay  out  about 
the  sum  mentioned  one  can  generally  depend  upon  being  well  repaid. 

A  full-grown  Pendoulier  well  fertilized  and  cared  for  will  produce 
about  30  gallons  of  olives  in  a  crop ;  very  large  and  fruitful  trees  have 
been  known  to  produce  up  to  100  gallons  even.  A  full-grown  Oayon 
under  the  same  circumstances  will  produce  from  7  to  8  gallons  in  a  crop, 
and  there  are  many  that  can  produce  20  gallons. 

The  -value  of  olives  varies  according  to  crop  and  quality,  but  roughly 
speaking  about  $1  per  gallon  is  the  average  price. 

The  out-turn  of  oil  varies  according  to  the  quality  and  condition  of  the 
olives,  but  the  average  yield  is  14  per  cent,  by  the  two  pressings  plus 
10  per  cent,  by  acids,  say  a  total  rough  average  of  24  per  cent. 

The  olite-tree,  well  cared  for,  is  almost  always  free  from  disease  and 
parasites,  but  it  is  well  to  be  on  the  look-out  for  any  possible  enemies. 
The  branches  are  sometimes  covered  with  a  kind  of  yellow  moss,  pro- 
duced in  some  instances  by  too  much  dampness  or  moisture  and  in  others 
by  weakness  of  the  tree.  In  the  first  case  the  ground  must  be  imme- 
diately drained,  and  in  the  second  it  must  be  manured.  In  both  cases 
it  is  well  to  cut  off  the  branches  so  covered.  Sometimes  there  is  no 
remedy,  and  the  trees  must  be  rooted  out,  and  the  ground  used  for  other 
purposes. 

Sometimes  a  sort  of  a  cochineal,  the  Coccus,  attacks  olive  trees,  and 
in  this  case  a  hard  brush,  dipped  in  vinegar,  is  the  best  remedy  4 

The  Tinea  oleolla  occasionally  attacks  the  leaves  and  the  Eylerinus 
olece  occasionally  kills  the  buds,  but  these  are  not  serious  foes.  Of  all 
insects,  that  most  to  be  feared  is  a  fly  that  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  wood 
of  the  olive;  it  is  the  Dacus  olece.  The  larvae  of  this  fly  eat  away  and 
destroy  whole  branches,  and  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  exterminate 
them.  The  best  way  to  destroy  them  is  to  scrape  the  branches  arid 
apply  boiling  water  or  a  solution  of  lime,  but  even  these  are  not 
always  effectual.  Nature,  however,  sometimes  helps  herself,  and  not 
nnfrequently  another  insect,  the  "  Oynips^  deposits  an  egg  in  the  hole 
bored  by  the  Dacus  and  the  larva  of  the  Oynips  kills  and  feeds  on  that 
of  the  Dacus,  thus  saving  the  tree. 


THE  OLIVE  TREE  IN  SOUTHERN  FRANCE.        627 

The  olive  is  a  tree  that  attains  a  great  age,  aud  tbat,  with  care,  is 
said  never  to  die.  It  can,  however,  be  reproduced  by  cuttings  and  by 
seedlings  that  must  be  grafted  the  second  year. 

CHAS.  B.  TRAIL, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Marseille*,  April  30,  1890. 


THE  OLIVE  TREE  IN  SOUTHERN  FRANCE. 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  MARTIN,  JR.,  OF  MARSEILLES. 

[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41$.] 

Varieties. — The  olive  tree  is  only  cultivated  in  France  in  the  depart- 
ments bordering  upon  the  Mediterranean.  From  the  remotest  antiquity 
it  has  been  a  source  of  great  riches  to  this  part  of  the  country,  as  it 
thrives  on  land  where  no  other  culture  could  be  attemped,  and  is  pro- 
ductive for  centuries. 

The  varieties  are  almost  numberless,  as  the  tree  takes  a  different  name 
in  almost  every  district  where  it  is  cultivated,  and  are  distinguishable 
by  the  fruit  only,  as  the  appearance  of  the  tree  is  nearly  the  same  for 
all  the  varieties.  The  best-known  varieties  cultivated  in  view  of  the 
fruit  are  the  "  Espanenque,"  "Prnnaou,"  "Triparde,"  "  Picholine," 
u  Bouteillan,"  "  Verdale,"  etc.  Those  that  produce  the  best  oil  are  the 
uAglandaon"  of  Aix,  the  "Soloumen"  of  Salon,  the  "Amelon"in  the  de- 
partments of  Herault  aud  Bouches  du  Rhone,  the  "Brun"  and  "Cayon" 
in  that  of  Var,  and  uAubanenque,"  "Saurin,"  "  Bougette,"  etc. 

Soil. — The  nature  of  the  ground  appears  to  have  but  little  influence 
with  the  yield  of  the  olive  tree;  still  a  stony  soil,  with  a  rocky  substra- 
tum, a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand,  or  calcareous  and  gravelly  earth  with 
a  little  humus,  appears  to  be  more  favorable  than  marly,  granite,  or 
schistic  soil. 

Situation. — As  to  the  situation,  hill-sides  or  table-lands  sheltered  from 
high  winds,  with  an  easterly  or  southerly  exposure,  give  the  best  re- 
sults. The  proximity  to  the  sea  must  be  rather  beneficial  than  other- 
wise, as  many  orchards  are  planted  on  the  very  shore,  and  those  that 
are  at  the  greatest  distance  from  it  are  as  a  rule  the  most  sensitive  to 
cold  weather.  In  fact,  there  are  none  to  be  found  far  off  from  the  coast- 

Cultivation. — The  process  of  cultivation  is  of  the  most  simple  descrip- 
tion. As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  orchards  that  are  not  cultivated  pro- 
duce the  most  esteemed  oil,  although  in  smaller  quantities.  In  many 
others  one  hoeing  in  the  year  is  deemed  sufficient.  In  a  few,  where  the 
IHM-S  are  planted  in  quincunx  at  a  distance  (which  is  generally  adopted) 
of  10  meters  or  33  feet  from  oanli  other,  tht>.  alleys  formed  between  them 
are  tilled  with  the  plow,  great  care  being  taken  not  to  hurt  either  the 


628  FRUIT    CULTURE    IK    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

roots  below  or  the  branches  above.  There  is  in  this  way  left  around 
each  tree  a  square  space,  which  is  then  hoed  by  hand.  The  same  oper- 
ation is  repeated  in  the  course  of  spring,  and  again  in  summer. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  generally  considered  as  unnecessary,  and  must 
be  conducted  with  great  care,  as  the  tree  is  liable  to  suffer  by  injudicious 
or  excessive  lopping.  It  is  only  applied  once  in  three  or  four  years, 
and  confine*d  to  the  suckers  and  the  withered  or  entangled  branches. 

Fertilizers. — Fertilizes  should  also  be  applied  with  a  great  deal  of 
precaution.  The  best  manure  is  that  consisting  of  a  mixture  of  animal 
and  vegetable  matter.  It  is  placed  once  in  four  years  a  little  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  Close  contact  with  the  roots  should  be 
avoided.  Many  cultivators  prefer  to  dig  out  the  earth  from  around  the 
foot  of  the  tree  and  fill  up  the  hole  with  fresh  mold.  An  excess  of  ma- 
nure has  the  same  effect  on  the  tree  as  an  excess  of  water.  It  rots  the 
roots,  and  in  all  cases  produces  an  abundance  of  aqueous  sap.  As  the 
olive  tree  vegetates  all  the  year  round,  this  abundance  of  sap  makes  it 
more  liable  to  the  effects  of  frost  and  cold.  It  also  rends  frequently 
the  bark  of  the  boughs,  and  flows  out  through  these  fissures  with  con- 
siderable detriment  to  the  tree. 

Irrigation. — On  the  other  hand,  irrigation,  while  impairing  the  qual- 
ity of  the  oil,  produces  much  larger  quantities  of  fruit  that  is  also  larger 
in  size,  and  in  many  districts  where  fruit  forms  the  object  of  culture  the 
orchards  are  frequently  watered  by  hand,  with  watering  pots,  or,  when 
the  water  supply  is  at  hand,  irrigated  after  the  manner  that  meadows  are. 

Planting. — The  olive  tree  can  stand  any  degree  of  drought,  but  a  tem- 
perature of  from  10°  to  14°  above  0,  Fahr.,  accompanied  with  snow, 
kills  the  boughs  and  trunk.  There  is  then  no  remedy  left  but  to  cut 
the  tree  on  a  level  with  the  ground,  and  allow  the  roots  to  grow  new 
shoots,  or  to  root  it  entirely  and  replace  it  by  new  plants.  The  olive 
tree  is  remarkably  reproductive,  and  any  part  of  a  twig  would,  in  course 
of  time,  take  root  and  give  birth  to  a  tree.  A  shoot  from  the  old  roots 
about  2  inches  in  diameter  is  generally  selected  for  reproduction;  it 
is  taken  off  from  the  roots  with  care,  so  as  not  to  hurt  either  the  scion 
or  the  roots,  arid  planted  in  a  square  hole  6  feet  on  each  side  of  the 
surface,  and  3  feet  deep.  The  hole  is  usually  filled  with  other  earth 
than  that  which  has  been  taken  out  of  it.  The  young  tree,  when  planted, 
should  not  be  more  than  4  feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  fre- 
quently bears  fruit  after  five  or  six  years.  Trees  grown  from  the  kernel 
of  the  fruit  do  not  begin  to  be  fruitful  until  the  age  of  fifteen  or  eighteen. 
For  this  reason,  this  mode  of  reprodution  is  only  practiced  in  nurseries, 
where  young  trees  are  also  raised  from  wild  scions  and  slips,  and  sold 
at  the  rate  of  1  franc  or  1.25  francs.  These  are  in  many  cases  preferred 
to  the  trees  grown  from  old  roots,  and  when. properly  packed  can  be 
transported  to  long  distances. 

The  yield,  proceeds,  and  cost  of  cultivation  must  necessarily  vary 
widely  according  to  the  manner  in  which  orchards  are  cultivated.  The 
cost  may  amount  to  any  sum  between  $5  and  $20  per  acre. 


TriE    OLIVE    TREE    IN    SOUTHERN    FRANCE.  629 

As  to  the  yield,  it  is  even  more  variable;  each  tree  may  pay  from 
."in  centimes  to  3  francs.  As  a  rule,  an  olive  tree  is  only  productive 
every  other  year;  some  varieties,  wheu  placed  under  the  most  favorable 
conditions  of  soil  and  weather,  produce  two  years  in  three,  but  in  no 
cast-  is  the  yield  constant.  It  varies  from  60  to  535  gallons  of  fruit  per 
acre.  The  average  price  of  the  fruit  ranges  from  12  to  22  francs  per 
hectoliter  (9  to  17  cents  per.  gallon).  The  quantity  of  fruit  turned  into 
oil  is  not  the  same  in  all  districts,  some  of  which  prepare  a  much  larger 
quantity  for  table  use  than  others.  On  an  average  little  over  two-thirds 
of  the  whole  crop  is  sent  to  the  mill. 

Preparation. — Olives  intended  for  table  use  must  be  perfectly  sound, 
and  of  course  are  picked  among  the  largest  on  the  tree.  There  are  two 
modes  of  preserving  olives,  in  pickle  and  in  oil.  Those  that  are  to  be 
preserved  in  oil  are  picked  when  perfectly  ripe,  that  is,  black.  They 
are,  without  any  further  preparation,  steeped  and  kept  in  olive  oil  with 
some  fennel,  coriander,  salt,  and  pepper.  The  pickled  olives  are  picked 
he  lore  they  arrive  at  maturity,  and  as  soon  as  they  have  acquired  a 
bright  green  color.  They  are  pricked  and  rolled  into  wood  ashes  to  set 
free  all  the  oil  they  may  already  contain.  After  being  washed  they  are 
placed  in  the  pickle,  where  they  remain  until  consumed.  The  "Picho- 
line'1  and  u  Verdale"  are  the  varieties  mostly  prepared  in  pickle  here. 
The  " queen  olives"  are  the  produce  of  a  variety  of  tree  that  is  not 
;:!-o\vn  in  this  country.  They  are  imported  at  this  port  from  Spain. 

Nearly  all  the  production  of  preserved  olives  is  consumed  in  France. 
The  exportation  is  exceedingly  small,  and  does  not  amount  to  more 
than  a  few  thousand  kilograms,  that  are  mostly  sent  to  Algeria.  The 
extraction  of  oil  is  made  in  special  mills  where  the  farmers  bring  their 
crops  by  quantities  of  400  liters  (about  106  gallons).  For  this  quan- 
tity, called  "  molte"  in  the  country,  the  mill-owner  generally  returns  40 
liters  or  10  per  cent,  of  oil.  The  olives  are  thrown  into  a  recipient, 
where  they  are  crushed  under  the  action  of  two  wheels  measuring  two 
and  a  half  feet  in  diameter  and  worked  by  water  or  steam  power.  After 
two  hours  the  olives  are  reduced  to  a  sort  of  a  paste,  which  is  placed  in 
a  number  of  grass  bags  and  pressed.  The  oil  thus  expressed  is  called 
"  virgin  oil,"  the  quantity  being  about  one-half  of  the  whole  produce. 
The  paste  is  then  taken  out  of  the  bags,  spread  out  on  a  cloth,  broken 
up,  and  replaced  in  the  bags.  Each  bag  is  drenched  with  about  five  gal- 
lons of  boiled  water  and  placed  again  in  the  press.  The  mixture  of  oil 
and  water  thus  obtained  is  left  for  a  day  in  the  receivers.  The  oil  comes 
to  the  surface,  is  skimmed  off,  and  in  most  cases  mixed  with  the  virgin 
oil  first  extracted.  The  mill-owner  charges  3  francs  for  each  "  molte" 
and  keeps  the  residues,  from  which  he  again  extracts,  on  his  own  ac- 
count, by  a  supplementary  and  more  abundant  addition  of  boiling 
water,  an  inferior  grade  of  oil  called  u  ressence."  There  is  still  left  in 
the  residue  after  this  operation  a  small  quantity  of  oil  that  is  extracted, 
jn  special  factories,  by  means  of  sulphide  of  carbon. 


630        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Diseases. — The  diseases  of  the  olive  tree  are  few  in  number  and  sel- 
dom fatal  to  the  tree.  The  most  common  are  :  The  "  rnofeV  or  unoir," 
which  covers  the  bark  and  leaves  with  a  sort  of  black  matter  that  is 
sometimes  friable,  sometimes  compact.  The  origin  and  causes  of  the 
disease  are  not  well  known.  It  is  counteracted  by  a  sprinkling  of  lime 
and  water  and  by  a  pruning,  more  extensive  than  usual,  so  as  to  let 
the  black  deposit  be  freely  swept  off  by  the  wind.  The  "monffe"  is 
produced  by  an  excess  of  wetness,  that  decays  the  sap.  When  the  vege- 
tation is  staid  and  the  leaves  turn  yellow,  the  roots  and  branches  at- 
tacked must  be  cut  off,  as  also  those  parts  of  the  stem  where  the  rotten 
sap,  known  by  its  stench  and  black  color,  has  found  its  way,  and  drain- 
ing trenches  should  be  established  without  delay. 

Insect  pests. — Olive  trees  planted  near  the  sea- shore  are  sometimes 
covered  with  a  coat  of  green  moss,  that  is  not  in  itself  injurious  to  the 
tree.  Large  numbers  of  microscopic  insects  live  in  that  moss,  but  do 
not  seem  to  hurt  the  tree  ;  so  that  nothing  is  done  to  remove  them. 

Cochineals  are,  among  the  parasitic  insects  that  live  on  the  sap  of  the 
olive  tree,  the  most  common  and  most  dangerous;  they  are  driven  away 
by  rubbing  the  boughs  and  branches  with  a  piece  of  cloth  soaked  in 
vinegar  or  whiting. 

No  remedy  has  yet  been  found  to  protect  the  olive  orchards  against 
their  worst  enemy,  an  insect  called  the  Dacus  olea.  It  is  a  species  of 
fly  that  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  fruit.  The  larvae  feed  on  the  pulp  of  the 
olive  before  it  comes  to  maturity;  when  they  make  their  exit  they  fre- 
quently cut  the  peduncle  of  the  fruit,  which  falls  to  the  ground.  When 
the  olive  remains  on  the  tree  the  produce  in  oil  is  considerably  impaired 
both  in  quality  and  quantity.  The  damage  made  by  the  "  ver"  (worm), 
as  the  Dacus  olea  is  commonly  called,  has  been  particularly  great  in 
jhe  last  two  or  three  years. 

J.  S.  MARTIN,  JR., 

UNITED  SPATES  CONSULATE,  Vice-Consul. 

Marseilles,  Match  11, 1884. 


NICE. 

i 

(REPORT  BY  CONSUL  HATHAWAY,  OF  NICE.) 

Introductory. — I  have  the  honor  to  submit  the  following  report  on  the 
olive,  as  it  has  come  under  my  observation  within  the  district  of  this 
consulate,  accompanied  by  some  statistical  data  relating  to  its  products, 
and  accurate  directions,  obtained  by  diligent  inquiry  from  reliable 
sources,  for  its  successful  cultivation. 

This  tree,  of  the  family  Oleacece,  which  is  a  feature  of  the  remotest 
historic  landscapes,  finds  its  natural  home  in  the  portions  of  southern 
Europe  bordering  immediately  upon  the  Mediterranean  basin.  Here, 
restrained  only  by  the  choice  of  man  auij.  the  limitations  of  soil  and 


THE    OLIVE    IN    NICE  631 

altitude,  it  covers  the  slopes,  hill-sides,  and  valleys  by  millions.  The 
general  configuration  of  the  coasts,  the  mountain  barriers,  sheltering 
against  northern  winds,  and  the  proximity  of  the  sea  itself,  which  serves, 
as  a  vast  reflector  of  the  sunbeams,  are  explanatory  of  this  result. 

It  attains  to  a  height  usually  of  20  feet,  and  even  to  50  feet  in  some 
localities,  and  commonly  to  an  age  that  appears  almost  fabulous.  One 
of  this  species — a  wonder  of  its  neighborhood — lately  carelessly  de- 
stroyed at  Beaulieu,  in  this  vicinity,  had  a  positive  record  of  five  cen- 
turies, and  measured  36  feet  in  circumference  when  it  fell.  It  has  entire 
evergreen,  lanceolate  leaves,  gray  underneath,  and  its  flowers,  which 
appear  in  June,  are  white,  and  disposed  in  axillary  branches,  and  re- 
semble the  blossoms  of  the  elder.  Its  fruit,  named  olive,  is  exceedingly 
prolific  under  culture,  and  is  oval  in  shape,  with  a  ligneous  kernal 
inclosing  a  seed  in  form  like  the  almond.  The  flesh  of  the  fruit  yields 
about  70  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  oil,  and  is  firm  and  covered  with  a 
soft  skin,  green  colored  before  maturity,  becoming  an  intense  violet 
black  when  ripe. 

Varieties. — Among  the  varieties  of  olives  here  I  note  the  following: 

(1)  The  black  point,  called  in  the  dialect  of  Nice  u  Prince  Neri."    This 
is  the  best  quality  of  the  fruit  kno\vn  in  this  district,  and  is  grown  at  Beau- 
lieu  and  at  the  promontory  of  St.  Jean.    These  olives  are  gathered  when 
entirely  ripe,  are  then  dried  in  the  sun,  and  are  excellent  for  the  table. 

(2)  The  "Pitcholine"  and  the  "Caillette"  (so  called),  both  of  which 
are  esteemed  best  for  preserving  when  gathered  green. 

(3)  The  "Blanquette"  (light  of  color),  the  "Sauvagette"  (wild  olive), 
and  the  "Nostrala"  (proper  olive  of  Nice),  all  especially  useful  in  pro- 
duction of  oil. 

Yield  of  oil. — It  is  computed  that  the  amount  of  oil  produced  in  Italy 
is  33,000,000  and  in  France  7,000,000  gallons  annually.  The  amount 
of  production  in  this  department,  although  no  statistics  thereof  are 
published,  may  be  safely  estimated  at  from  50,000,000  to  60,000,000 
pounds  biennially.  This  estimate  does  not  include  the  very  considerable 
quantity  arriving  here  from  Tuscany  and  Naples,  nor  the  increasing 
importations  to  this  port  from  Corsica,  all  adding  to  the  immense  stock 
of  the  refiners  here,  and  from  hence,  in  the  distributions  of  commerce, 
sold  in  Europe  and  America  under  the  name  of  "Olive  Oil  of  Nice." 

Situation. — The  tree  does  not  vegetate  readily  beyond  2,000  feet  above 
sea-level  or  45°  in  latitude.  The  department  of  Alpes  Maritimes, 
situated  43°  42'  north  latitude  and  4°  56'  longitude  east  from  the  me- 
ridian of  Paris,  is  most  favorably  adapted  to  its  growth.  The  said 
department  has  an  extent  of  46,850  hectares  of  land  (115,770  acres), 
more  or  less  wooded  with  the  olive,  of  which  12,000  hectares  (29,650 
acres)  are  exclusively  planted  with  olive  trees.  From  the  Kiver  Var 
up  to  the  Kiver  Koya  the  hill-sides  and  valleys  surrounding  this  region 
are  sheltered  against  northern  winds  by  the  "  contreforts  n  of  the  Alps. 

The  coasts  facing  the  sun,  the  immense  mirror  of  the  Mediterranean  re- 
flecting back  the  sunbeams  and  the  triple  girdle  of  mountains,  gradually 


632         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

sloping  into  hills  toward  the  sea  and  protecting  the  country  from  frost,  are 
the  unsurpassed  conditions,  with  the  temperature,  for  the  nurture  of 
the  olive  and  the  maturity  of  its  fruit.  Nowhere  is  the  earth  blessed 
with  a  continuance  of  more  polarized  light.  The  temperature  during 
the  winter  months,  in  which  the  olive  ripens,  is  like  that  of  spring  in 
middle  France.  The  winter  is  deemed  exceedingly  rigorous  when  the 
thermometer  falls  below  32°  Fahr.  Thirty  years  of  accurate  observation 
have  proved  that  of  the  fifty-six  days  of  rain  during  the  year  forty-two 
were  in  autumn.  October  and  November  are  the  months  in  which  the 
psychrometer  gives  the  highest  average.  In  May  the  temperature  aver- 
ages 64°,  in  June  70°,  and  the  strong  heats  of  July  and  August  78°  Fahr. 

During  six  months,  viz :  from  the  close  of  May  to  the  end  of  Novem- 
ber, more  than  one  hundred  days  are  enjoyed  without  clouds.  The  win- 
ter temperature  on  the  whole,  in  the  shade,  averages  52°.  The  years 
when  it  falls  below  32°  are  rare  but  ruinous.  Such  an  exceptional  cli- 
mate generally  allows  the  fruit  in  winter  to  reach  its  full  maturity. 
The  tree  grows  everywhere  here,  except  in  marl  or  clay  or  other  moist 
conditions,  but  best  ill  a  dry  soil,  on  slopes  toward  the  sun,  sufficiently 
sheltered.  On  steep  declivities,  where  quantity  and  quality  of  oil  are 
only  aimed  at,  no  crop  of  any  kind  allowed  beneath  its  foliage,  but  else- 
where and  in  plains  a  mixed  cultivation  is  profitably  employed.  In 
prosperous  seasons  the  olive  is  more  remunerative  than  corn  or  the  vine. 

Picking. — The  gathering  of  the  crop  begins  in  November  and  continues 
until  May.  The  harvest  is  divided  into  three  periods  of  two  months 
each.  From  the  first  is  produced  an  oil  high-colored  and  called  "  fine," 
'/he  second  produces  a  straw-colored  oil  called  "  superfine,"  the  last  a 
pale-colored  oil  called  "  extra  superfine."  The  product  of  the  first 
period  is  most  dense  and  has  a  strong  flavor  of  the  fruit,  and  can  be 
Congest  preserved.  But  the  best  quality  of  the  oil  is  that  from  the  last 
gatherings  of  April  and  May,  when  the  fruit  has  become  fully  ripened. 
This,  although  less  flavored  than  the  others  mentioned,  has  more  sweet- 
ness and  limpidity,  and  is  in  great  demand  in  the  home  markets  and  not 
always  easily  procured  for  export  in  its  finest  grades. 

Oil  manufacture.— -To  express  the  oil  from  ripe  fruit  freshly  gathered 
and  unmixed  with  that  which  is  immature  or  otherwise  of  bad  condi- 
tion is  an  essential  rule,  and  to  this  method  the  reputation  of  the  oil  of 
Nice  is  mainly  due.  The  olive  is  gathered  from  small  trees  bV  hand, 
and  from  large  ones  it  is  knocked  off  with  poles.  The  first  manner  is 
preferable,  as  the  fruit  thus  escapes  being  bruised  and  as  any  lengthy 
contact  with  the  soil  affects  its  flavor.  But  this  can  not  so  readily 
be  practiced  either  on  large  trees  or  slopes  or  fields  of  large  extent. 
Women  and  boys  are  employed  for  the  purpose,  for  which  as  wages 
they  receive  77  cents  for  every  20  liters. 

The  mills  for  grinding  the  olives  are  located  on  the  little  water- 
courses of  the  region,  and  a  stone  wheeling  around  on  its  axle  triturates 
the  fruit  and  reduces  it  to  a  paste.  The  latter  is  then  placed  in  bags 
of  esparto  and  squeezed  under  a  press  in  the  mill.  The  olive  oil  then 


THE    OLIVE    IN    NICE.  633 

escapes  through  the  texture  of  the  bags  and  runs  into  a  receptacle  un- 
derneath, it  is  this  first  pressure  which  produces  that  which  is  styled 
44  virgin  oil."  Afterwards  the  bags  of  said  paste  are  removed  and  soaked 
in  boiling  water  and  placed  a  second  time  under  the  press.  The  same 
operation  is  a  third  time  renewed,  when  all  the  oil  is  extracted.  The 
second  pressing  yields  the  ordinary  oil  of  commerce,  and  the  third  that 
used  for  illuminating  purposes,  and  generally  consumed  here  in  prefer- 
enee  to  all  other  oils.  It  is  styled  "  huile  de  colza.'' 

The  farmers  bring  their  oil  to  market  in  barrels  of  about  200  pounds 
weight,  or  retain  it  in  their  cellars  in  earthen  jars,  glazed  'within,  and 
guarded  from  dust  by  wooden  covers.  Merchants  keep  it  in  large, 
deep,  cemented  tanks,  over  which  their  warehouses  are  built,  thus  pro- 
viding an  even  temperature. 

From  these  tanks  the  oil  is  drawn  by  pumps  for  the  process  of  filtra- 
tion and  bottling  for  sale.  The  filter  consists  of  a  series  of  boxes,  one 
above  the  other,  with  perforated  bottoms,  and  lined  with  layers,  about 
an  inch  in  thickness,  of  white  cotton-wool. 

Adulteration  of  oil. — That  the  adulteration  of  the  olive  oil,  notwith- 
standing the  severe  penalties  of  the  law  therefor,  is  to  some  extent 
practiced  is  undoubted,  The  fraud  is  accomplished  by  mixing  with 
the  genuine  the  oil  of  the  oleaginous  seeds  of  cotton,  sesamum,  and 
others.  Immediate  discovery  of  the  imposition  appears  impossible,  al- 
though much  study  has  been  given  to  the  matter.  Densities,  degree 
of  congelation,  refraction,  specific  weight,  and  all  other  chemical  prop- 
erties must  be  taken  into  consideration,  which  is  a  labor  of  hours. 
The  following  process  of  detection  is  generally  used:  In  the  trial  tube 
is  placed  0.3086  grains  of  dried  albumen,  to  which  is  added  30.864 
grains  of  nitric  acid,  and  an  equal  weight  of  oil.  The  tube  is  then 
heated  over  an  alcohol  lamp  and  its  contents  mixed  by  ebullition.  The 
operation  affords  the  following  tests:  (1)  If  the  oil  be  genuine  olive 
the  color  will  be  of  a  yellow  feebly  greenish  tint;  (2)  if  the  olive  has 
been  mixed  with  5  per  cent,  of  seed-oil  the  color  will  be  of  an  amber 
yellow  tint;  (3)  the  tint  of  the  mixture  will  deepen  down  to  a  deep  or- 
ange in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the  foreign  oil. 

Insect  pests. — The  special  dangers  to  which  the  olive  trees  are  ex- 
posed are  frost,  wind,  hail,  and  the  ;<dacus."  When  a  tree  has  been 
caught  by  too  low  a  temperature  it  seldom  resists  the  frost.  The  loss  in 
Provence  from  this  cause,  in  the  year  1830,  was  ruinous  to  many  pro- 
prietors, and  amounted  to  4,000,000  francs.  When  the  tree  is  but 
partially  frozen  it  can  be  saved  by  pruning,  but  when  leaves  and 
branches  are  entirely  frozen  there  is  no  remedy.  A  violent  wind 
brings  down  the  fruit  pell-mell,  ripe  or  green,  according  to  the  season. 
The  hail  cuts  and  bruises  it  as  well  as  beats  it  from  the  branches.  Such 
fruit  becomes  mingled  with  the  soil  and  more  or  less  decayed,  and  pro- 
duces an  oil  moldy  in  savor,  disagreeable  to  the  taste,  and  improper  to 
trade.  The  dacns,  the  chief  enemy  of  the  olive,  appears  in  the  mouth  of 
August,  as  soon  as  the  fruit  begins  to  ripen.  The  little  insect  destroys 


634        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

annually  more  tban  3,000,000  francs'  worth  of  olives.  Its  larva,  intro- 
duced into  the  flower  of  the  fruit  in  the  form  of  an  almost  impercep- 
tible egg,  hatches  in  the  fruit,  and  is  nourished  by  its  substance.  In 
September  the  larva,  becoming  a  perfect  insect,  issues  from  the  olive, 
cutting  and  weakening  the  little  stem  which  joins  the  fruit  to  the  branch. 
The  fruit,  when  this  happens,  soon  falls  in  a  spoiled  and  unripe  con- 
dition, and  the  oil  it  produces  is  rancid  to  the  taste,  and  only  valuable 
for  the  lamp. 

Diseases. — The  olive  tree  does  not  escape  from  vegetable  parasites. 
A  tree  infected  with  morplua  or  fumago  becomes  all  black — trunk, 
branches,  and  leaves.  If  it  produces  fruit,  which  rarely  occurs,  such 
contain  no  oil.  This  disease  once  fastened,  lasts  about  ten  years,  and 
it  is  without  a  known  remedy.  Severe  pruning  in  such  cases  is  some- 
times practiced,  but  it  is  usual  to  leave  recovery  to  the  operation  of 
time.  Twenty  years  ago,  this  disease  wasted  many  groves  in  the  envi- 
rons of  Grasse  and  at  Beaulieu,  but  finally  disappeared.  Recently 
the  environs  of  Oette  have  been  afflicted  with  that  sickness.  Some 
proprietors  said  it  resulted  from  the  fog,  others  ascribed  it  to  emana- 
tions of  the  soil,  and  others  to  the  wind  from  the  sea.  M.  Aug.  Rivi6re, 
an  expert  in  such  matters,  is  of  opinion  that  the  disease  develops  from 
the  honey  matter  deposited  under  the  leaves  by  the  insects  Aphis  coccus 
or  Kermes.  Among  the  numerous  remedies  for  the  scourge  have  been 
hyposulphite  of  lime,  petroleum,  and  fumigations  of  tar,  all  of  which, 
however,  have  been  found  useless.  The  same  disease  occurs  among 
the  trees  in  Spain,  under  the  name  of  negruro. 

Secondly,  the  decay  of  the  olive.  Among  trees  not  too  thickly 
planted  and  on  lean,  dry  soils  this  seldom  occurs,  but  elsewhere  is 
quite  noticeable.  The  decay  arises,  for  the  most  part,  from  the  cuttings, 
the  breakings,  and  the  bruises  to  which  the  tree  is  subjected.  The 
wounds  thus  made,  unless  protected  from  the  air,  cause  the  ligneous 
substance  to  become  rotten.  This  disease  proceeds,  undoubtedly,  to  a 
large  extent  from  the  method  in  which  many  of  the  young  plants  are 
obtained.  These,  when  extracted  with  a  few  horizontal  roots  from  the 
foot  of  the  parent  tree,  leave  injuries  inviting  decay.  The  treatment 
for  the  trouble  consists  in  removing  the  decayed  portions  as  much  as 
possible,  and  closing  the  cavities  with  mortar  of  sand  and  lime. 

Cost  and  profits. — On  slopes  or  undulating  fields  1  hectare  df  land 
(2.47  acres)  usually  contains  about  200  olive  trees  ;  on  plains  about  150. 
To  calculate  as  exactly  as  possible  both  the  expense  and  yield  in  this 
district,  I  will  make  an  average  of  both  situations,  observing,  at  the 
outset,  that  the  crop  is  biennial,  and  that  in  the  estimates  of  expenses, 
therefore,  only  one-half  is  to  be  taken. 

To  cultivate  a  hectare  on  plains  it  is  necessary  to  dig  and  loosen  the 
soil,  a  labor  of  fifty  days  at  48  cents  per  day,  one-half  of  which  sum  is 
$12.06 ;  to  manure  the  same  (150  trees  at  14.4  cents  each),  $21.71 ;  to 
prune  the  same,  at  19.3  cents  per  tree  (the  half).  $14.48.  Each  tree 
gives,  on  an  average^  three  Double  decaliters  of  fruit,  equal  to  13^  gal- 


THE   OLIVE    tN   NICE.  635 

Ions;  for  the  gathering  of  each  double  decaliter  77  cents  is  paid ;  one- 
half  of  this  expense  for  the  150  trees  equals  $17.37.  The  entire  ex- 
pense per  hectare  thus  equals  $65.62. 

One  hectare  of  olive  trees  under  good  conditions  produces  every  two 
years  450  double  decaliters  of  olives,  which,  at  the  normal  price  of  3 
francs  each  (58  cents),  are  of  the  value  of  $260.35.  One  half  of  said 
sum  being  regarded  as  the  product  of  one  year,  the  proprietor  thus  ob- 
tains 675  francs,  equal  to  $130.17£  from  each  hectare.  Deducting  the 
above  expenses  therefrom  leaves  him  a  net  profit  of  $64.65  per  hectare. 
On  slopes,  with  200  trees  per  hectare,  $90.44  of  value  would  be  the 
annual  product.  An  average  of  $77.55  is  the  net  profit  annually  per 
hectare  for  both  locations.  Thus,  the  46,850  hectares  of  olive  lauds  in 
this  department,  of  which  about  31,000,  it  is  calculated,  are  planted  in 
slopes,  may  produce  the  important  sum  of  $3,830,000  yearly. 

Among  the  principal  oil  merchants  at  Nice  are  "  Socie*t6  des  huiles 
d'olive,"  Stable  &  Cie.,  and  Joseph  Mayrarque.  Prices  for  table  oil 
range  from  2.50  francs  to  1.90  francs,  and  illuminating  oil  from  1.10 
francs  to  .80  francs  per  liter  (2.113  pints.) 

Cultivation. — The  "Oleaster"  (wild olive)  and  "OleaEuropaea"  (com- 
mon olive)  grow  without  cultivation,  but  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
their  fruits  are  to  a  great  extent  the  result  of  care  and  labor.  When 
totally  neglected  the  tree  does  not  entirely  fail,  but,  like  the  vine  un- 
der the  same  conditions,  brings  some  small  profit  to  the  owner,  but  the 
product  always  increases  in  proportion  to  the  amount  expended  in  its 
judicious  care. 

One  of  the  primary  essentials,  as  considered  by  the  best  cultivators 
here,  is  that  the  ground  under  its  shadow  be  plowed,  dug,  or  otherwise 
loosened  thrice  every  year,  great  care  being  taken  lest  the  roots  are 
wounded.  A  breaking  of  the  soil  to  a  depth  of  ten  inches  is  thought 
sufficient.  On  the  plains  they  use  the  plow,  but  upon  the  declivities 
the  spade  only  is  practicable. 

Soil. — It  is  generally  allowed  that  a  soil  in  which  more  or  less  lime, 
alumina,  magnesia,  silica,  and  some  alkaline  salts  exist  is  especially 
favorable  to  this  tree.  Volcanic  soils  are  also  considered  excellent,  but 
neither  of  the  above,  though  preferable  here,  excludes  all  other  soils, 
except  those  which  are  mortal  to  the  olive,  viz,  fat  and  very  moist  lands 
and  sandy  and  very  dry  ones.  Excessive  moisture  and  excessive 
dry  ness  are  its  enemies.  Soils  entirely  of  clay  or  sand  are  ex- 
cluded from  its  culture,  but  the  sandy  clayey  ones,  the  calcareous, 
the  rocky  or  pebble-covered,  and  even  the  calcareous  rocks  themselves, 
where  the  roots  can  penetrate  between  them  and  find  water  to  suc- 
cessfully nourish  the  tree  are  adapted  to  its  culture.  A  soil  not  too 
dry,  the  bottom  of  which  is  gravel,  provided  clay  is  found  over  it  mixed 
with  sand,  is  preferable.  A  clayey  soil  is  bad  on  account  of  the  moisture 
with  which  it  is  filled  in  winter,  and  which  causes  the  roots  to  decay. 

Situation. — The  proper  situation  of  the  tree  is  a  question  simply  of 
temperature.  Much  attention  must  be  directed  in  various  ways  to  sit- 


636      FRUIT  CULTURE  IK  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

nation,  as  it  involves  a  careful  consideration  of  climates,  altitudes, 
declivity,  and  the  direction  of  predominant  winds.  Many  different 
conditions  thus  present  themselves,  which  may  be  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows :  Give  the  tree  the  maximum  of  temperature  which  its  nature 
requires,  avoiding  places  of  excessive  cold  as  well  as  those  of  burning 
heat.  For  this  end,  in  cold  localities  the  trees  should  be  placed  on 
meridianal  hills  and  on  septentrional  ones  in  very  hot  localities. 
Further,  light  slopes  are  always  preferable  to  high  hills  or  the  valleys. 

Propagating. — The  methods  for  the  reproduction  of  the  olives  are 
numerous,  but  may  be  treated  as  under  two  distinct  classes,  viz,  the 
natural  and  the  artificial."  The  best  natural  way  of  reproducing  the 
tree  is  from  the  seedling.  The  seed  requires  two  years  for  germination 
when  sowed  in  its  hard  kernel.  The  latter  should  always  be  crushed, 
therefore,  but  without  injury  to  the  seed,  which  will  then  follow  the 
ordinary  rule  of  development.  Some  cultivators,  after  removing  the 
kernel,  soak  the  seed  in  a  mixture  of  manure  and  clay.  When  planted 
the  best  dry  soil  should  be  selected  and  the  seed  covered  to  a  depth  of 
2  inches.  If  sowed  in  April,  the  young  plant  will  emerge  the  same 
year,  and  in  six  or  seven  years  bear  fruit.  In  its  first  stages  it  should 
be  protected  by  straw  or  leaves  against  the  cold,  and  its  lateral  branches 
pruned  away  and  its  stems  guarded  by  an  inclosing  support. 

Among  the  artificial  means  of  reproduction  are  the  following  :  The 
planting  of  shoots,  multiplication  by  protuberances  bearing  buds,  and 
multiplication  by  cuttings  and  grafting  of  the  stumps.  The  artificial 
methods,  however,  do  not  afford  the  special  advantages  of  the  seedling 
process,  which  are :  A  more  vigorous  tree,  producing  longer  and  more 
regularly  j  one  of  more  hardihood,  more  readily  existing  on  moist,  arid, 
or  rocky  soils  ;  a  tree  with  more  abundant  roots,  by  which  it  can  offer 
greater  resistance  to  wind  and  cold,  as  well  as  obtain  more  nourish- 
ment; a  better  form  of  tree  than  simply  portions  of  others,  the  wounds 
of  which  heal  with  difficulty  and  are  frequently  the  source  of  decay. 
The  seedling  process  is,  therefore,  most  advised  and  most  adopted. 

The  nursery. — The  formation  of  the  nursery  for  the  young  olive  is  of 
great  importance,  and  is  a  special  and  very  profitable  industry.  The 
soil  for  this  purpose  should  not  be  either  too  clayey  or  too  silicious,  too 
dry  or  moist,  should  be  well  mellowed  and  on  a  slope  of  southern  in- 
clination. The  land  selected  is  here  plowed  or  dug  to  a  depth  of  2  feet 
in  November  or  December,  and  thus  left  until  spring  to  the  operation 
of  rain  and  frost.  A  second  breaking  of  the  soil  by  spading,  less  deep 
than  the  preceding,  in  April,  completes  the  dispositions  required  for 
the  reception  of  the  seedlings,  the  young  wild  olives,  the  rooted  cut- 
tings, and  the  shoots. 

Inasmuch  as  these  plants  when  placed  are  intended  to  remain  at 
least  seven  years,  they  are  generally  planted  a  distance  of  3  feet  apart. 
The  first  care  taken,  after  the  roots  are  developed,  is  to  form  the  trunk 
of  the  future  tree  by  careful  lopping  of  the  plant's  lateral  branches. 
This  process  is  continued  for  about  five  years.  At  the  end  of  the  fifth 


THE   OLIVE   IN   NICE.  tJ37 

year  is  the  period  to  determine  the  height  desirable  for  tho.  tree  to  at- 
tain. The  height  preferred  depends  upon  the  species,  but  more  upon 
the  locality  and  nature  of  the  soil  to  which  it  is  to  be  transplanted.  If 
destined  to  deep  and  rich  soils,  a  trunk  of  4  to  5  feet  in  height  is  best ; 
but  if  for  a  lean  soil,  or  a  place  exposed  to  winds,  then  3  to  4  feet  is 
sufficient.  Soon  after  its  fifth  year  comes  the  time  for  forming  the  head 
of  the  tree,  to  which  is  given  sometimes  the  form  of  a  truncated  cone, 
of  a  vase,  of  a  fan,  a  sphere,  or  pyramid,  the  object  being  always  to 
allow  it  to  present  as  much  surface  to  the  sun  as  possible.  The  result 
is  reached  only  by  the  labor  of  years. 

Trans2)1anting.—In  the  transplantation  the  plants  are  placed  about  4 
inches  deeper  than  in  the  nursery,  and  in  lines  from  north  to  south, 
with  a  space  between  each  tree  of  from  25  to  30  feet,  as  the  tree  will  not 
be  fruitful  unless  well  exposed  to  the  sun.  The  rule  in  that  regard 
here  is  as  follows  :  Plant  the  trees  on  right  lines  from  north  to  south, 
with  such  a  distance  in  the  alleys  between  them  that  the  tree  to  the 
south  shall  not  cast  its  shadow  on  its  neighbor  to  the  north  on  the  day 
of  the  equinox,  the  22d  day  of  March,  at  noon. 

When  the  soil  is  dry  the  plants  are  transplanted  in  the  autumn,  and 
in  moist  soils  in  the  spring,  care  then  being  taken  that  they  be  placed  in 
the  same  position  toward  the  sun  as  they  had  in  the  nursery.  A  bed 
of  straw  is  provided  at  the  foot  and  a  circular  gutter  to  retain  the  rain 
in  summer.  The  soil  covering  the  roots  contains  some  fertilizer,  such 
as  pulverized  bones  or  ordinary  dung. 

Pruning. — It  is  an  ancient  saying  here  that  by  planting  the  olive  you 
pray  it  to  give  you  fruit ;  if  you  manure  it,  you  not  only  pray  it  but 
yon  entreat  it;  but  by  pruning  you  compel  it  to  do  so.  To  this  end  all 
dead  wood  is  cut  out,  and  those  branches  which  prevent  air  and  light 
reaching  the  center  of  the  tree.  The  height  is  also  thus  reduced  when 
detracting  from  the  vigor  of  the  lower  branches,  and  rendering  at  the 
same  time  more  difficult  the  gathering  of  the  fruit.  A  regular  pruning 
of  young  plants,  however,  should  not  commence  until  the  fifth  or  sixth 
year  after  transplantation. 

At  Nice  the  trees  are  pruned  every  two  years,  in  the  spring.  In 
autumn  the  wounds  have  no  time  to  heal  before  cold  weather,  but  in  the 
first  case  there  is  also  danger — loss  of  sap.  On  examining  more  closely 
the  rules  for  olive  pruning  it  should  be  remarked  that  these  should  cor- 
ivspond  to  the  mode  of  growtli  of  the  tree  itself.  Young  branches  pre- 
sent themselves  opposite  each  other  on  the  most  vigorous  branches,  and 
are  only  productive  of  wood;  other  produce  knobs  for  flowers  all  along 
their  length,  which  expand  in  branches  in  the  spring  of  the  second  year. 
Each  of  these  small  branches  develop  two  lateral  shoots;  these  new 
shoots  fructify  in  the  following  spring,  and  so  on.  It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  the  olive  fruit  grows  only  on  the  branches  which  are  two 
years  old. 

If  the  new  shoots  were  developed  yearly  without  accident,  the  tree 
would  annually  produce  its  fruit,  but  in  the  years  of  abundance  the  sap 


638        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

is  drawn  to  the  nourishment  of  the  fruit,  and  hence  the  number  of  young 
sprouts  is  restricted  and  the  ability  of  fructification  for  the  following 
year.  Hence,  also,  it  will  be  understood  that  one  object  of  pruning  must 
be  to  favor  the  birth  of  the  young  lateral  shoots,  either  by  arresting  the 
terminal  development  or  suppressing  the  smaller  branches.  The  small 
and  more  perpendicular  branches  are  more  abundant,  but  the  horizontal 
or  hanging  ones  are  the  most  productive.  The  skilled  cultivator  directs 
the  pruning  of  his  plantation  in  such  a  manner  that  one-half  of  it  fructi- 
fies one  year  and  the  other  half  the  next  year. 

The  height  of  thu  tree  here  averages  about  21  feet,  yet  there  are  trees 
in  the  neighborhood  56  feet  in  height  and  at  the  base  22  feet  in  circum- 
ference. Neither  Greece  nor  Palestine  could  boast  such  trees. 

Fertilizers. — The  fertilizers  devoted  to  this  tree  are  numerous.  These 
may  consist  of  its  leaves,  unutilized  otherwise,  residues  of  its  oil,  oil- 
cakes, and  the  refuse  of  animals,  the  refuse  of  skins,  horns,  feathers, 
woolen  rags,  and  guano.  Those  decomposing  slowly,  as  horns,  rags, 
etc.,  are  applied  in  autumn,  in  the  spring  those  dissolving  less  slowly. 
At  the  period  of  fruitage  strong  manures  are  used  which  act  immedi- 
ately. The  manure  is  placed  away  from  the  trunk  and  over  the  ab- 
sorbent mouths  of  the  extremities  of  the  roots.  It  is  usually  disposed 
here  in  a  ditch  about  2  feet  deep,  encompassing  the  tree,  and  then  buried. 
Slight  but  frequent  applications  are  best,  but  it  is  usually  practiced 
only  once  a  year. 

Grafting. — The  usual  methods  of  grafting  can  be  applied  to  the  olive. 
The  following,  however,  are  used  in  this  district:  (1)  The  "eye-bud"  or 
"ring"  graft,  the  latter  being  a  variety  of  the  former;  (2)  the  cleft  graft, 
preferred  in  Nice. 

In  nurseries  the  eye-bud  is  practiced,  but  the  cleft  only  on  older  trees 
in  the  field.  Cultivated  and  wild  olives  both  are  grafted. 

To  make  an  eye-bud  graft,  a  furrow  in  the  form  of  a  T  is  cut  through 
the  bark  of  the  trunk  to  be  grafted,  and  in  this  a  bud  from  a  cultivated 
olive  is  inserted  by  raising  the  corners  of  the  middle  of  said  T;  the  graft 
is  then  plastered  with  mud  and  covered  with  a  rag,  fastened  with  twine. 

The  cleft  graft  is  formed  from  shoots  or  cuttings  instead  of  buds.  The 
branch  to  be  grafted  is  cut  squarely  off  and  the  stump  split  by  the  knife. 
Into  the  cleft  one  or  more  shoots,  previously  sharpened  in  wedge  shape, 
are  then  inserted,  care  being  taken  that  the  bark  of  each  shoot  adheres 
to  the  incision ;  the  interstices  are  then  filled  with  paper  or  fine  straw, 
and  the  place  grafted  is  covered  with  moist  clay  and  bound  with  a  bit 
of  cloth. 

The  grafts  will  not  produce  the  olive  until  three  years,  and  do  not 
attain  their  full  yield  until  nine  years  after  grafting.  "From  said  period 
a  tree  1  foot  in  diameter  will  produce,  on  an  average,  34  pounds;  a  tree 
of  2  feet,  112  pounds;  and  one  of  3  feet,  200  pounds  of  olives  per  annum, 

ALBERT  N.  HATHAWAY, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul, 

Nice,  March  25,  1889. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    ITALY.  ()3(J 

ITALY. 

INFORMATION  FOR  AMERICAN  OLIVE-GROWERS. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  LAMANTIA,  OF  CATANIA. 

Variety. — The  common  olive  tree  in  Europe  has  oblong  leaves,  and  is 
the  kind  which  was  first  imported,  and  from  the  wild  state  repro- 
duced in  varieties,  and  grafted,  offers  so  many  varieties  too  difficult  to 
mention.  In  fact,  the  Indians  knew  but  one  kind ;  the  Egyptians  only 
3,  and  the  Hebrews  and  Greeks  5.  The  Romans,  as  to  Virgilius's  state- 
ment, knew  but  3  varieties;  Cato  says  10;  Columella  stated  12;  Ma- 
crobio  reported  14,  and  Pliny  declared  15  varieties.  In  other  times  the 
Botanic  Tournefort  classified  them  to  17  varieties. 

By  an  interesting  report,  however,  published  in  1871,  by  the  Ministro 
d'Agricultura,  Industria,  e  Commercio,  it  seems  that  there  were  registered 
300  varieties  actually  cultivated  in  the  several  regions  of  Italy,  viz : 
Lombardy,  23  varieties;  Yenetia,  21;  Liguria,  24;  Emilia,  10;  Marches,. 
63;  Tuscany,  30;  Lazio,  27  ;  Adriatic  coast,  07,  and  Sicily,  21  varieties. 
The  olive  tree  in  Sicily  blossoms  from  the  month  of  April  to  June,  and 
experience  has  proved  that  when  it  happens  Jn  April  yields  a  full  crop, 
while  blossoming  in  May  or  June  gives  a  scanty  one. 

The  flowers  on  the  bunches  develop  very  slowly,  but  as  soon  as  they 
fade  the  fruit  sets  on  and  is  formed  in  a  few  days.  Ten  or  fifteen  flow- 
ers compose  the  bunch,  but  only  a  few  of  them  set  on,  and  many  of 
them  fall  down. 

Bunches  with  three  or  four  fruits  stand  well,  and  the  fruits  so  formed 
come  to  perfect  maturity  from  the  month  of  October  up  to  the  end  of 
March  (see  Fig.  3,  with  bud,  blossom,  fruit,  and  stone  open  in  two). 
The  olive  tree,  when  it  is  located  in  favorable  conditions  and  cultivated 
properly,  grows  to  an  extraordinary  size,  very  high,  and  lives  very 
long.  In  fact,  Pliny  says,  that  in  his  time  at  Luiterno,  a  city  near  Rome, 
were  seen  trees  which  had  been  planted  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
before  by  Scipio  Africauus.  Gasparin  writes  to  have  seen  at  Eogliano, 
in  the  Island  of  Corsica,  olive  trees  from  17  to  18  meters  high. 

Extraordinarily  large  are  also  several  Saracene  olive  trees  in  Sicily, 
some  of  which  Professor  Alvi  says  yield  as  much  as  10  hectoliters  of 
fruit.  One  of  them,  near  Girgenti,  which  he  himself  measured,  has  a  cir- 
cumference 4of  8.20  meters  (25  feet)  at  6  feet  from  the  ground.  Their 
age,  he  further  states,  is  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years,  while  other  authors  agree  it  to  be  from  five  hundred  to  six  hun- 
dred years. 

In  some  counties  in  the  province  of  Cosenza  (Calabria)  there  are 


640 


FRUIT   CULTURE    IK   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


some  olive  trees,  visited  by  Professor  Alvi,  which  he  judges  to  be  of  a 
very  ancient  date,  and  some  people  of  that  country  evert  pretend  the 
said  trees  to  have  been  from  the  time  of  Luigi  D'Angio,  who  was  sent 
there  in  a  manner  of  banishment  and  to  govern  in  the  same  time  that 
country. 


FIG.  3.— Albero  con  frutt. 


Vegetation. — In  many  parts  of  Italy  this  plant  grows  spontaneously, 
and  principally  derived  from  seeds  deposited  by  some  large  bird's  ex- 
crements, which  are  in  a  condition  of  sprouting.  But  the  plant  left  to 
itself  grows  and  rises  slowly  from  the  ground,  the  branches  furnish  a 
few  and  small  leaves,  bearing  very  late,  and  the  fruit  yields  but  a  little 
oil. 

The  olive  tree  propagated  by  seeds  and  subjected  to  grafting,  when 
located  on  open  air  and  on  well  adapted  land,  throws  towards  the 
ground  a  good  main  root,  from  which  many  others  grow  down  deep,  and 
the  tree  from  its  base  acquires  a  majestic  appearance.  On  points  where 
the  trunk  joins  the  roots  on  the  largest  of  them  develop  certain  swell- 
ings called  ovoli  (springs),  which  are  used  for  propagating  the  culture. 
If  the  plant  be  destroyed  by  storm  or  killed  by  frost  from  its  base,  yet 
many  shoots  will  come  out,  although  less  than  when  it  is  in  the  regular 
course  of  vegetation ;  these  springs  repeat  their  growing  from  the  orig- 
inal roots. 


THK    OLIVi;    IX   ITALY. 


641 


The  olive  leaves  last  from  two  to  three  years,  and  grow  matched  on 
the  branches  one  against  the  other,  as  Fig.  1. 


FIG.  1. 

Climate. — The  olive  plant  is  one  of  those  generally  liking  warm  cli- 
mates, and  in  a  changeable  temperature  it  grows  well,  and  fructifies 
even  exposed  to  any  direction.  The  extreme  limit  of  its  vegetation  is 
marked  about  the  45  north  latitude.  Excessive  heat  and  intensely  cold 
weather  are  injurious  to  its  culture.  In  fact,  beyond  the  African  At- 
lantic the  olive  plant  is  seen  no  more.  As  Humboldt  remarked,  in  his 
voyages  in  the  several  parts  of  South  America,  and  as  Poiteaux  ob- 
served at  Cajenna  and  St.  Domingo,  that  if  the  plant  could  vegetate  in 
those  regions,  it  would  never  bear  fruit.  Some  writers  have  asserted 
that  the  olive  plant  wants  to  grow  near  sea,  and  they  have  even  estab- 
lished the  extreme  limit,  beyond  which,  under  this  respect,  the  plant 
does  not  find  the  necessary  conditions  for  its  vegetation.  This  opinion 
lias,  however,  been  contradicted  and  proved  by  the  fact  that  many 
olive  trees  are  seen  growing  and  producing  well  in  the  interior  of  con- 
tinents and  very  far  from  sea-shores.  If  the  olive  plant  shows  its  pref- 
erence near  sea  it  is  because  there  the  temperature  is  more  suitable  to 
its  vegetation.  The  olive  tree  commences  to  vegetate  when  the  temper 
at ure  is  at  12  centigrade^  above  zero,  and  blossoms  at  18  or  19  centi- 
grades.  A  temperature  of  5  below  zero,  followed  by  a  sudden  thaw, 


642 


FRUIT   CULTURE   IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


operated  by  the  sun's  rays,  is  sufficient  to  kill  it  totally  at  the  base. 
With  a  lower  temperature,  not  followed  by  sunny  days,  the  plant  does 
not  suffer  as  much,  as  it  can  stand  to  a  cold  of  10  centigrades  below  zero. 
It  is  not  so  much  the  cold  weather  that  injures  the  olive  growth  as  it 
is  the  frequent  change  of  cold  weather  to  warm,  and  the  often  melting 
of  ice. 

One  of  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  plant  is  frosty  weather,  espe- 
cially when  the  snow  fallen  on  the  branches  dissolves  by  the  sun's 
rays  and  congeals  again  during  the  coming  night;  at  12  below  zero 
it  riot  only  kills  all  the  leaves,  but  even  the  trunk  and  its  roots  to  the 
ground. 

A  cold  of  equal  intensity  is  more  fatal  during  the  spring  season 
than  it  is  in  winter,  for  the  reason  that  the  plants  are  then  in  a  state 
of  vegetation,  and  consequently  the  new  sprouts  are  ruined  and  de- 
stroyed. 

A  cold  in  a  vaporous  atmosphere  hurts  more  than  in  a  dry  one,  and  it 
is  for  that  reason  that  with  the  same  degree  of  cold  the  olive  plants  on 
plain  lands,  because  in  a  vaporous  atmosphere,  become  more  damaged 
than  those  located  on  hills.  The  altitude  which  the  olive  tree  can 
attain  varies  according  to  the  several  regions  in  which  it  is  cultivated. 
In  central  north  Italy,  for  instance,  it  ordinarily  trespasses  500  meters 
above  sea-level,  while  in  Sicily  it  goes  over  700  meters.  But  Professor 
Alvi  assures  me  that  he  has  seen  olive  trees  in  this  island  at  800  meters. 
It  is  proper,  however,  to  note  that  if  at  the  extreme  limit  of  altitude  the 
olive  tree  can  vegetate,  it  is  impossible  there  to  bear  fruit.  Hence, 
planting  in  such  localities  does  not  pay.  I  may  here  give  the  agrarian 
climatic  temperature  in  Sicily,  which  is  divided  in  three  different  zones, 
viz,  the  marine  or  warm  climate,  the  medium  or  hilly  temperate,  and 
the  mountainous  cold  one.  The  height  of  the  first  is  considered  to  be 
from  0  to  600  meters  above  sea-level ;  the  second  from  600  to  1,100,  and 
the  third  1,100  to  1,800. 

The  following  table  shows  the  several  principal  products  cultivated 
and  grown  in  same : 

[Agrarian  climatic  zone  in  Sicily.  1 


First  zone  (low  land,  warm  climate, 
from  0  to  600  meters). 

Second  zone  (hilly  land,  temper 
ate  climate,  from  600  to  1,  100 
meters). 

'» 

Third  zone   (mountainous    cold 
climate  from  1,100  to  1.800  me- 
ters) 

Olive  trees. 

Corn. 

Prairies. 

Vineyard. 

Wheat. 

Chestnut. 

Sumac. 

Horse  beans  . 

Oak  trees. 

Fig  trees. 

Pistacciiio  trees  . 

Ilex. 

Prickly  pears. 
Almond  trees. 

Rye. 
Barley. 

Pine  trees. 
Beech  trees. 

Oranges  and  lemons. 

Chestnut  trees. 

Cereals. 

Filbert  trees. 

THE    OLIVE    IN   ITALY.  643 

Situation. — The  success  of  olive  culture  greatly  depends  on  situation 
and  soil.  Calculating  the  method  of  vegetation  of  this  plaut,  it  may  be 
determined  that  in  warm  climates  situations  facing  from  east  to  north 
are  to  be  preferred,  so  that  the  plant  will  not  suffer  irom  the  summer 
heat.  In  climates  less  worm,  however,  an  eastern  exposure  is  best, 
and  in  climates  of  the  last  zone  a  southern  exposure  is  best.  As  above 
stated,  in  climates  less  warm  the  expositions  to  east  are  to  be  preferred, 
but  if  the  locality  is  subject  to  frequent  white  frosts,  then  it  is  better  to 
cultivate  it  in  expositions  facing  west  and  north,  for  the  reason  that 
exposed  to  east  the  plants  covered  with  white  frost,  and  quickly  touched 
by  the  morning  sun,  the  sudden  change  from  one  temperature  to  an- 
other, they  run  the  risk  of  getting  dried. 

As  far  as  inclinations  are  concerned,  those  of  hiily  and  rolling  ones 
are  to  be  preferred,  for  the  reason  that  olive  plants  cultivated  on  flat 
land,  although  they  present  a  flourishing  vegetation,  yield  fruit  too 
rich  in  oil,  while  those  situated  on  hilly  and  rolling  land  give  best  re- 
sults. The  same  may  be  said  of  the  trees  planted  in  a  mild  tempera- 
ture. 

In  flat  land  the  fruit  sets  badly,  becomes  watery,  yields  less  oil,  and 
more  dregs,  is  subject  to  fall  before  maturity,  and  is  easily  assailed  by 
insects  and  disease.  The  trees  on  the  highest  zone  of  temperature  suf- 
fer from  the  cold,  and  have  of  course  less  duration.  It  is,  therefore, wise 
that  in  planting  an  olive  grove  preference  must  be  given  to  middle 
altitude  of  hilly  and  rolling  lands  without  calculating  the  majestic 
aspect  the  trees  may  show  on  flat  soils,  for  their  fruit  yields  but  a  little 
oil. 

Soil. — The  olive  tree  is  a  plant  which  adapts  itself  to  any  soil, 
even  to  the  most  sterile  one;  but  it  does  not  give  everywhere  the 
same  quantity  of  fruit.  In  the  soil  it  likes  a  certain  coolness,  but  not 
exceedingly,  for  the  reason  that  too  much  dampness,  stagnated  in 
the  ground,  renders  it  too  hard,  thus  causing  damage  both  to  roots 
and  trees. 

The  best  soil  for  olive  culture  is  the  calcareous  siliceous -argellaceous, 
rather  deep  and  permeable.  A  stony  soil,  covered  with  a  little  ground 
sufficient  to  let  the  young  trees  vegetate,  may  be  adapted  for  the  olive 
culture,  The  proofs  thereof  are  the  trees  grown  on  the  hills  around  Mes- 
sina and  on  Mount  Etna,  which  are  covered  with  but  a  few  centimeters 
of  ground.  In  compact  soil  and  those  on  impermeable  subsoil,  the 
olive  plant  dies. 

Fertilizing. — The  manure  adapted  for  fertilizing  the  olive  tree  must 
be  subordinate  to  its  composition. 


644 


FRUIT    CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 


From  the  analysis  made  by  Duracher  and  Malagati,  the  following 
has  been  obtained,  viz  : 


o 

o 

-e  « 

0 

IH 

o    • 

c3 

0     . 

.g 

0 

«g   . 

Description. 

<c 
aS 

a 

a 
tt 

a; 
a 

11 

11 

* 

'a 

SB 

02^! 

il 

It 

O 

1 

1 

H 

£ 

B 

CO 

E 

M 

o 

0 

In  the  wood  

25.54 
26  67 

7.23 
7.31 

20.12 
21.  93 

10.15 

7.98 

3.43 
1.64 

13.75 
20.88 

4.43 
(i.  11 

12.16 
5.39 

1.26 
2.37 

Iii  the  fruit         

7.  13 

20.51 

10.  25 

22.91 

10.53 

4.60 

12.41 

2.59 

7.92 

Total  

59.34 

20.  51 

24.79 

64.96 

28.  66 

9.67 

47.04 

13.13 

25.47 

3.63 

From  the  above  table  it  seems  that  the  olive  tree  contains  mostly  all 
the  materials  generally  needed  by  other  plants,  and  that  lime,  flint,  and 
phosphoric  acid  are  the  most  in  nroportiou  of  other  materials.  Conse- 
quently in  manuring  said  plant,  the  compost  is  to  be  made  accordingly, 
in  respect  to  others  shown  on  the  table.  But  many  of  said  materials 
are  contained  in  the  soil,  and  in  such  cases  it  would  be  superfluous  to 
add  others.  Therefore,  it  is  necessary  to  learn  the  composition  of  the 
soil  in  order  to  know  and  to  be  sure  how  to  properly  manure  the  plants. 
Besides  the  above  materials,  well-decomposed  excrements  of  any  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  wood-asnes,  etc.,  make  also  a  good  compost  for  manur- 
ing, and  the  proper  time  to  do  it  is  after  the  winter  season,  when  through 
the  watering  vehicle  the  materials  are  absorbed  in  the  ground.  At 
last,  in  manuring  the  plants  the  material  shown  on  the  table  must  not 
be  neglected,  and  of  which  potash,  soda,  magnesia,  lime,  silices  and 
phosphoric  acid  must  be  more  in  proportion,  as  such  composts  greatly 
benefit  the  olive  culture.  The  quantity  of  manure  to  be  given  to  each 
tree  varies  according  to  its  size,  quality,  and  composition  of  ground ; 
and  it  is  therefore  impossible  to  establish  a  certain  quantity,  and  the 
best  thing  to  do  is  to  manure  annually  with  a  little  compost,  except  in 
cases  where  a  plant  shows  dullness,  when  a  good  dose  of  manure  could 
be  given  in  order  to  make  it  revive  again. 

Propagation. — The  olive  culture  can  be  propagated  by  (1)  semi 
(seeds) ;  (2)  ovoli  (springs)  j  (3)  talee  (stocks)  $  (4)  polloni  (sprouts) ; 
(5)  tronco  vecchio  (old  trunk) ;  (6)  olivastrelli  (olivasters). 

All  the  plants  derived  from  any  of  those  propagated  must  be  Drafted, 
as  they  generally  grow  from  a  wild  state.  Exception,  however,  is  to  be 
made  in  the  case  of  young  trees  derived  from  stalks  taken  from  the 
upper  grafted  trees,  or  from  plants  which  needed  no  grafting,  and  those 
which  are  obtained  from  springs,  sprouts,  and  old  trunks. 

Propagating  by  seed. — This  system,  although  requiring  more  time  for 
growing  and  fruiting,  as  a  method  of  propagation  deserves  to  be  appre- 
ciated, for  the  reason  that  plants  originating  from  seeds  are  of  longer 
duration,  become  larger,  and  better  withstand  cold  weather,  insects, 
and  diseases. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    ITALY.  645 

To  carry  out  propagation  by  stvds  it  is  m-ressary  first  to  prepare  a 
good  sized  seed-plot,  enough  to  contain  all  the-  young  plants  develop- 
ing therefrom,  and  there  to  remain  for  three  years,  after  which  time 
they  are  to  be  planted  in  a  reservoir  for  replanting.  The  seed-plot 
must  not  be  exposed  to  the  north,  and  the  ground  must  be  clear  of  roots 
and  flint-stones.  In  winter  it  must  be  richly  manured  with  animal  ex- 
crements, not  quite  decomposed,  the  ground  deeply  dug  up,  and  always 
kept  free  of  grass.  During  the  spring  and  summer  seasons  it  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  it  fresh  and  water  it  whenever  necessary  to  help  the  seed- 
ling to  sprout.  In  July  the  young  plants  are  out  of  the  ground,  and  in 
November  they  are  4  or  5  inches  high.  During  the  second  year  the  seed- 
plot  is  to  be  worked  the  same  as  the  first  year,  and  in  October,  or  in 
the  coming  spring  season  of  the  third  year,  the  young  plants  are  large 
enough  to  be  transferred  to  the  reservoir  by  taking  ofl'  all  the  little 
branches  therefrom. 

Propagating  by  ovoli. — The  ovoli  (spring)  is  a  bud  found  on  rooty 
stumps  and  on  the  larger  roots.  It  has  the  shape  and  the  size  of  a 
goose's  egg  and  shows  out  from  the  bark  of  trees.  From  each  adult 
plant  no  more  than  three  or  four  ovoli  are  to  be  taken  off,  otherwise 
you  hurt  the  tree.  To  obtain  ovoli  or  talee  instead  of  ruining  many 
plants  it  is  better  to  cut  down  one  or  two  trees,  from  which  a  few 
hundred  of  them  can  be  obtained  for  propagation.  The  said  trees, 
however,  must  be  of  a  good  quality,  apt  to  produce  fruit  of 
a  white  and  juicy  wood,  and  not  reddish  or  veined.  The 
springs  on  the  roots  are  to  be  preferred  to  those  located  on 
the  stumps  of  the  trees,  for  tbe  reason  that  the  former  are 
always  more  tender  and  juicy;  hence  better  adapted  for 
budding. 

Propagating  by  talee  (stocks).— -This  is  simply  done  by  cut- 
ting off  from  the  best  fruiting  plants  a  bit  of  branch  about 
l.J  leet  long  (Fig.  4),  which  is  laid  in  the  ground  by  the 
largest  end  deeper  down.  The  trees  of  the  said  stocks  must 
be  vegetating  and  of  a  large  size,  with  thick  bark,  and  well 
furnished  with  gems,  wherefrom  it  is  easy  for  rooting  and 
budding.  In  order  to  succeed,  however,  it  is  necessary  to 
lay  it  horizontally  in  a  reservoir  facing  the  same  direction 
of  its  plant.  Besides  single  talee  propagation  can  also  be 
done  by  talee  composta  (composed  stock,  Fig.  5),  which  be-  Flr-  *• 
forehand  needs  to  be  placed  in  a  temporary  reservoir,  and  only  when 
supplied  with  roots  and  buds  is  planted  in  another  one.  This  method 
of  propagating  requires  the  identical  work  like  the  single  talee,  by 
placing  it  horizontally  in  the  ground,  the  largest  end  deeper  down,  as 
Fig.  6. 

After  one  year  the  young  branches  will  provide  themselves  with 


646 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


leaves  and  roots,  when  the  stock  will  be  cut  in  pieces  and  each  piece 
planted  in  the  reservoir.     (Fig.  7.) 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  7. 


Propagation  by  polloni  (sprouts). — Between  the  intersection  of  roots 
with  the  trunk  of  the  largest  roots  on  the  base  of  trees  sprouts  gener- 
ally grow  up,  the  same  as  in  other  plants,  from  which  good  advau- 


THE    OLIVE    IN    ITALY.  ('.17 

tage  can  be  obtained  in  propagating  the  olive  growth,  as  this  is  the 
quickest  mode  of  all.  Very  often  it  seems  sprouts  are  provided  with 
roots,  and  if  they  spring  up  in  great  number  from  the  plant  some  are 
dug  up,  leaving  the  largest  and  most  vigorous  ones  and  covering  their 
bases  with  earth. 

Propagating  by  tronchi  vecchi  (old  trunks). — Advantage  can  also  be 
derived  from  old  trunks  in  the  propagation  of  olive  trees. 

When  a  plant  dies  and  contains  living  roots  you  see  a  great  number 
of  sprouts  growing  therefrom,  which  are  also  useful  for  propagation, 
and  for  which  use  those  most  vigorous  and  largest  are  left  on  the 
mother  plant  well  covered  with  earth,  and  the  smallest  ones  are  taken 
out  to  let  the  former  have  more  space.  In  this  state  of  growing  they 
are  left  until  their  young  trunks  grow  as  thick  as  1 J  inches  in  diameter, 
after  which  they  are  hoed  up  and  detached  from  the  mother  plant, 
transported  to  the  reservoir,  and  planted  at  the  distance  of  2  feet  from 
each  other.  Where  the  sprouts  of  the  dead  plant  are  not  many,  then 
it  is  better  to  leave  them  attached  to  the  same. 

Propagation  by  olivastrelli  (olivasters). — Where  the  olive  tree  grows 
spontaneously  in  a  wild  state,  and  is  not  touched  by  animals7  teeth,  care 
can  be  taken  of  it  until  it  grows  to  a  proper  size,  when  it  is  transported 
to  final  position,  or  planted  in  the  reservoir,  at  a  distance  of  2  feet  each 
side. 

It  is,  however,  worthy  of  note,  that  of  all  these  methods  of  propaga- 
tion, the  one  operated  by  seeds  is  the  best,  for  the  reason,  as  above 
stated,  that  plants  so  propagated  live  longer,  and  better  resist  the  cold 
weather.  In  propagating  by  stocks  the  character  of  the  tree  wherefrom 
stocks  were  derived  is  perpetuated.* 

Grafting. — Following  the  propagation,  I  ought  to  proceed  with  the 
reservoirs,  but  as  the  small  plants  propagated  by  the  methods  above 
stated,  must  be,  in  most  cases,  grafted,  which  can  be  done  in  the  reser- 
voir as  well  as  in  final  stay,  I  proceed  about  the  grafting  in  reservoir. 
Plants  propagated  by  seeds,  springs  and  sprouts  derived  from  graft- 
ing, as  well  as  those  from  roots  of  trees  already  grafted,  and  those 
spontaneously  grown  by  seeds  in  a  wild  state,  need,  of  course  to  be 
grafted. 

The  olive  tree  can  be  grafted  by  several  methods,  and  they  are  as 
follows,  to  wit:  (1)  A  scudetto  (shield),  Figs.  9,  10,  11;  (2)  An  anello 
(ring);  (3)  A  corona  (crown). 

The  first  method  is  mostly  used  in  Sicily,  on  account  of  its  simplicity 
and  certainty  ;  the  second  one  is  seldom  used,  because  it  is  difficult  and 
it  is  operated  late  in  the  spring.  The  third  one,  Figs.  14, 16, 17,  is  prac- 
ticed for  adult  plants,  and  likewise  in  the  late  spring  season,  when  the 
plants  are  in  a  state  of  anger.  Here  I  do  not  proceed  minutely  in  de- 

*Prof.  A.  Alvi's  report, 
156A 17 


648        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

scribing  the  several  methods,  as  grafting  is  well  known  by  every  agri< 
culturist  in  the  United  States. 


FIG.  10.  FIG.  9.  FIG.  11. 

Treating  plants  in  the  reservoir. — While  the  plants  develop  in  the  reser- 
voir, it  is  necessary  to  predicate  all  the  possible  intelligent  care, for  the 


FIG.  16.  FIG.  17.  FIG.  14. 

reason  that  if  they  are  neglected,  they  will  be  of  poor  fruiting  produc- 
tion. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    ITALY.  649 

As  to  the  length  of  time  to  keep  them  in  the  reservoir,  several  emi- 
nent agriculturists  differ  in  their  opinion,  to  wit:  some  propose  live 
years,  while  others  advocate  fourteen.  Practical  observations,  how- 
ever, have  proved  that  allowing  plants  five  years  in  the  reservoir,  they 
can  never  acquire  sufficient  roots  to  be  transplanted  for  final  stay.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  left  for  fourteen  years,  on  the  seventh  or  eighth  year 
one  half  of  them,  the  odd  ones,  are  to  be  transferred  in  another  reser- 
voir, as  the  one  would  not  be  large  enough  to  contain  all  the  young 
plants  located  therein  at  a  distance  of  2  feet  apart  as  above  stated.  Jt 
is  therefore  advisable,  in  Professor  Alvi's  practical  experience,  that  the 
proper  time  of  allowing  young  plants  in  the  reservoir  is  from  seven  to 
eight  years,  counting  the  time  of  the  seed  plot. 

IMII-  the  first  two  years,  keep  the  young  plants  clear  of  little  lateral 
branches,  but  leave  the  leaves  remaining  on  the  arm  pits.  Fasten  the 
little  stocks  on  sticks  placed  alongside  of  them  in  order  to  protect 
them  from  strong  wind  or  stormy  weather.  \Vater  the  reservoirincase 
of  long  drought  and  fence  it  to  prevent  animals  from  destroying  it,  and 
always  keep  the  ground  clear  of  grass. 

From  the  second  to  the  fifth  year  treat  the  plants  as  above  stated ; 
only  on  the  fourth  year  change  the  sticks  for  larger  ones  in  order  to 
better  sustain  the  growing  plants.  On  the  sixth  year  they  are  in  a 
state  of  designating  the  shape  you  want  them  to  grow. 

The  height  of  the  trunks  principally  varies  according  to  the  situation 
of  the  ground  wherein  the  plants  are  to  be  located  for  final  stay.  If 
the  soil  is  fertile  and  fresh,  they  (trunks)  can  be  left  at  about  6  feet  high 
from  the  base,  and  if  it  is  arid  at  about  4  feet.  The  reason  for  this  is, 
that  the  shorter  the  plant  the  more  vigorous  they  grow.  And  as  Col- 
umella  said  on  this  subject :  "  Lactius  enimfrondat.  Exiguus  admodum 
supra  scrobum  eminent." 

Having  thus  fixed  the  height  of  the  trunks  all  the  young  branches 
grown  under  them  are  to  be  taken  off,  and  to  the  main  sprout  growing 
high  must  be  done  the  same,  and  by  leaving  on  its  upper  end  about  from 
live  to  eight  branches  well  distributed  around  the  same,  in  order  to 
form  the  head  of  the  trees. 

Another  method  in  fixing  the  height  of  them  is  by  cutting  all  the 
branches  of  the  plant  to  the  fixed  point  of  height,  in  order  to  permit  its 
roots  to  develop  and  to  incorporate  themselves  in  the  soil  before  the 
plant  requires  nourishment,  and  at  the  same  time  sprouts  will  grow  to 
the  desired  height. 

Transplanting  for  final  stay. — We  have  learned  up  to  this  the  sort  of 
land  and  the  exposition  better  adapted  for  the  olive  culture,  as  well  as 
the  several  methods  of  propagation  and  the  treatment  to  be  given  young 
trees  in  the  reservoir.  I  now  deem  it  proper  to  treat  about  the  system 
of  removing  them  therefrom,  and  the  distance  apart  to  be  left  between 
them.  Further,  I  will  proceed  with  pruning,  and  of  the  several  insect 
pests  and  diseases  afflicting  the  precious  Minerva's  plautt 


650        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

When  a  grower  is  to  transplant  young  trees  from  the  reservoir  to  final 
stay  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  establish  a  plan,  and  decide  whether  he 
wants  to  exclusively  form  an  olive  grove  or  together  with  plants  of 
other  fruits. 

The  disposing  of  planting  in  different  manners  is  subordinated  more 
to  the  inclination  of  the  laud  than  to  the  grower's  faculty.  The  land 
may  be  too  hilly  or  too  flat.  In  the  first  case,  it  is  better  to  plant  all 
the  land  exclusively  in  olive  groves,  and  in  rows  for  the  reason  that  dis- 
posing them  with  plants  of  other  fruits  between  they  would  yield  less 
fruit,  besides  rain-fall  on  hilly  soil  washes  out  the  necessary  elements 
of  their  growth,  and  the  roots  of  the  other  plants  would  always  be 
exposed. 

The  several  dispositions  to  be  given  to  olive  trees,  and  the  inclination 
of  the  land,  determine  the  distance  apart  between  the  trees.  If  a  cer- 
tain area  of  land  is. desired  to  be  exclusively  cultivated  in  an  olive 
grove,  the  distance  apart  between  the  plants  is  to  be  such  that,  in  the 
spring  equinox,  a  plant  must  not  shade  the  one  standing  by  in  the  di- 
rection from  south  to  north.  For  that  purpose  a  distance  of  16  feet 
apart  is  sufficient.  In  a  very  rich  soil,  however,  where  the  plant  can 
grow  very  large,  this  distance  must  be  doubled,  32  feet. 

The  inclination  of  the  land  for  the  grove  properly  adapted  to  the  cul- 
tivation must  be  running  from  north  to  south,  for  the  reason  that  if  ex- 
posed to  north  entirely  the  culture  would  be  retarded  by  cold  weather. 

Disposing  the  plants  in  rows,  however,  with  the  object  of  locating 
plants  of  other  fruits  between,  the  distance  amongst  rows  must  be  32 
feet  and  22  feet  between  plants  of  the  same  row. 

The  best  disposition  to  be  given  trees  is  the  hexagonal  one,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  25,  for  the  reason  that  if  it  runs  from  south  to  east  the  plants 
will  be  in  a  position  quite  open  to  the  sun  and  will  vegetate  and  grow 
well. 

The  proper  time  of  transplanting  from  the  reservoir  to  final  location 
is  the  month  of  July  or  August,  when  ditches,  either  round  or  square, 
of  4  feet  wide  by  3  deep,  will  be  dug  for  planting  the  young  trees  taken 
from  the  reservoir  on  hilly  or  rolling  land.  If  the  ground  is  flat,  the 
ditches  must  be  no  deeper  than  8  inches,  and  if  on  inclining  soil  16 
inches  deep.  This  done,  throw  therein  some  filling  of  old  plaster  or 
old  mortar  with  some  stratum  of  good  earth,  wherein  place  the  tree 
with  the  roots  well  scattered  around  the  base ;  cover  the  same  with  some 
earth  again,  manure  over  it,  and  some  wheat  husk  or  hashed  straw  to 
keep  the  soil  fresh  during  the  summer  and  to  nourish  at  the  same  time 
the  tender  roots.  Shake  the  trunk  a  little,  so  as  to  allow  the  ground  to 
be  well  settled  between  the  roots  so  that  they  will  be  easily  rooting. 
After  this  operation  has  been  done,  cover  carefully  the  ditches  with  the 
same  ground  removed  therefrom.  On  the  upper  side  near  the  plant 
form  a  sort  of  a  little  basiu?  so  as  to  hold  the  rain-water  to  water  the 
same, 


TTTK    OLIVK    IX    ITALY. 


651 


In  the   summer,    if   a   long  drought  should  prevail,   they  must  be 
irrigated. 


FIG.  25. 

Pruning. — An  old  motto  in  Sicily  says :  u  He,  who  works  a  growth 
demands  the  fruit;  who  manures  it  obtains  the  fruit;  and  who  prunes 
the  tree  forces  the  growth." 

The  principal  forms  to  which  olive  trees  can  be  reduced  are  four,  to 
wit:  Al  albero  (shape  of  a  tree),  al  pino,  (shape  of  a  pine),  al  paniere 
(shape  of  a  basket),  al  umbrella  (shape  of  an  umbrella). 

The  first  form  is  mostly  used  in  Sicily,  in  Calabria,  and  in  some  parts 
of  the  Roman  and  Tuscan  provinces.  It  consists  in  leaving  the  tree 
taking  its  natural  habit,  the  pruning  being  limited  by  cutting  now  and 
then  all  the  dried  and  broken  branches  and  all  those  deviating  the 
humor  from  the  central  trunk.  The  form  al  pino  called  also  "cone," 
is  more  correct  than  the  former,  and  consists  in  allowing  the  branches 
to  be  disposed  in  a  shape  without  hurting  one  another,  thus  forming  a 
good  exterior  without  exceeding  leaves. 

Pruning  al  Panicre,  called  also  vaso  (vase)  consists  in  taking  off  the 
main  trunk  all  the  disfiguring  branches  to  make  a  tree  look  in  the 
shape  of  a  vaso.  The  olive  plant  so  pruned  appears  with  all  the  branches 
well  ventilated,  and,  therefore,  besides  producing  the  great  quantity  of 
fruit,  it  furnishes  them  completely  matured.  For  this  reason  pruning 
al  paniere  is  considered  as  the  most  advantageous  one,  and  the  same  is 
generally  used  in  this  island.  Finally,  a  good  pruning  must  be  based 
upon  the  following  principles,  viz  : 

(1)  An  olive  plant   produces  no  fruit  on  new  sprouts  before  two 


652        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

years'  time,  for  the  reason  that  said  sprouts  in  the  first  year  bear  no 
fruit  but  simply  develop  and  bud  fruiting  gems,  in  the  second  year, 
when  they  will  grow  larger  for  blossoming,  setting,  and  fruiting. 

(2)  The  blossoms  do  not  set  neither  produce  fruit  if  not  exposed  to  the 
sun  rays  during  the  longest  part  of  the  day.     This  fact  must  not  be  neg- 
lected by  the  pruner  when  he  applies  his  pruning-knife,  if  he  wants  to 
gather  the  fruit.      He  must  always  prune  so  as  to  let  the  fruiting 
branches  be  exposed  to  the  sun  so  that  its  rays  will  penetrate  through 
the  plants,  as  those  thickly  loaded  with  branches  and  leaves  not  pruned 
as  above  stated,  bear  less  fruit  than  the  former. 

It  is  necessary  for  growers  to  keep  those  facts  in  mind,  if  they  would 
succeed  in  this  culture. 

(3)  The  horizontal  and  bending  down  branches  produce  a  great  many 
fruit,  while  the  vertical  ones  bear  none.     The  pruner  must  consequently 
turn  his  attention  to  raise  the  plants  as  above  stated,  and  not  in  a  ver- 
tical shape. 

(4)  When  a  plant  has  a  great  number  of  bearing  branches,  the  fruit 
will  naturally  be  small,  yield  less  oil,  and  the  crops  will  be  biennial. 
To  avoid  this  the  smart  pruner  should  simply  leave  a  certain  number  of 
the  most  vigorous  branches  sufficient  enough  so  as  not  to  force  the 
plants,  for  by  so  doing  they  will  render  larger  olives  and  more  oil  every 
year. 

(5)  The  olive  trees  being  of  so  many  varieties  they  consequently  re- 
quire different  treatment.     To  keep  in  mind  the  several  varieties  of 
olive  plants  while  the  pruning  is  going  on,  it  must  be  indispensable  for 
the  pruuer  to  know  that  there  are  some  branches  tending  to%grow  up 
straight,  while  others  incline  downward. 

In  the  first  case  the  former  are  not  to  be  forced  to  grow  low  in  a  close 
shape,  but  simply  prune  them  yearly,  and  try  to  prevent  them  from 
growing  too  high,  and  allow  them  to  retain  all  the  lateral  branches  ex- 
cept the  dried  and  faded  ones. 

(6)  The  olive  plant,  according  to  the  ground,  its  exposure,  and  the 
height  where  it  is  located,  vegetates  and  bears  fruit  differently.     The 
quality  of  the  soil  has  a  certain  noted  influence  on  the  vegetation  of  the 
olive  tree.     If  the  soil  is  argillaceous  and  too  rich  of  vegetal  and  fer- 
tilizing matter,  then  little  pruning  is  to  be  done,  for  the  reastm  that 
the  quantity  of  strength  the  plant  draws  therefrom  permits  it  to  main- 
tain a  large  number  of  branches.     If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  soil  is  poor, 
thatisloose  siliceous-calcareous,  then  itis  necessary  to  cut  many  branches 
off,  for  the  reason  that  the  little  sap  the  plant  draws  from  the  soil  is  not 
sufficient  to  nourish  many  of  them. 

(7)  The  plants  must  be  divided  into  three  categories,  according  to 
where  they  are  located  :  (a)  All  the  plants  on  argillaceous  rich  soil  of 
the  warm  zone;  (ft)  all  the  plants  on  calcareous  soil  of  the  middle  tem- 
perate zone;  (c)  all  the  plants  on  the  poor  siliceous  soil  of  the  high 
cold  zone. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    ITALY.  G53 

In  conclusion  a  good  pruning  consists  of  (a)  suppressing  all  branches 
tending  to  grow  up  straight,  as  they  are  very  exhaustive ;  (b)  cutting 
down  all  the  parts  from  the  plant,  all  the  dead  branches  as  well  as 
those  broken  by  the  wind,  and  those  growing  longer  than  others;  (c) 
suppressing  all  the  sprouts  developed  in  the  plant  during  the  year,  leav- 
ing only  some  terminal  ones,  and  some  others  grown  near  those  having 
the  force  to  bear.  If  many  new  sprouts  were  left  on  the  branches, 
the  majority  of  them  would  fail  to  bear,  because  the  sap  the  branches 
draw  could  not  nourish  them  all.  Pruning  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
plants  would  grow  in  proper  form,  the  branches  should  be  well  disposed 
without  confusion,  and  the  lower  ones  bending  down  would  cover  apart 
of  the  trunk.  Another  operation  essential  for  the  pruner  to  know  is 
that  if  the  trunk  contains  dried  bark,  knotty  and  partly  detached  from 
the  wood,  he  should  cut  it  off  with  a  well  sharpened  tool,  for  the  reason 
that  in  so  doing  he  cleans  the  trunk  from  insects  wherein  they  lay  their 
eggs.  Another  advice  to  thepruuer  is  that,  following  the  years  in  which 
the  plants  bear  much  fruit,  it  is  always  better  to  shorten  them  a  little, 
as  it  is  proper  to  leave  others  longer,  which  during  the  years  produced 
less. 

In  conclusion,  following  the  rules  above  stated,  the  pruner  can  be  sure 
of  his  success,  provided,  however,  he  will,  with  sharp  eye,  carry  them 
on  in  accordance  with  the  above  instructions,  always  taking  into  ac- 
count the  local  climate  and  condition  of  the  soil.  These  rules  and  modi- 
fications are  the  results  of  long  experience. 

Insect  pests. — The  olive  has  the  most  fearful  enemies  which  attack  it 
in  every  way  most  terribly;  in  fact,  insects,  diseases,  and  inimical 
causes,  more  or  less,  make  a  slaughter  of  it. 

Arrayed  in  first  line  are  the  insect  pests  attacking  the  fruit,  while 
others  attack  the  wood  and  the  leaves,  thus  hurting  it  in  every  way.  The 
most  terrible  is  the  mosca  deW  oliro  (olive  fly),  or  Daco  delle  ultic,  known 
as  Muxca  ole(i\  Dacus  olew,  Cynips  olecv,  Stnrnomus  keironi. 

The  dacus  is  a  small  fly,  about  half  the  size  of  our  common  fly,  and 
piecisely  as  seen,  greatly  enlarged,  in  Fig.  27.  It  is  an  insect  with 
mange  yellowish  colored  head,  green  eyes,  yellow  breast,  with  two 
black  points.  The  female  Dacus  has  on  the  extremity  of  its  abdomen 
a  sheath  of  black  color,  wherefroin  it  throws  an  arrow,  piercing  the 
fruit,  wherein  it  deposits  its  eggs.  This  insect  is  so  pernicious  to  the 
olive  culture  as  to  shorten  two  crops  out  of  three.  It  works  as  fol- 
lows: 

As  soon  as  the  olives  are  formed  the  female  Dacus  throws  its  arrow, 
pierces  the  olive  skin,  shakes  its  wings,  and  into  the  pulp  lays  one  egg, 
(Fig.  28).  This  done,  the  insect  takes  rest  by  cleaning  its  body  as  a 
sign  of  satisfaction,  and  then  Hies  away  to  other  olives  to  perform  the 
same  operation  until  it  deposits  from  300  to  400  euu\s  into  as  many  olives. 
From  the  egg,  in  a  short  time,  you  see  a  certain  soft  whitish  larva  with- 


654 


FKU1T    CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


out  feet  (Fig.  29),  which,  staying  fifteen  days  in  the  pulp,  digs  a  verti- 
cal gallery  through  till  it  reaches  the  stone  and  diverging  thereby. 


FIG.  27. 


As  soon  as  the  larva  is  fully  grown  it  gets  near  to  the  out  fruit  by 
enlarging  the  canal  made  by  its  mother  on  depositing  the  egg,  so  as  to 
let  the  grown  insect  come  out. 


FIG   28  -  Olive  iutaecale  dal  Daco  per  deporvi  lo  nova. 

Twelve  days  from  the  time  the  larva  is  transformed  in  nymph  grows 
the  fly,  and  the  insect  is  formed  in  twenty  eight  days,  counting  the 
time  from  depositing  its  egg. 


FIG  29. — Larva  o  nitifa  del  Daco. 


The  Cocciniglia  (female  Coccus)  is  another  insect  damaging  the  olive 
tree,  which  stays  Cor  several  mouths  immovably  attached  on  the  branches 


THE    OLIVE    IN    ITALY.  655 

and  on  the  leaves.  When  in  a  state  of  reproduction  it  lays  thousands 
of  eggs,  seeming  as  excrescences  of  the  trees.  The  male  Coccus  looks 
different  from  the  female,  as  shown  in  (Fig.  31),  enlarged. 


FIG.  31. — Cocciniglie  maschio  e  fernina  Lngrandite. 

In  the  month  of  May  the  female  lays  about  1,000  eggs,  which  it  covers 
and  then  dies,  thus  protecting  the  future  progeny  with  its  corpse. 

The  eggs  under  such  protection  open  one  month  later  and  precisely 
in  June,  giving  life  to  Iarva3  which  develop  in  the  bed  formed  by  the 
mother  skeleton. 

The  Coccus,  attached  to  the  branches  and  leaves  of  the  tree  not  only 
sucks  its  juice,  but  prepares  the  tree  for  conditions  favorable  to  the  de- 
velopment of  a  fungus  called  "antennaria  olaeophila,"  "cladosporium 
fumago,"  or  "  torula  olere,"  which  darkens  all  the  plants  with  black, 
and  makes  it  look  lurid-like. 

In  Sicily  the  olive  plants  are  often  invaded  by  the  Coccus,  and  more 
especially  on  coasts  fronting  the  African  Sea. 

According  to  the  Gasparin  and  Koches  method  of  destroying  the  in- 
sects, it  seems  that  sulphur  sprinkled  on  the  attached  plants,  as  it  is 
done  on  the  vines  for  the  crittogama,  is  a  good  remedy. 

La  Tiynuola  (Tinea  oleae)  is  also  an  enemy  to  the  olive  plant.  This 
belongs  to  the  Lepidotteri  family.  Its  butterflies  are  very  small,  with 
grayish  wings  and  mostly  marked  with  whitish  spots — (Fig.  32,  enlarged.) 


FIG.  32. 


The  evening  moths,  which  ordinarily  cometoourhouse  todie,  burned  at 
the  candle  flame,  are  u  Tignole. n  The  grubs  are  very  small,  voracious, 
and  cause  immense  damage.  Their  generation  is  as  follows:  In  the  spring 


656  FRUIT    CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

seasons  these  insects,  derived  from  the  first  generation,  produce  eggs ; 
wherefrom  grow  larvse,  which  voraciously  devour  the  branches  and 
sprouts  of  the  olive  tree.  When  it  commences  fruiting,  the  tignuole  re- 
produce for  the  third  time,  after  which  they  deposit  their  eggs  at 
the  base  of  the  fruit,  wherefrom  new  larvre  come  out,  and  stay  there 
until  they  are  in  metamorphosis,  and  as  long  as  the  fruit  remains  on 
the  tree. 

To  destroy  said  insects,  Prof.  Achille  Costa  published  the  bibio- 
logia  della  tignuola,  a  copy  of  which  I  could  not  find  in  this  city.  The 
Punteruolo  is  a  "  coleottero"  belonging  to  the  section  of  Xilofagl,  and 
its  botanic  name  is  Philojotribus  olece.  It  also  causes  much  damage  to 
the  olive  tree.  For  its  treatment  the  same  Professor  Costa  published  a 
report  on  the  Agricoltura  Meridionale  (anno  III,  No.  13,  1880)  and  of 
which  I  could  not  procure  a  copy  in  this  place. 

Another  small  colleottero,  Rosicante  dell  olivo  (olive-eater),  is  the  so- 
called  Hylesiuus  oleiperda,  a  dark-colored  insect  covered  with  hair. 
The  larva  is  white  and  nests  under  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and  sucks  the 
life  of  the  sap  branches  in  the  cell  which  it  digs,  accomplishes  its  trans- 
formation, and  flies  away  when  perfected,  about  the  month  of  May.  It 
then  joins  the  female,  which,  having  been  impregnated,  goes  upon  the 
branches,  which  it  wounds  to  deposit  an  egg,  which  forms  a  larva,  as 
above  stated.  To  destroy  the  said  insect  some  people  propose  to  cut 
off  the  perforated  branches  from  the  tree,  while  others  recommend,  as 
soon  as  the  insect  attacks  the  plant  and  weakens  it,  to  manure  it, 
plow  and  water  the  same  so  as  to  make  it  revive  again. 

La  Gantaride  (Cantharide  vescicantoria)  is  another  insect  belonging  to 
the  coleottero  order,  tribic  of  the  coleotteri  vescicanti.  From  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  egg  and  its  transformation  into  a  perfect  insect  it  undergoes 
five  stages,  but  only  when  it  is  perfected  does  it  damage  the  olive  tree. 

La  cantarides  appear  in  the  month  of  June  in  extraordinary  number, 
when  they  dart  in  flight  on  the  olive  trees,  feeding  on  the  tender  sprouts 
and  blossoms,  and  thus  not  only  destroy  the  present  crop,  but  even  the, 
one  of  the  succeeding  year.  The  cantharides  are  very  common  in  con- 
tinental Italy  but  not  so  numerous,  while  here  in  Sicily  they  cause 
heavy  damages.  These  agriculturists,  however,  perform  an  efficacious 
method,  as  the  only  one  to  destroy  the  terrible  coleottero.  II  consists 
in  shaking  the  branches  early  in  the  morning,  and  precisely  when  they 
they  are  asleep,  to  make  them  fall  on  sheets  expressly  placed  under  the 
trees.  Thus  gathered  they  are  then  sold  to  apothecaries  for  making 
blistering  plasters. 

La  Psilla  deW Olivo  (Psylla  olivina)  as  well  as  FAtide  (Aphis  adonis) 
form  a  sort  of  a  white  down  under  the  arm-pits  of  the  branches  and 
leaves.  The  Aphis  abide  under  the  same,  feeding  on  the  humor  of  the 
trees,  which  become  sickly  and  sometimes  die  if  the  infected  branches 
are  not  cut  off  at  once.  The  said  aphis,  well  known  in  tlie  United 
States — for  1  remember  my  boys  used  to  catch  them  on  trees  on  Canal 


THE    OLIVE    IN    ITALY.  657 

street  at  Kew  Orleans — is  also  another  dangerous  insect  to  the  precious 
plant.  The  same  shown  enlarged  in  Fig.  33  is  destroyed  with  lye  of 
liine. 


FIG.  33. 

The  Psylla,  when  in  the  state  of  larva,  encircles  itself  in  a  sticky 
whitish  matter,  and  causes  the  plant  to  droop. 

This  disease  is  generally  called  here  malattia  del  cottone  (cotton  dis-  • 
ease),  and  the  most  energetic  remedy  is  to  treat  the  plant  by  cutting  oft 
all  the  infected  branches. 

Finally,  the  Cossoperdilegno  (Oossuslegniperda)  is  the  most  terrible  in- 
sect, damaging  the  wood.  Thecossuswheninagrubstateisbloodish-red 
on  top  and  white-yellowish  under.  The  butterfly  deposits  an  egg  in  the 
bark,  wherefrom  grows  a  grub,  which  bores  into  the  tree — into  the  heart 
of  the  tree — killing  it  at  once;  if  the  tree  is  young,  the  cossus  is  assisted 
in  its  work  of  destruction  by  a  special  liquor  of  a  strong  odor  secreted 
by  the  insect  itself,  which  softens  the  wood  fiber.  This  terrible  insect  is 
difficult  to  be  destroyed.  It  lives  three  years  in  a  state  of  larva,  and 
the  butterfly  is  found  in  the  spring"  and  summer;  consequently  at  such 
a  time  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  certain  activity  to  destroy  it.  The  nat- 
uralist Professor  Boisduval  advised  the  municipal  authorities  of  the 
infected  places  to  "  offer  one  lira  of  reward  for  every  cossus  caught  as 
a  good  remedy  to  destroy  the  same." 

Diseases. — Besides  the  said  insects  there  are  also  diseases  to  which  the 
olive  plant  is  subject,  such  as  (1)  II  Chiodo  o  Rogna  (the  nail  or  scab) 
the  cause  of  which  is  by  some  growers  attributed  to  insect  punctures,  and 
by  others  to  the  imperfect  ass;miliation  of  the  juices,  which  instead  of 
alimenting  the  plant,  accumulate  at  certain  points,  producing  deformed 
excrescences,  as  in  Fig.  34, «,  a,  a,  a. 

H  Chiodo  (nail)  generally  dilates  in  olive  groves  propagated  by  ovoli 
(springs),  and  greatly  prevails  where  the  forced  method  of  propagation 
has  been  practiced.  The  extravasation  may  be  caused  by  wounds  pro- 
duced by  hail,  or  by  the  bark  cracking  while  the  plants  are  inactive 
vegetation,  or  by  the  ill-treatment  to  the  bark  while  gathering  the  crop. 
The  cause  most  common,  however,  is  excessive  pruning. 


658        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

(2)-  There  is  La  Fungositd  vascolare  (vascular  fungus). 

(3)  La  Lupa  (she  wolf),  is  a  very  cancer  to  the  plant,  which,  although 
its  exterior  is  sound  it  is  rotten  within,  permitting  the  rain  to  enter  and 
lodge  in  the  interior. 

The  lupa  may  be  apparent  or  not.  It  is  necessary  to  extract  it  and 
thoroughly  cleanse  the  infected  part  with  a  sponge  saturated  with  a 
wash  of  ointment  San  Fiacre. 


FIG.  34. 

(4)  Lo  Screpolo  (gap)  is  caused  by  excessive  heat  or  cold.  The  gaps 
caused  by  the  former  are  superficial,  and  are  also  cured  with  the  same 
salve — San  Fiacre. 

Among  the  parasite  plants  hurtful  to  the  olives  are  noted  the  Muschi 
(musks),  the  Licheni  (lichen),  and  the  Borracina,  which  establish  them- 
selves in  the  bark  of  trees,  on  which  they  live  in  part. 

The  production  of  musks  and  lichens  is  due  to  the  dampness  abound- 
ing in  some  olive  groves,  or  on  account  of  the  quality  of  the  soil  or 
little  ventilation.  To  free  the  plants  therefore  from  it  it  is  necessary  to 
scrape  them  with  a  well-sharpened  spatula,  and  brush  the  infected  part 
with  whitewash  on  a  winter  day,  but  not  cold  or  rainy. 

Besides  those  there  is  also  11  Male  nero  (black  disease),  which  is  pro- 
duced by  a  fungus,  botanically  known  as  Antenaria  olacophila,  Chados- 
porium  funago,  which  sometimes  causes  the  plant  to  sicken  and  die. 
Its  multiplication  is  due  to  presence  of  the  Cocciniglia;  hence  by  destroy- 
ing the  coccus  you  free  the  plant  from  the  black  disease. 

Frost  and  strong  winds  are  also  enemies  to  the  plant,  and  the  damage 
which  the  former  causes  may  be  known  only  in  the  month  of  *April  or 
May,  just  at  the  time  when  it  can  be  partly  remedied.  Sometimes  it 
happens  that  through  intense  cold  the  plant  dies  at  the  base.  In  that 
case,  if  it  is  over  thirty  years  old,  the  plant  must  be  cut  off  near  the 
ground  so  that  new  springs  will  grow  therefrom,  some  of  which  will 
take  the  place  of  the  dead  plant.  A  long  drought  is  also  hurtful  to  the 
olive  culture,  for  the  reason  that  the  plant  loses  its  leaves,  its  vegetation 
is  checked,  and  it  yields  no  fruit. 

Strong  winds  may  also  ruin  the  plants  by  breaking  the  branches  or 
dislocating  them.  Finally,  were  I  to  mention  other  insects,  diseases, 
etc.,  it  might  have  a  depressing  effect  on  the  California  growers.  Con- 


THE    OLIVE    IN    ITALY.  659 

sequeutly,  I  deem  it  proper  to  remind  them  that  notwithstanding  all 
the  said  insects,  contrarieties,  etc.,  in  this  island  of  Sicily,  in  an  area 
of  104,585  hectares  of  olive  cultivated  land,  it  yields  an  annual  produc- 
tion of  730,238  hectoliters  of  oil,  at  the  rate  of  7  hectoliters  per  hectare, 
a  good  paying  industry,  besides  many  quintals  of  pickled  and  dried 
olives  for  home  consumption  and  for  foreign  markets. 

Therefore  I  exhort  the  California  agriculturists  to  go  to  work  and  dedi- 
cate themselves  earnestly  to  the  culture  of  that  most  precious  plant,  the 
olive  tree,  by  repeating  to  them  the  celebrated  Columella's  motto,  Olea 
prima  omnium  arbor um  e&t. 

VINCENT  LAMANTIA, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Catania,  January  22,  1890. 


ITALY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  RICHMOND,  OF  ROME. 
[Repoblished  from  consular  reports  No.  41|.] 

Only  one  species  of  olive  is  cultivated  in  Italy,  Olea  Europea  L. 

Varieties. — The  widest  spread  varieties  are  the  following :  In  Liguria, 
the  Laggiasca  and  the  pignole. 

In  Puglia,  the  pasole,  the  ogliarola,  the  leccese,  and  the  siracusana. 

In  Tuscany,  the  morinelle,  the  morajole,  the  correggiole,  the  razze,  the 
grosse,  and  the  infrantoie. 

In  Sicily,  the  ogliaja,  the  biancolilla,  the  calmignana,  the  caltabellotese, 
the  cerasola,  the  calabrese,  the  patornese,  and  the  giarraffa. 

Maturity. — After  the  tenth  year  the  olive  commences  to  bear  some 
fruit,  and  reaches  its  full  maturity  of  fruitfulness  at  the  age  of  forty 
years. 

Green  olives. — For  green  olives  the  fruit  is  used  of  the  Cucca  or  Pesaro 
in  Tuscany,  of  the  Orfana  in  Komagna,  of  the  Morellara  and  the  Giar- 
raffa in  Sicily,  and  of  the  white  olive  in  Ascoli.  Of  all  these  varieties 
the  fruit  is  large  and  less  saturated  with  oil  than  any  others. 

Dried  olives. — For  dried  olives  the  fruit  of  the  common  trees  is  best 
adapted. 

Yield. — In  Calci  a  hectare  of  olive  trees  yields  in  abundant  years  6.50 
hectoliters,  or  an  average  of  3.25  hectoliters.  The  expense  of  the  first 
planting  of  a  hectare  of  olive  trees  amounts  to  3,292  lire ;  annual  ex- 
penses 250  lire  until  the  tenth  year.  In  the  eleventh  year  the  trees 
begin  to  bear  and  reach  the  climax,  of  their  fruitfulness,  as  has  already 
been  stated,  at  the  age  of  forty  years.  In  the  forty-first  year  the  ex- 
penses of  the  hectare  of  olive  trees  have  been  9,689  lire,  and  the  average 
yield  of  oil  per  annum  3.25  hectoliters.  The  olives  yield  in  weight  from 


660         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

14  to  20  per  cent,  of  oil,  and  in  volume  from  20  to  24  per  cent.,  accord- 
ing to  the  variety,  the  point  of  maturity  reached,  and  the  manner  of 
extracting  the  oil. 

Planting. — The  trees  are  planted  from  12  to  18  meters  apart,  if  they 
are  of  a  very  large  and  ligneous  variety,  or  if  vines  or  other  plants  are 
grown  together  with  them.  For  short-stemmed  trees  the  distance  is 
shortened  to  from  5  to  8  meters.  On  hillsides  the  distance  between  the 
trees  is  reduced  somewhat. 

Preserving. — Olives  that  are  put  in  salted  water,  or  in  any  other  way 
preserved  fresh  and  sweet,  are  gathered  green ;  those  that  are  to  be 
dried  are  gathered  ripe.  Olives  from  which  oil  is  to  be  extracted  should 
be  gathered  when  just  ripe;  unripe  olives  give  but  little  oil,  and  that 
of  a  grassy  flavor,  while  those  over-ripe  yield  abundantly,  but  the  oil  is 
coarse  and  rank.  The  time  for  reaching  the  proper  point  of  maturity 
depends  on  the  locality,  the  variety  of  olive,  and  upon  the  season  ;  but 
when  the  first  fruit  drops  spontaneously  to  the  ground  it  may  be  taken 
as  a  sign  that  the  crop  is  ready  for  gathering.  Generally  this  takes  place 
through  December  and  January. 

The  olives  that  are  to  be  preserved  fresh  are  first  soaked  in  a  strong 
lye,  then,  after  having  been  put  through  several  washings  in  clear  water, 
they  are  placed  in  salted  water,  together  with  wild  fennel.  Finally  they 
are  put  into  water  slightly  salted,  which  must  be  renewed  at  least  once 
a  month. 

Olives  that  are  preserved  dried  are  spread  out  in  the  open  air,  in  some 
place  exposed  to  the  tramontana  (wind),  or  else  they  may  be  dried  in 
ovens. 

Extracting  the  oil. — To  extract  the  oil  the  olives  are  placed  in  a  crush- 
ing machine,  where  they  are  reduced  to  a  paste,  which  is  then  subjected 
to  a  pressure  sufficient  to  express  the  oil. 

Soil  and  climate. — The  olive  grows  best  on  slopes,  well  sunned,  bat 
not  too  dry,  and  trees  grown  in  such  localities  produce  a  very  superior 
oil.  In  fertile  plains  and  valleys  a  large  quantity  of  oil  is  obtained,  but 
the  quality  is  inferior  to  that  obtained  from  the  hillsides. 

The  soils  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  olive  are  porous  and 
rather  moist ;  such  are  many  chalky  and  argillaceous  soils,  also  a  yellow, 
sandy  soil  over  argillaceous  strata. 

Irrigation  is  not  necessary  in  olive  culture. 

Locality. — Olive  groves  are  planted  sometimes  very  near  the  sea,  in 
places  least  exposed  to  the  wind. 

LEWIS  EICHMOND, 

Consul-  General* 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Rome,  April  1, 1884. 


THK    01.1Y1-:    IX    ITALY. 


661 


ITALY. 

If !•:!'('.  I!'!'   n\     CONSUL   CJtAIN,    OF  MILAN. 
|  Repnbliahed  from  Consular  Keports,  No.  41^.J 

The  superficies  devoted  to  olive  culture  in  Italy  is  approximately 
900,311  hectares  (equal  to  U,±M,()(>S  acres),  and  the  total  production  of 
olive  oil  about  3,385,591  hectoliters  (or  89,437,157  gallons),  distributed 
as  follows  : 


Districts. 

Area  of  cul- 
tivation. 

Total    produc- 
tion of  olive 
oil. 

Hectares. 
4,  591 

Hectoliters. 
6,381 

3,  5:J6 

9,321 

84,931 

343,264 

Kmilia                            

4,694 

14,  757 

76,  271 

195  659 

119,  278 

285,  006 

41  6C7 

95  834 

270,  000 

557,  649 

139  928 

636  540 

Sjeilv                                                                           ..          

104,  373 

730,  238 

Sardinia                                                  --  

51,582 

211,  005 

The  reports  of  the  Italian  minister  of  agriculture  contain  much  that 
is  interesting  in  regard  to  this  industry. 

The  olive  is  indigenous  to  Asia.  It  is  mentioned  in  Genesis,  Hesiod, 
and  Homer,  but  was  not  introduced  into  Europe,  according  to  Pliny, 
until  the  two  hundredth  year  of  Rome.  It  is  hardy,  and  grows  wild  in 
southern  Europe — Liunseus  calls  it  Olea  Europcea,  as  if  indigenous  to 
Europe.  It  is  cultivated  in  Spain,  Greece,  Italy,  Languedoc,  and  Prov- 
ence. The  forty-fifth  degree  of  latitude  is  considered  the  northern  limit 
of  culture.  Great  heat  or  cold  is  unfavorable  to  the  plant.  It  is  not 
found  in  Africa  far  from  the  Atlantic;  and  Humboldt  noticed  in  various 
parts  of  St.  Domingo  and  South  America  that  it  grew  there  without 
bearing  fruit.  It  has  been  erroneously  claimed  that  the  olive  would 
only  grow  near  the  sea.  It  is  found  at  great  distances  inland,  but 
abounds  most  near  the  coast,  where  the  temperature  is  more  congenial. 
The  variation  of  altitude  at  which  the  plant  can  thrive  depends  upon 
the  region.  In  central  Italy  the  greater  part  of  the  olive  zone  is  below 
an  elevation  of  500  meters,  and  in  Sicily  below  one  of  600,  while  in  the 
basins  of  the  lakes  of  Garda  and  Iseo  450  meters  is  the  extreme  limit. 
At  this  extrenfe  limit  the  cultivation  is  unprofitable,  as  the  fruit  often 
fails  to  mature.  The  plant  requires  a  soft  and  temperate  climate.  In 
districts  where  the  temperature  is  higher  than  required  by  the  plant  it 
is  cultivated  by  preference  on  elevated  lands  ;  in  those  where  the  tem- 
perature is  low  it  is  given  a  warm  position.  The  north  wind  is  the 
enemy  of  the  olive,  In  the  same  region  it  flourishes  on  high  lands  pro- 


662  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

tected  from  that  wind,  and  languishes  in  low  lands  exposed  to  it.  Upon 
the  plains  of  Mugello  and  the  Borgo  San  Lorenzo,  swept  by  northerly 
winds,  it  will  not  grow,  but  nourishes  3  or  4  miles  a  way  on  the  hills  pro- 
tected by  the  Apennines. 

Cold  affects  the  olive  according  as  the  atmosphere  is  dry  or  humid. 
The  same  degree  of  cold  is  more  fatal  in  spring  than  in  winter,  because 
in  the  former  season,  the  plant  having  entered  the  period  of  vegetation, 
the  young  and  tender  germs  are  injured  ;  so  by  reason  of  the  greater 
moisture  the  cold  of  the  plains  is  more  injurious  than  that  of  the  up- 
lands. Nothing  is  more  destructive  than  the  formation  of  ice  upon  the 
branches  after  snow-storms.  The  greatest  cold  which  the  plant  can. 
resist  is  about  J0°  Reaumur ;  at  12°  not  only  the  leaves  perish  but  the 
trunk  and  roots  above  ground.  It  sometimes  suffers  at  even  7°  when 
the  cold  is  accompanied  with  humidity,  or  when  the  plant  is  in  a  state 
of  vegetation.  Sometimes  the  leaves  are  destroyed  by  a  frost  appar- 
ently light.  The  greater  part  of  the  olives  of  Liguria  and  Tuscany  per- 
ished in  the  years  1700,  1782,  1820,  and  1845. 

As  to  the  soil  there  is  not  much  difficulty.  Only  exceedingly  light 
or  wet  land  is  bad  for  the  plant.  It  does  better  ordinarily  in  argilla- 
ceous or  calcareous  earth,  mixed  with  stones,  to  which  its  roots  cling, 
holding  steadily  against  strong  winds. 

The  olive  is  propagated  in  four  ways — by  seeding,  by  cuttings,  by 
grafting,  and  by  the  system  called  ovolo. 

Italian  cultivators  generally  adopt  the  last  method,  but  as  the  others 
are  not  unfrequently  used  it  may  be  useful  to  give  some  facts  in  regard 
to  them. 

The  manner  of  seeding  is  much  the  same  as  with  other  plants.  The 
olive  used  for  this  purpose  is  selected  from  trees  well  grown,  of  a  robust 
variety,  possessing  the  qualities  desired,  and  is  stripped  of  its  oily  pulp. 
Seeding  involves  the  labor  of  transplanting  and  improving  by  grafting, 
as  the  new  plants  raised  from  a  given  variety  will  not  reproduce  it,  but 
return  usually  to  the  wild  type.  Another  objection  to  this  system  is  the 
slow  growth  of  the  olive.  Hesiod  said  of  it,  "  Those  who  sow  the  seed 
never  gather  the  fruit."  However,  some  use  this  method,  as  plants 
thus  obtained  have  greater  dimensions  and  a  more  perfect  root  system. 

When  cuttings  are  used  they  should  be  young  and  vigorous,  from  50 
to  55  centimeters  in  length,  and  about  the  size  of  a  man's  wrist.  The 
bark  must  be  bright,  smooth,  and  sappy,  and  contain  towards  the  lower 
part  some  knots,  upon  which  roots  form  more  easily.  The  cuttings  are 
set  in  the  ground  in  November  in  warm  localities,  and  in  February  and 
March  in  temperate.  About  one-third  of  the  cutting  should  be  above 
ground,  and  the  upper  extremity,  where  cut,  covered  with  grafting- wax. 
Although  the  olive  is  an  exceedingly  hard  wood,  it  puts  forth  roots  from 
cuttings  as  readily  as  the  willow^  or  poplar.  Full-grown  trees,  even 
when  much  denuded  of  roots,  can  be  transplanted  from  the  forest,  and 
often  when  those  in  the  olive-yards  are  destroyed  they  are  replaced  iu 
this  way. 


Till!    OLIVK    IN    ITALY.  663 

In  the  process  of  grafting  sprouts  are  t;ikeu  from  the  base  of  the  tree 
and  the  operation  performed  as  with  other  species  of  trees. 

The  propagation  of  the  olive  by  means  of  ovolo  (eggs),  called  by  the 
ancients  occhi  (eyes),  is  the  usual  mode,  because  surer,  quicker,  and 
cheaper  than  any  other.  Ovolo  are  woody  excrescences  on  the  lowest 
parr  of  the  trunk  and  on  the  roots  of  the  olive,  and  so  called  because  of 
a  supposed  resemblance  to  eggs.  These  are  detached  with  a  sharp 
knife  and  put  in  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  4  inches.  This  is  done  in 
November  in  warm  districts,  and  in  March  where  colder.  When  the 
ovolo  germinates,  one  shoot  is  preserved  and  the  others  cut  off.  The 
preserved  shoot  is  steadied  against  wind  by  a  stake  to  which  it  is  tied. 
The  plant  thus  started  is  removed  after  three  or  four  years  to  the  per- 
manent olive-yard. 

In  most  cases  the  olive  has  to  be  grafted,  as  the  young  plants  usually 
take  the  wild  type,  and  consequently  yield  only  small  fruit. 

By  cultivation  a  number  of  varieties  of  the  olive  have  been  obtained, 
differing  according  to  localities ;  some  distinguished  by  a  greater  or  less 
vigor  of  plant,  some  by  drooping,  and  others  by  erect  leaves,  and  more 
especially  by  the  form,  size,  and  color  of  the  fruit.  The  color  varies 
from  green  to  red,  and  in  some  cases  to  a  purple,  nearly  black.  Profes- 
sor Orphanides  discovered  in  a  grove  of  Attica  an  olive  perfectly  white, 
and  which  was  exhibited  at  the  Vienna  Exposition  under  the  name  of 
Olea  cucocarpa,  or  chionocarpa.  Tavanti's  work  mentions  twenty-one 
varieties  in  Tuscany.  Picouni  observed  sixteen  in  Liguria,  and  Caruso 
fifteen  in  Sicily. 

The  extent  and  kind  of  pruning  depends  upon  the  variety  of  the  olive, 
and  must  be  performed  with  care. 

Composts  of  slow  assimilation,  such  as  horns,  bones,  woolen  rags,  etc., 
are  most  used. 

OLIVE  OIL. 

X  » 

The  quality  of  the  oil  depends  greatly  upon  harvesting  the  olives  at 
the  proper  time.  If  this  is  done  either  too  early  or  too  late  the  product 
lias  a  fatty  flavor  and  odor. 

Italian  oil. — The  oils  of  Lucca,  Calci,  a-ud  Buti  are  the  best  in  the 
world,  and  those  of  Uuibria  and  Liguria  are  but  little  inferior.  The  best 
article  is  produced  in  moderately  warm  regions. 

Thus  the  oils  of  Italy  are  more  esteemed  than  those  of  the  Orient, 
and  of  the  former  the  oils  of  Pisa,  Lucca,  Arrezzo,  Perugia,  and  San 
Kemo  are  better  than  those  of  Sicily  and  the  Neapolitan  provinces. 

While  soil,  climate,  and  the  variety  of  the  plant  affect  more  or  less 
the  quality  of  the  oil,  much  more  depends  upon  harvesting  and  pressing 
the  olives  properly.  This  is  done  much  better  in  central  Italy  than 
farther  south. 

Spanish  oil. — Next  to  Italy  comes  Spain  in  extent  of  olive  cultivation. 
According  to  Mueller  the  production  of  oil  in  that  country  is  about 
1,135,750  hectoliters  per  year.  It  is  chiefly  cultivated  in  the  basins 
156A 18 


664        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Guadalquivir,  Ebro,  and  Guadiana,  and  the  product  constitutes  an  im- 
portant branch  of  commerce  for  Andalusia,  Aragon,  Catalonia,  Murcia, 
Navarra,  and  the  Balearic  Islands. 

Spanish  oils  are  very  little  esteemed,  and  their  exportation  is  rather 
diminishing. 

French  and  Algerian  oils. — In  France  the  cultivation  is  confined  to  the 
southern  districts,  and  covers  94,000  hectares.  The  production  is  about 
250,000  hectoliters.  In  Algeria  about  150,000  hectoliters  are  produced, 
of  a  quality  inferior  to  that  of  Italy,  but  better  than  that  of  Levant, 
Spain,  or  Portugal. 

Austrian  oil. — In  Austria  the  olive  is  a  little  cultivated  in  the  southern 
Tyrol,  in  the  territory  of  Gorixia,  Gradisa,  and  Trieste  j  more  exten- 
sively in  Istria  and  Dalmatia.  The  yearly  production  is  about  264,000 
quintals.  Of  the  production  in  Greece  accurate  statistics  are  wanting, 
though  it  is  known  that  the  cultivation  is  extensive. 

Ottoman  oil. — In  the  Ottoman  Empire  it  is  cultivated  in  Syria,  Brussa, 
Eoumelia,  and  in  the  islands  of  Candia,  Cyprus,  Metilino,  Samos,  and 
Ehodes. 

Greek  oil. — Grecian  and  Turkish  oils  are,  however,  only  used  in  Eu- 
rope for  the  manufacture  of  soap. 

PRICES  OF   OLIVE  OIL. 

The  price  of  olive  oil  fell  from  170  francs  per  quintal  in  1879  to  120 
francs  in  1882,  and  the  several  grades  of  this  article  are  quoted  in  the 
Bulletin  of  Agriculture,  of  the  8th  instant,  as  follows :  Oil  of  Lucca,  168 
to  195  francs ;  olive  oil  for  burning,  first  quality,  85  to  88  francs ;  second 
quality,  78  to  80.  The  cause  of  this  depreciation  is  the  few  uses  to  which 
olive  oil  can  be  put  and  the  increasing  competition  of  seed  oils.  The 
larger  olive  harvests  in  Italy  and  the  whole  Mediterranean  basin  is  an- 
other and  lesser  cause.  The  competition  is  principally  with  the  kinds 
of  olive  oil  used  for  industrial  purposes,  and  which  represent  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  entire  production.  Alimentary  oils  scarcely  feel  this  com- 
petition. In  the  retail  market  the  price  of  the  oils  of  Lucca  and  Barri 
has  been  almost  unchanged,  and  the  demand  for  them  abroad  fully  sus- 
tained. 

COTTON-SEED    OIL.  % 

The  seed-oil  industry  is  assuming  considerable  proportions.  Several 
kinds  of  this  oil  were  exhibited  at  the  Milan  exposition  in  1881,  and 
classed  among  alimentary  oils.  There  were  some  beautiful  specimens 
of  sesame  oil  exhibited  by  Messrs.  Scerno  &  Gismundi,  who  were  then 
producing  30,000  quintals  per  year. 

The  importation  of  cotton -seed  oil  was  arrested  in  1882,  since  which 
the  demand  for  oleaginous  seeds  has  increased.  In  1882  the  importa- 
tion of  these  seeds  amounted  to  252,835  quintals,  being  52,335  quintals 
more  than  the  previous  year.  It  is  therefore  urged  that  a  duty  should 


Tin:  OLIVE  IN  GENOA.  665 

be  imposed  on  all  imports  of  seeds  and  seed  oils  if  it  is  to  be  continued 
on  cotton-seed  oil. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  duty  on  cotton-seed  oil  has  served  no  good  pur- 
pose; that  the  mixing  of  cotton  oil  with  olive  was  not  prejudicial  to 
health,  and  that  the  mixture  is  now  made  with  oils  from  flax  and  nuts, 
and  other  deleterious  substances ;  and  that  the  competition  formerly 
coming  from  cotton  oil  has  been  replaced  by  oils  of  other  seeds  and  by 
nut  oils. 

It  is  stated  on  good  authority  that  no  practical  method  exists  by  which 
these  mixtures  and  their  properties  can  be  detected,  and  it  is  felt  that 
frauds  will  diminish,  and  the  public  good  be  promoted,  when  prejudices 
against  good  seed  oils  disappear  and  they  are  sold  under  their  true 
names. 

DUNHAM  J.  GRAIN, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Milan,  November  10,  1883. 


GENOA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FLETCHER. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  4H.] 

Varieties. — The  best  olive  oil  is  extracted  from  the  following-named 
trees: 

I.  The  Giuggiolina,  known  as  the  Lavagnina  or  Taggiasca. 
II.  Eadiola  or  Kazzuolo  and  Pendolina. 

III.  Grappolosa  or  Merlina-Pignola  doppia. 

IY.  Tondolina  or  Pignola. 
V.  Martellina  or  Martena-Papollina. 

Seeding  and  planting. — The  length  of  time  between  seeding  or  plant- 
ing and  fruit  bearing  depends  altogether  on  the  manner  in  which  the 
work  of  cultivation  is  performed.  If  trees  are  raised  from  seed,  sixteen 
years  is  allotted  before  fruit  bearing ;  if  by  sprout,  plant,  or  shoot,  it 
depends  on  the  age  thereof;  if  by  snags,  it  will  take  from  twelve  to 
thirteen  years  before  a  crop  can  be  realized.  A  full  crop  can  not  be 
expected  till  the  tree  reaches  twenty-five  or  thirty  years. 

Plants  brought  up  from  seed  and  shoots  must  be  ingrafted ;  otherwise 
the  trees  and  fruit  remain  wild  ;  snags  also ;  in  fact,  all  must  be  grafted 
if  taken  from  the  root  or  below  the  graft  of  the  parent  tree. 

The  mode  of  cultivating  olives  in  this  province  is  as  follows  : 

Olives  are  multiplied  by  shoots  or  sprouts  ;  they  are,  when  sufficient 
vitality  is  assured,  replanted  in  the  soil  where  it  is  designed  they  should 
grow;  they  are  mulched  every  three  years  with  manure  of  slow  decom- 
position as,  for  example,  the  scrapings  off  horns,  grounded  hoofs,  woolen 
rags,  and  stable  manure.  Manure  of  quick  decomposition  is  good  for 


666  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

only  oiie  year,  and  lias  this  disadvantage,  it  develops  more  leaves  on 
the  tree  and  rank  vegetation  than  it  does  fruit.  The  trees  must  be  kept 
clean,  that  is,  free  from  sprouts  and  weeds ;  standing  water  must  not 
be  allowed  around  them,  for  in  such  case  the  wood  will  soon  rot  and  be 
a  subject  for  a  malady  called  "lupa,"  which  very  much  shortens  the 
life  of  the  tree. 

Olive  Regina,  or  queen  olive,  known  in  this  province  under  the  name 
of  Olive  of  Spain,  is  a  special  quality  grown  from  the  imported  tree  cul- 
tivated for  special  purposes.  The  fruit,  however,  contains  but  little  oil, 
and  that  little  has  to  be  extracted  before  using  the  olive  for  culinary 
purposes. 

Production. — If  olive  trees  are  well  cared  for  they  generally  give 
abundant  fruit  when  they  attain  the  age  of  thirty  years,  and  even  long 
after  this  age  they  increase  if  properly  handled.  An  olive  tree  is  liable 
to  live  for  centuries  if  not  destroyed  by  the  "  lupa." 

The  production  of  the  olive  depends  on  the  care  taken  in  its  cultiva- 
tion, and  much  on  the  weather,  for,  be  it  understood,  the  fruit  is  ex- 
posed nearly  the  en  tire  year,  before  maturity,  to  all  atmospheric  changes. 
The  yield  therefore  depends  largely  on  the  meteorological  vicissitudes 
of  the  seasons,  and  for  this  reason  the  exact  figures  can  not  be  given. 
This  much,  however,  can  be  said,  an  olive  tree  between  twenty-five  and 
thirty  years  old  will  produce  about  3  gallons  of  oil. 

A  hectare  of  land  (=2.471  acres),  in  fine,  if  properly  cultivated,  ought 
to  produce  about  300  gallons  of  oil.  The  same  measurement  of  land  will 
produce  better  results  providing  the  conformation  of  the  soil  permits  the 
trees  to  be  set  closer  than  12  meters,  or  about  40  feet,  apart.  The  olive 
crop  can  be  considered  only  from  a  biennial  stand-point,  and  the  above 
is  the  average  for  two  years. 

The  relation  between  the  weight  of  olives  and  the  quantity  of  oil  is 
not  constant  in  all  crops,  nor  equal  on  all  lands,  for  this  reason  :  On 
flat  lands  and  in  places  where  rains  are  frequent  less  oil  and  more  water 
exists  in  the  fruit ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  the  grove  is  on  the  hill-side  the 
proportion  is  as  one  to  four,  or  one  gallon  of  oil  from  four  gallons  of 
fruit. 

The  distance  between  trees  on  lands  exclusively  devoted  to  olives 
should  be  about  50  feet — if  on  flat  land  and  in  orchards — on  hill-sides  39 
feet,  or  even  less — always  less  onpedente  or  abrupt  inclinations4.  Flats 
are  especially  prepared  on  hilly  lands,  and  so  arranged  that  the  roots  of 
one  tree  can  not  run  down  and  interfere  with  those  of  another.  In  other 
words,  the  roots  of  trees  are  limited  to  certain  space  by  the  erection  of 
stone  walls,  and  when  thus  arranged  the  olive  plant  will  flourish  at  a 
distance  of  only  30  feet  apart  from  its  neighbor. 

Pickling. — For  pickling  purposes  olives  are  gathered  before  they 
change  from  green  to  a  reddish  color.  The  faintish  tinge  from  the 
original  green  indicates  incipient  ripeness.  For  pickling,  olives  are 
usually  gathered  toward  the  close  of  August.  The  olive  must  be  fully 


THE    OLIVE    IN    GENOA.  667 

ripe  when  picked  for  oil.  When  matured  it  drops  from  the  tree.  This 
occurs  late  in  the  fall  or  early  winter,  as  in  all  its  stages,  from  bud  to 
full-grown  fruit,  the  atmosphere  also  has  its  influence  in  bringing  the 
olive  to  maturity. 

For  table  use  you  have  the  olive  in  three  ways : 

(1)  Pickled  green. 

(2)  Dried  when  ripe. 

(3)  Pickled  when  dead  ripe. 

They  are  prepared  as  follows :  The  green  olive  is  placed  in  a  strong 
solution  of  lime  long  enough  to  take  the  oily  substance  out;  the  well- 
matured  olive  is  dried  in  the  sun ;  the  ripe  pickled  olive  undergoes  the 
same  process  as  the  green,  only  salt  is  used  instead  of  lime.  Further, 
the  green  olive,  when  purged  of  oil,  is  conserved  in  salted  water.  The 
dried  olives  are  placed  in  jars,  with  sufficient  oil  on  top  to  prevent  the 
air  drying  and  oxidizing  the  bulb,  but  no  oil  is  allowed  to  sink  to  the 
bottom  of  the  jar,  for  fear  of  getting  rancid  and  thereby  communicate 
a  bad  odor  to  the  fruit.  Aromatic  herbs  in  certain  quantity  are  gen- 
erally used  to  aromatize  the  fruit  preserved  in  this  way.  The  ripe  olive 
is  pickled  in  brine  of  salt,  as  stated,  but  the  brine  is  frequently  changed 
in  order  to  extract  the  oil  and  sour  flavor.  The  olive  must  not  be  too 
salt.  When  prepared  as  given  above  olives  will  keep  a  long  time. 

Oil  extraction. — Oil  is  extracted  from  the  olive  by  crushing  the  fruit  in 
a  stone  press.  When  a  certain  quantity  are  reduced  to  a  pulp  the  crushed 
mass  is  placed  in  a  sieve-like  receptacle,  and  this  mass  when  pressed 
produces  the  oil.  Pressing  by  hydraulic  engines  has  been  tried  in  the 
past,  in  order  to  obtain  a  larger  quantity  of  oil,  but  this  power  proved 
too  great  in  that  it  actually  spoiled  the  oil.  Such  a  pressure  is  used  now 
only  for  extracting  oil  from  husks. 

Results. — The  best  results  in  olive  culture  are  derived  from  hill-sides 
and  protected  by  sea  winds ;  in  such  locality  even  the  most  gentle  and 
tender  kinds  are  comparatively  safe.  Olives  raised  on  flat  lands,  as 
elsewhere  mentioned,  contain  more  water,  for  the  reason  that  they  are 
not  sufficiently  exposed  to  the  sun  (on  account  of  mountain  shade), 
and  are  always  liable  to  be  frost-bitten.  Even  on  table-lands  the  olive 
is  often  damaged  by  winds,  which  forces  the  fruit  to  fall  before  matu- 
rity. Cold  winds  always  hinder  the  growth  of  olives,  and  they  are 
especially  damaging  to  young  branches. 

Soil  and  climate. — In  Liguria,  including  all  the  province  of  Genoa,  the 
highest  elevation  of  land  on  which  the  olive  is  cultivated  ranges  about 
1,000  feet  above  sea-level ;  the  orchards,  however,  are  all  in  the  south 
side  of  the  hills  and  protected  by  lofty  mountains  from  north  winds. 

The  olive  tree  will  prosper  in  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  rocky  land  in- 
cluded, except  that  of  a  sandy  nature ;  the  latter  absorbs  too  much 
heat,  and  therefore  cause  rapid  evaporation,  which  deprives  the  soil  of 
the  necessary  moisture  in  summer.  Very  damp  soil  is  prejudicial  for 
the  reason  that  the  tree  is  liable  to  the  ravages  of  the  "lupa."  Olive 


668         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

groves  are  not  irrigated  in  the  province  of  Genoa;  the  soil  is  generally 
considered  strong  enough  to  retain  moisture  a  long  time,,  even  in  the 
dryest  seasons.  Young  plants  are  watered,  however,  in  the  summer, 
but  great  caution  is  practiced  in  this  work,  for  too  much  moisture  in- 
jures the  roots  and  then  comes  the  "lupa"  plague.  Throughout  this 
entire  province  the  olive  orchards  are  all  on  the  sea-coast ;  they  extend 
inland  but  a  short  distance.  You  can  find  inland  places,  however, 
where  olives  would  bear  well;  that  is  to  say,  in  situations  where  the 
temperature  undergoes  no  serious  change. 

The  price  of  olive  oil  varies  according  to  the  quality  and  quantity  of 
the  crop.  For  same  reason  the  average  annual  yield  can  not  be  given. 
On  these  points  I  particularly  inquired,  but  failed  to  obtain  satisfac- 
tory answer. 

Cost  of  cultivation. — Answer  5  and  6  give  possible  yield  under  ordi- 
nary conditions,  so  I  pass  to  the  cost  of  cultivating  olive  groves.  The 
work  is  divided  into  two  parts  each  year,  first,  plowing  so-called  flat 
lands  and  hoeing  hill-side  orchards;  second,  clearing  the  ground  of 
weeds. 

The  following  statistics  were  given  me  by  a  gentleman  experienced 
in  olive  culture,  and  while  his  statements  may  not  be  as  clear  as  de- 
sired I  can  not  do  better  than  give  them  as  narrated : 

One  day's  plowing  costs  11  francs  ($1.  90),  and  two  days  with  the  plow 
is  sufficient  for  a  hectare  of  land  (2.  471  acres).  Where  the  plow  can  not 
touch  on  account  of  the  trees,  a  hoe  is  used.  As  there  are  about  120 
trees  in  a  hectare  of  land  10  men  at  least  are  needed  for  such  work,  at 
2  francs  (38  cents)  per  day.  Now  as  to  manuring  groves.  The  trees 
should  be  mulched  once  in  every  three  years.  Experience  has  taught 
that  the  best  way  was  to  manure  one-third  of  the  orchard  this  year,  one- 
third  next  year,  and  so  on.  The  compost  for  a  tree  which  yields,  say, 
10  liters  of  oil  (about  2§  gallons)  costs  about  67  cents;  at  this  rate  the 
manure  for  an  orchard  of  120  trees  will  cost  a  fraction  over  $80.  Con- 
sider then  a  workman's  labor  at  mulching,  20  days,  at  38  cents  per  day  ; 
clearing  weeds  8  days  at  same  wages,  then  pruning,  plowing,  etc.,  and 
you  have  incurred  an  average  expense  on  each  tree  of  80  cents.  In  fine, 
you  realize  about  $190  from  a  hectare  of  olive  trees,  and  it  costs  you  one- 
half  that  sum  to  care  for  the  land.  From  the  other  half  you  must  pay 
Government,  provincial,  and  communal  taxes,  which  are  no  small  items. 

Rain- fall. — The  result  of  meteorological  observations  for  the  last  ten 
years  in  the  province  of  Genoa  shows  that  about  48  inches  of  water  had 
fallen  each  year  (almost  incredible,  but  substantially  vouched  for).  It 
was  much  less  on  the  oriental  coast,  and  fully  one- third  less  on  the 
western  coast. 

EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS  OF  OLIVE  OIL. 

Strange  as  the  item  may  appear,  it  will  be  seen  in  the  table  that 
28,358  kilograms  otpure  olive  oil  was  imported  into  Genoa  from  the 
United  States  and  Canada  during  the  year  1883 : 


THE    OLIVE    IN    LUCCA.  669 

EXPORTS   OP   OLIVE   OIL. 

[All  measurement  in  kilograms,  according  to  the  rule  of  Italy.    One  hundred  kilograms  equal  to  220 

pounds.] 

Kilograms. 

United  States  and  Canada 104,045 

La  Plata  States 757',  026 

Chili  and  Peru 15,022 

Other  American  ports 2.049,781 

Austria 79,764 

France 363,247 

Germany 27,085 

England 121,497 

Holland _ 38,180 

Kussia 1,610 

Spain  and  Portugal 4,195 

Turkey 8,169 

Tripoli  and  other  African  ports 275 


Total % 3,387,896 

IMPORTS  OP  OLIVE  OIL. 

Kilograms. 

United  States  and  Canada 28,358 

Austria 152,872 

Tripoli  and  other  African  ports '. 1,832,201 


Total 2,013,431 


Total  exports  over  imports 1,374,465 

JAMES  FLETCHER, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Genoa,  May  1,  1884. 


LUCCA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  RICE,  OF  FLORENCE. 

The  variety  best  adapted  for  pickling  is  the  Trantojo  olive,  also  called 
"  National "  or  "  Gentile,"  and  is  also  good  for  extracting  oil.  The  "  Mora- 
jolo,"  "  Gremignolo,"  and  "  Leecino"  produce  the  purest  oil. 

The  trees  which  produce  the  above  varieties  are  grown  on  hilly 
ground,  where  the  tree  is  planted,  about  3  miles  from  the  sea,  and  at 
an  elevation  above  sea  level  of  650  to  2,300  feet,  and  in  certain  locali- 
ties at  even  a  higher  elevation.  The  most  favorable  situation  is  facing 
south,  and  the  soil  best  adapted  is  rocky  and  sandy.  Severe  cold  spoils 
the  tree  and  the  olive. 

When  the  tree  is  from  three  to  four  years  old  it  is  transplanted, 
always  in  the  summer,  and  if  found  necessary  watered.  The  cultiva- 
tion takes  place  in  autumn,  for  the  manure,  and  in  the  spring  for  the 
working  of  the  soil.  The  pruning  takes  place  in  autumn. 


G70  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  olive  is  generally  picked  from  October  to  May,  lut  this  must  de- 
pend 011  the  climate. 

The  olives  are  picked  in  two  ways,  viz:  (1)  In  October,  when  the 
olive  is  green  and  not  too  oily,  it  is  put  under  lime  and  ashes  mixed 
with  water,  and  washed  afterwards  in  pure  water ;  it  is  then  put  in 
other  pure  water,  adding  17.10  pounds  of  salt  for  every  220.11  pounds 
of  olives ;  (2)  in  February,  when  the  olive  is  oily,  it  is  picked  by  hand 
and  placed  for  forty  days  in  pure  water  and  kept  in  it,  until  the  nut 
leaves  the  fruit  by  squeezing  it — then  continued  as  above. 

As  to  the  process  of  making  oil  it  is  as  follows  : 

The  fruit  as  soon  as  gathered  is*  brought  to  the  store-rooms  attached 
to  the  olive -mill,  and  there  spread  out  until  it  can  be  crushed  in  a  thin 
layer  to  avoid  overheating.  The  ripe  olives  have  a  lustrous  purple- 
black  color.  In  making  the  finest  oil  any  damaged  fruit  is  put  aside. 

The  mill  consists  of  a  large  mill-stone  revolving  in  a  trough  built  of 
stone.  It  is  driven  by  water-power  if  available,  or  else  by  animal  power, 
generally  oxen.  The  olives  are  placed  in  the  mill  and  quickly  crushed 
to  a  pasty  mass,  including  the  stones.  The  pulp  is  next  transferred  to 
fiber-bags,  and  these  placed  in  a  screw  or  hydraulic  press ;  on  pressure 
being  applied,  the  oil  flows  forth,  and  is  collected  in  a  suitable  receptacle. 
In  order  to  disengage  all  the  oleaginous  particles,  water  is  poured  over 
the  bags.  In  making  the  finest  oil  it  is  essential  to  use  only  cold  water, 
which  must  also  be  pure  and  uucontaminated.  Hot  water,  though  more 
efficacious,  would  deprive  the  oil  of  all  its  delicacy.  The  first  pressing 
of  sound  fruit  yields  the  finest  quality  of  olive  oil. 

Newly  made  oil  is  allowed  to  rest  a  while  in  tanks,  so  that  some  of  the 
solid  matter  from  the  fruit,  which  is  held  in  suspension,  may  have  time 
to  deposit.  It  is  afterward  clarified  by  passing  it  through  pure  carded 
cotton.  It  is  then  fit  for  the  market. 

The  pulp  from  which  the  first  oil  has  been  expressed  is  again  placed 
in  the  mill  and  the  same  process  repeated  a  second  time,  hot  water 
being  used  instead  of  cold.  A  second-rate  quality  of  oil  is  thus  obtained, 
which  is  kept  separate  at  those  olive-mills  where  the  finest  oils  are  pro- 
duced. Even  then  the  pulp  is  not  done  with.  It  is  crushed  again  in 
another  mill  with  the  addition  of  water,  then  passed  into  a  circular 
tank,  where  agitators  separate  the  residuum  of  pulp  from  thetremain- 
ing  small  parts  of  the  olive  kernels. 

The  latter  is  removed  and  used  for  fuel. 

The  pulpy  residual  is  again  subjected  to  pressure  and  some  oil  ob- 
tained of  very  inferior  quality. 

The  water  which  has  been  used  in  the  agitator  flows  down  and  passes 
through  settling  tanks  where  some  little  oil  comes  to  the  surface  and 
is  collected. 

The  trees  commenced  bearing  fruit  when  about  ten  years  old.  Ac- 
cording to  plants,  soil,  cultivation,  and  climate,  the  yield  may  give  from 
220  to  330  pounds  of  olives. 


THE     nLlVK    IN    MESSINA.  671 

The  trees  are-  planted  at  a  distance  of  10  to  11  yards  from  one  to  Jin- 
other. 

Trees  are  propagated  either  by  seedlings  or  cuttings.  The  latter  are 
taken  from  trees  which  have  been  cut  or  blown  down,  and  from  the 
roots  where  suckers  would  develop.  The  seedlings  revert  to  the  wild 
species  of  olive  tree,  and  hence  must  be  grafted  ;  this  is  generally  done 
when  the  tree  is  from  six  to  eight  years  old. 

A  fly  termed  u  Musca  oleae "  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of  the 
olive-tree  farmer.  This  insect  is  about  half  the  size  of  the  common  fly; 
its  head  is  of  orange  color,  green  eyes,  body  and  wings  variegated. 
The  female  deposits  its  eggs  in  the  olive  berries ;  they  develop  into 
small  white  maggots,  which  destroy  most  of  the  pulp  of  the  fruit.  In 
the  cavity  so  formed  water  penetrates,  causing  rottenness.  Oil  made 
from  such  fruit  is  thick  and  nauseous  to  the  taste.  This  fly  makes  its 
appearance  in  Tuscany  in  September.  The  ravages  it  causes  are  aunost 
incredible.  There  is  tio  possible  treatment. 

WILLIAM  T.  RICE, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Florence,  May  23,  1890. 


MESSINA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JONES. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  for  pickled  olives  is  the  Ogliaio;  best 
varieties  for  olive-oil :  The  Ogliaio,  Caloria,  and  Calabrese. 

Nine-tenths  of  the  olive-trees  in  this  province  are  of  the  Ogliaio 
variety ;  the  Biancolilla  and  Nasitana  varieties  are  prolific  bearers. 

Tree  planting. — The  Calabrese  must  be  planted  considerably  above 
the  level  of  the  sea;  it  thrives  4  miles  inland.  The  other  varieties 
above  named  do  well  on  the  coast  and  as  far  as  2J  miles  from  the  sea. 

The  elevation  above  the  sea-level  depends  upon  the  exposure,  variety, 
soil.  With  a  southern  exposure  the  Ogliaio  thrives  at  an  elevation 
of  1,200  feet;  the  Caloria  at  1,500  feet;  the  Nasitana  at  from  1,500  to 
1,800  feet,  and  the  Calabrese  at  a  still  greater  elevation. 

When  the  olive  is  grown  by  the  sea-shore  a  western  exposure  is  the 
best.  A  southern  exposure  is  required  when  the  olive  is  grown  at  an 
elevation»exceeding  1,000  feet. 

Olives  grown  on  hilly  land  yield  the  most  oil  and  the  best  quality  of 
oil.  The  crops  on  level  land  are  much  lighter  and  are  of  inferior  quality. 
Level  land  produces  the  best  olives  for  drying  purposes. 

Soil,  etc. — The  olive  prefers  a  friable,  porous  soil.  Water  should  not 
be  allowed  to  stagnate  around  the  trees.  The  olive  rarely  attains  its 
full  growth  on  level  clay  land  owing  to  the  humidity  retained  by  such 
land.  In  winter  clay  soils  run  together;  in  summer,  in  cracking  open, 


672  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

they  break  the  roots  and  seriously  injure  the  trees.  A  very  dry  soil  is 
also  to  be  avoided.  In  the  soil  best  adapted  to  the  olive  alkalies,  chalk, 
and  phosphates  predominate.  The  calcareo- argillaceous,  product  of  the 
tertiary  calcareous  rocks,  is  the  soil  of  soils  for  the  olive. 

Climatic  influences. — A  moderately  moist  subsoil  suits  the  olive  best. 

The  olive  prefers  a  temperate,  dry,  and  equable  climate.  It  does 
badly  in  hot  climates,  in  which  a  southern  exposure  should  be  avoided 
by  all  means.  The  temperature  from  34°  to  95°  Fahr.  suits  the  olive  : 
mean  temperature,  68°  Fahr. 

Rain-fall. — In  this  olive  zone  the  annual  rain-fall  never  exceeds  23 
inches.  The  rains  are  at  irregular  intervals;  a  drought  of  several 
months  being  followed  by  torrents  of  rain,  greatly  to  the  detriment  of 
the  crops. 

Bain  is  beneficial  to  both  trees  and  fruit,  except  when  the  trees  are 
in  bloom.  It  is  invaluable  in  August,  as  it  swells  the  fruit  and  thus 
increases  the  yield  of  oil. 

Irrigation. — The  olive  does  not  require  irrigation.  When  grown  with 
the  orange  and  lemon  (which  are  irrigated)  the  olive  produces  heavy 
crops,  but  this  fruit  is  good  neither  for  pickling  nor  for  oil ;  moreover, 
trees  subject  to  irrigation  grow  old  prematurely. 

.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Milazzo  it  is  customary  to  water  the  trees  at 
the  time  of  transplanting,  4  gallons  to  the  tree.  This  is  the  only  irri- 
gation of  the  olive  in  practice  in  this  province. 

Cultivation. — The  olive  is  worked  three  times  a  year.  In  October, 
after  the  first  autumnal  rains,  when  the  earth  from  around  the  tree  is 
thrown  to  a  distance  equal  to  the  length  of  its  branches  and  made  into 
a  low  circular  mound,  thus  forming  a  clean  bed  for  the  olives  to  fall  on 
when  the  branches  are  shaken.  This  embankment  also  retains  the  rain- 
water around  the  trees. 

In  March  and  April  this  mound  is  broken  up  and  the  earth  is  piled  in 
two  smaller  circles,  thus  offering  as  great  a  surface  of  the  earth  as  pos- 
sible to  the  action  of  the  air. 

About  the  end  of  May  this  earth  is  leveled. 

As  a  rule  the  olive  is  not  manured.  There  are  growers,  however,  who 
enrich  their  trees  every  two  years.  They  run  a  trench  half  way  round 
the  tree  5  or  6  feet  from  the  trunk,  fill  it  with  manure  one  year,  and  com- 
plete the  circle,  manuring  the  other  half  of  the  tree  the  next  year. 
Others  open  a  trench  near  the  tree  on  the  side  of  the  prevailing  wind 
and  fill  it  with  manure  to  strengthen  its  roots  on  that  side. 

Near  Milazzo  the  trees  are  manured  every  other  year  by  turning  under 
lupins  and  beans. 

Pruning. — Olive  trees  are  pruned  and  suckers  removed  every  two 
years,  from  December  to  February.  The  head  of  the  tree  should  be 
cut  back  so  as  to  admit  of  air  and  light. 

Pickling  and  Curing. — Olives  for  pickling  are  gathered  green  in  Octo- 
ber and  November.  When  destined  for  the  oil  press  olives  are  left  to 


THE    OLIVE    IN    MESSINA.  673 

on  the  trees  and  are  gathered  as  they  fall.  Olives  are  gathered 
l>y  hand  or  knocked  down  with  long  poles.  The  young  twigs  are 
bruised  and  broken  by  the  poles,  which  shortens  the  next  year's  crop; 
but,  as  gathering  by  hand  is  much  slower,  poles  are  generally  pre- 
ferred. 

Olives  for  pickling  are  dried  in  the  shade  for  a  day  or  two,  then 
soaked  in  water  from  two  to  four  days  and  pickled. 

Olives  for  the  press  are  left  for  a  few  days  in  the  baskets  in  which 
they  are  carried  home ;  they  are  then  thrown  into  vats  and  allowed  to 
ferment;  this  fermentation  diminishes  the  yield  of  oil  and  is  detri- 
mental to  its  quality. 

The  process  for  pickling  olives  is  as  follows :  Dissolve  in  water  a 
sufficient  amount  of  rock-salt  to  float  an  egg  or  a  potato.  Put  the  olives 
in  this  brine  and  cover  them  with  fresh  olive  twigs  with  their  leaves  on, 
wild  fennel,  bell  peppers,  and  garlic.  To  make  oil:  The  olives  having 
become  soft,  macerated,  during  their  fermentation  in  the  vats,  are  run 
through  (i.  e.,  crushed)  a  mill  with  horizontal  rollers.  The  pulp  is  then 
put  into  large,  round  wicker  bags,  made  of  bulrushes,  and  pressed. 
"  Sansino,"  or  oil  from  the  husks,  is  obtained  by  pouring  boiling  water 
on  the  olive  husks  and  pressing  them  a  second  time.  Tin  dippers  are 
used  to  transfer  the  oil  from  the  press  to  wooden  tubs,  in  which  it  is 
carried  to  the  warehouse.  The  oil  is  then  poured  into  large  earthen- 
ware jars  and  left  to  settle  before  being  put  on  the  market. 

Maturity. — At  ten  years  of  age  the  olive  comes  into  bearing  and  con- 
tinues bearing  for  centuries. 

Yield. — Olive  trees  in  full  bearing  yield  from  1  to  2  gallons  of  oil  per 
tree — 78  to  156  gallons  per  acre. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  large  olives,  Ogliaio  and  Calabrese, 
are  planted  from  36  to  39  feet  apart;  the  dwarf  olives,  Biancolilla, 
from  15  to  24  feet  apart.  Trees  are  propagated  by  seed ;  eyes  (excres- 
cences that  grow  on  the  foot  of  the  trunk  and  roots  of  the  olive — best 
method);  suckers;  cuttings;  and  budding. 

Insect  pests. — The  olive  tree  and  the  olive  have  a  number  of  insect 
pests.  The  lepidoptera,  in  a  chrysalis  state,  cut  into  the  large  branches ; 
the  Tlesino  oleiperda,  and  the  Phlocotribus  olece  eat  into  the  twigs ;  small 
butterflies  feed  upon  the  leaves.  A  little  hemipter,  called  ouphyllura 
olece,  attacks  the  bloom  of  the  olive  tree  and  covers  it  over  with  a  cot- 
touoqs  substance  that  smothers  it.  The  fly,  Dacus  olece,  lays  its  egg  in 
the  pulp  of  the  olive,  which  egg  produces  a  worm  that  feeds  upon  the 
pulp.  This  prolific  fly  is  a  terrible  scourge.  Olives  attacked  by  the  fly 
.yield  but  little  oil  of  inferior  quality. 

The  beneficial  insects  are  the  parasites  of  the  olive  fly. 

There  are  little  hymenoptera  that  feed  on  the  larva  of  the  dacus. 

WALLACE  S.  JONES, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Messina,  January  27,  1890. 


674  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

NAPLES. 
REPORT  BY  OONSVL  CAMPHAUSEN. 

Varieties. — The  name  of  best  variety  for  pickled  olives  is  the  Audria 
or  Gaeta  olives,  and  for  oil  the  Eifcordella.  The  other  choice  varieties 
for  pickles  (eating)  and  oil,  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit,  are  the 
Corregiole and  Punzione  (for  oil),  also  Morrajole  audRazze;  butthe  Eino- 
paca  olive  is  cultivated  in  preference  in  the  province  of  Naples. 

The  trees  are  grown  in  the  provinces  of  Bari,  Salerno,  and  Naples,  and 
are  distant  from  the  sea  1,500  feet,  and  from  90  feet  above  sea-level  to 
the  tops  of  the  hills,  with  southern  exposure. 

The  trees  grow  on  hilly,  rolling,  or  level  land,  but  hilly  is  the  best, 
with  fresh,  rich  soil  without  clay. 

Climatic  influences. — The  same  as  stated  in  answer  to  question  No.  5, 
under  the  head  of  lemons,  oranges,  and  figs. 

Irrigation  is  not  practiced. 

Cultivation. — Every  year  by  working  the  soil  and  using  barn-yard 
manures  and  refuse  collected  in  the  streets  of  the  cities. 

Pruning. — During  the  usual  time,  as  in  other  countries,  and  by  re- 
moving the  suckers  whenever  necessary. 

Picking  and  curing. — From  November  to  February.  They  are  picked 
by  hand  or  beaten  down.  The  middle  of  October  is  the  time  to  gather 
those  for  pickling  or  eating.  The  fruit  for  oil  is  collected  at  any  time 
after  November.  After  picking,  the  fruit  is  mashed  into  a  paste  and 
pressed  under  a  hydraulic  press  and  the  oil  extracted.  The  pickling  is 
done  in  the  simplest  and  usual  way,  similar  to  pickling  cucumbers,  etc., 
in  the  United  States.  Before  they  are  put  in  brine  the  olives  are  soaked 
for  a  day  or  two  in  a  weak  solution  of  potash  and  then  for  a  couple  of 
hours  in  fresh  water. 

Maturity. — The  trees  mature  at  the  age  of  five  years. 

Yield. — Trees  average  20  quarts  of  oil  or  45  pounds  of  fruit  per  year. 

Planting  and  propagating.— Trees  are  planted  from  35  to  40  feet  apart, 
and  propagated  by  seed,  sprout,  or  graft. 

Publications. — I  have  no  knowledge  of  any  statistics  issued  by  the 
Italian  Government  on  this  subject.  The  best  information  on  this  sub- 
ject is  to  be  obtained  from  or  through  the  United  States  legatioto,  or  the 
United  States  consulate-general  at  Eome.  Publications,  scienttfic  re- 
ports, etc.,  on  this  matter  are  published  in  the  different  cities  of  Italy, 
and  articles  are  quite  frequently  found  in  the  daily  papers. 

Insect  pests. — The  kermes  injures  the  tree,  and  is  destroyed  by  cutting 
of  the  bark  where  it  nestles,  saturating  the  place  with  a  solution  of  lime. 
When  the  oil-fly  makes  its  appearance  the  olives  are  gathered  with  the 
utmost  diligence  and  made  into  oil  to  prevent  the  propagation  of  the 
insect. 

EDWARD  CAMPHAFSEN, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Naples,  January  31, 1890. 


TIN-:    <U,IVK    IN     I'ALKKMO.  675 

PALERMO. 
REPORT  BZ  CONSUL  CARROLL. 

Varieties. — Among  the  six  principal  varieties  cultivated  in  Sicily 
"Ogliaja"  yields  the  most  oil,  as  will  be  seen  from  the  following  table, 
viz : 


No. 

Name. 

Oil  fonud  in 
100  parts 
of  olive  weight. 

1 

O'liaia               

Kilogram*. 
20  312 

•> 

Caltabellotteae 

17  187 

3 

Biancbetta                           .          

15  625 

4 

15  625 

5 

Zeba  or  Zaituni                .                      .          

15  625 

6 

Cerasola 

14  345 

The  names  of  other*  choice  varieties  for  pickles  (eating)  and  oil, 
worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit,  are  Caltabellottese,  Bianchetta,  Zeba 
or  Zaituui,  and  Cerasola. 

The  trees  which  produce  the  above  oils  are  grown  in  Sicily  and  most 
parts  of  Italy. 

There  is  no  stipulated  distance  from  the  sea.  The  olive-tree  grows 
either  on  the  coast  or  inland,  but  groves  adjacent  to  the  sea  or  large 
bodies  of  water  are  more  productive  than  those  situated  inland,  the 
olives  yielding  more  oil.  The  reason  assigned  for  this  is  the  influence 
of  large  bodies  of  water  in  modifying  the  extremes  of  temperature. 

The  limit  of  cultivation  in  the  province  of  Palermo  is  stated  at  827 
meters  (about  2,690  feet)  above  sea-level.  As  the  trees  suffer  from  ex- 
tremes of  temperature  and  from  lack  of  moisture  in  either  soil  or  air, 
the  success  of  cultivation  at  various  altitudes,  depends  largely  on  nature 
of  soil,  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  distance  from  the  sea. 

Sunlight. — The  position  of  an  olive  grove  in  relation  to  the  sun  ap- 
pears to  be  of  great  importance.  In  an  eastern  exposure  the  diurnal 
changes  from  cold  to  warm,  and  vice  versa,  are  very  rapid,  while  with  a 
southern,  and  still  more  with  a  western  and  northern  exposure,  the  di- 
rect solar  rays  are  preceded,  in  the  morning,  by  the  gradual  diffusion  of 
the  sun's  warmth,  and  in  the  evening  the  change  to  the  cold  of  the 
night  is  similarly  graduated.  From  this  it  appears  that  in  the  northern 
limits  of  the  growth  of  the  olive  the  most  unfavorable  position  is  an 
eastern  exposure,  experiments  proving  that  in  seasons  of  extreme  cold, 
the  first  trees  to  perish  are  those  most  fully  exposed  to  the  east. 

In  the  southern  limit  of  growth,  however,  the  eastern,  western,  or 
northern  exposures  are  more  favorable  than  the  southern,  since,  in  the 
latter  case,  the  trees  suffer  from  the  extreme  heat.  In  the  intermediate 
and  more  temperate  zones  exposures  to  the  southeast  or  southwest  seem 
to  be  preferable.  Aside  from  solar  exposure  it  is  important  to  choose  a 
position  sheltered  from  violent  winds.  In  some  parts  of  this  island  the 


6?  6        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

strong  sea  winds,  charged  with  salt,  are  found  to  be  very  injurious, 
while  in  other  parts  with  different  exposure  the  wind  most  dreaded  is 
the  hot  dry  sirocco,  blowing  from  the  southeast. 

Soil,  etc. — Latitude  appears  to  govern  the  character  of  the  ground. 
For  instance,  in  latitude  30°  an  inclination  of  30°  would  be  indicated 
in  the  land.  Open,  rolling  ground  seems  preferable  as  allowing  a  free 
subterranean  circulation  and  the  escape  of  excessive  moisture. 

It  is  not  true,  as  sometimes  asserted,  that  the  olive  prefers  the  poorest 
soil.  Where  the  earth  is  too  sandy,  and,  in  some  conditions,  where  too 
hard,  the  trees  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture,  they  grow  slowly  and 
with  difficulty,  and  in  elevated  positions,  in  the  absence  of  profuse 
rains  and  perennial  moisture,  the  foliage  is  scanty,  fruit  ripens  too 
rapidly,  without  full  development,  much  of  it  withering  half  formed. 

The  most  favorable  is  a  loose  mellow  soil  of  moderate  humidity.  An 
open  subsoil  is  preferable  to  clay,  as  the  latter  in  winter  seasons  is  apt 
to  retain  too  much  moisture  and  unduly  chill  the  trees  at  the  time  when 
vegetable  life  is  most  feeble. 

Temperature. — It  is  difficult  to  state  the  exact  limits  of  temperature 
within  which  the  olive  will  grow  and  flourish,  as  so  many  other  condi- 
tions enter  into  the  question,  but  a  uniform  temperate  climate  seems  to 
be  absolutely  essential  to  its  well  being.  In  favorable  localities  the 
tree  commences  to  vegetate  in  March,  when  the  mean  temperature  of 
the  air  has  reached  10.50°  to  11°  centigrade  (50.9°  to  51.8°  Fahren- 
heit). The  fruit  buds  commence  to  form,  generally,  in  April,  at  a  tem- 
perature of  15°  centigrade  (59°  Fahrenheit).  The  tree  blooms  in  May, 
when  the  mean  temperature  has  attained  18°  or  19°  centigrade  (64.4° 
to  66.2°  Fahrenheit).  In  the  beginning  of  June  the  fruit  commences 
to  form,  under  the  influence  of  a  mean  temperature  of  21°  to  22°  centi- 
grade (69.8°  to  71.6°  Fahrenheit).  The  fruit  attains  its  growth  early 
in  July  and  reaches  maturity  in  October. 

The  mean  temperature  in  Palermo  (a  locality  favorable  to  the  olive), 
as  recorded  for  the  nine  years  from  1866  to  1874  inclusive,  was  18°  cen- 
tigrade (64.4°  Fahrenheit).  The  nraxirnum  temperature  during  that 
time  being  40.4°  centigrade  (104.72°  Fahrenheit)  and  the  minimum  2° 
centigrade  (28.4°  Fahrenheit). 

The  lowest  winter  temperature  which  the  olive  tree  can  supnort  is  7° 
to  8°  centigrade  17.6°  to  (19.4°  Fahrenheit),  and  this  not  prolonged 
beyond  eight  or  ten  days. 

In  various  parts  of  Italy  where,  during  occasional  hard  winters,  the 
mercury  has  fallen  below  this  point,  for  two  or  three  days  only,  the  mor- 
tality among  olive  trees  has  been  very  great. 

There  seems  to  be  no  regular  method  of  irrigation  in  existence  here, 
no  governmental  supervision,  and  no  co-operation  of  different  proprietors 
obtaining,  Each  grower  seeks,  apparently,  to  utilize  to  the  best  advan- 
tage the  rain-fall  on  his  own  property.  Where  this  is  scanty  it  is  some- 
times supplemented  by  the  sinking  of  wells  from  which  the  water  is 


TFIK    OLIVE    IN    PALERMO.  677 

pumped  by  hand  or  animal  power.  This  is,  however,  an  insignificant 
item.  The  general  method  of  irrigation  seems  to  be  to  dig  ditches  close 
to  and  parallel  with  the  lines  of  trees  and  connect  these  with  cross  canals 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  drainage  of  the  land  can  be  held  in  the  ditches 
to  be  used  when  needed,  or  conveyed  away  in  case  of  superabundance. 

In  the  case  of  terraced  hills  or  undulatory  land  the  intervening  basins 
are  often  necessary  to  an  intelligent  control  of  the  rain-fall.  These 
basins,  as  well  as  the  main  aqueducts  are,  in  this  country,  built  of 
stone  or  cement,  and  in  this  equable  climate  endure  for  centuries.  As 
the  olive  suffers  from  too  much  moisture  to  as  great  an  extent  as  from 
too  little,  careful  cultivators  protect  the  roots  of  their  trees  in  the  au- 
tumn from  an  excess  of  the  cold  rains  of  winter  with  as  much  care  as 
they  take  to  provide  them  with  water  during  the  dry  months  of  summer. 

Cultivation. — After  an  olive  grove  is  fairly  started  the  annual  labor 
involved  in  its  cultivation  is  as  follows: 

In  autumn,  in  those  tocalities  where  severe  cold  is  apprehended,  the 
earth  is  built  up  and  solidly  packed  around  the  trees  to  prevent  a  too 
ready  access  of  the  chilling  waters  of  winter  to  the  roots.  When  no 
frosts  are  feared  and  the  season  is  dry,  the  soil  on  the  contrary  is  loos- 
ened about  the  roots  to  facilitate  the  entry  of  moisture. 

In  winter  or  early  spring  the  earth  is  turned  up  as  deeply  as  possible, 
in  this  country,  with  the  spade. 

In  summer  a  superficial  digging  takes  place  to  destroy  the  weeds. 

In  September  the  ditches  and  reservoirs  are  cleaned  and  opened  to 
allow  the  winter  rains  to  pass  out. 

The  deep  digging  at  the  end  of  winter  is  to  facilitate  the  absorption 
of  the  spring  rains  to  as  great  a  depth  as  possible.  The  superficial 
summer  digging,  besides  destroying  the  weeds,  breaks  the  continuity 
of  the  soil,  the  loose  upper  stratum  acting  as  a  blanket  preventing  the 
dispersion  and  evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  lower  depths. 

In  addition  to  this  is  the  fertilization  of  trees  in  old  and  exhausted 
ground. 

Pruning. — The  olive,  like  the  peach,  bears  fruit  on  the  second  year's 
growth ;  that  is  to  say,  the  growth  of  one  year  bears  the  fruit  of  the 
next.  The  branches  extend  themselves  from  year  to  year,  but  the  part 
thereof  which  has  once  borne  fruit,  never  blooms  again.  In  the  absence 
of  pruning  these  branches  grow  in  length  from  year  to  year  until  they 
finally  cease  5  the  shooting  out  of  collateral  branches  is  very  slow  and 
the  fruitage  of  the  tree  insignificant.  By  improper  or  irregular  pruning 
the  fruitage  of  a  tree  may  be  seriously  diminished  or  even  temporarily 
destroyed.  By  pruning  the  form  and  extent  of  the  tree  are  controlled. 

To  constitute  a  healthy  tree,  the  amount  of  upper  growth  should  be 
proportioned  to  the  development  of  the  roots  and  will  constantly  vary 
with  the  age  and  vigor  of  each  individual  tree.  Olive  trees  should  be 
pruned  annually,  in  the  spring.  The  most  desirable  form  is  the  reversed 
cone,  the  branches  spreading  more  and  more  as  the  top  is  approached. 


678        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

This  is  thought  to  produce  the  most  uniform  exposure  to  air  and  sun. 
The  trees  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  too  high,  the  trunk  from  the 
ground  to  the  lower  branches  not  to  exceed  1 J  to  2  meters  (about  4J  to 
6£  feet). 

When  the  young  tree  is  sufficiently  branched  and  has  reached  a 
height  of  about  1J  meters  (or  4^  feet)  the  top  is  cut  off  immediately 
above  a  vigorous  embranchment.  In  the  following  spring  the  principal 
branches  are  pruned,  being  left  shortest  at  the  bottom  and  longer  as 
the  top  is  approached,  and  so  on  from  year  to  year,  preserving  to  the 
tree  a  symmetry  of  form  and  uniformity  of  density  as  far  as  possible. 
When  the  fruiting  age  is  reached  the  skillful  primer  will  form  such  a 
relation  between  the  general  growth  of  wood  and  the  fruit-bearing 
branches,  from  year  to  year,  as  will  best  subserve  the  health  and  vigor 
of  the  tree.  In  addition  to  this  pruning  there  should  be  an  annual 
cutting  away  of  all  decayed  and  unhealthy  branches. 

Picking. — All  the  olives  on  a  tree  do  not  mature  at  the  same  time  and 
two  pickings  are  generally  made.  In  the  first  are  taken  the  southern  side 
of  the  trees  and  those  trees  situated  on  high  ground,  as  these  ripen 
first.  The  method  is  to  pick  by  hand  those  within  reach,  then  gently 
shake  the  branches  until  the  balance  drop  to  the  ground.  In  large 
groves  the  wind  is  largely  relied  on  to  assist  in  the  labor.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  to  pick  an  ettolitro  (or  about  2f  Winchester  bushels)  of 
olives  from  the  tree  by  hand  requires  a  man's  labor  for  eight  hours,  while 
the  same  amount  can  be  picked  from  the  ground  in  one  and  one-half  hours. 

Pickling. — Olives  for  pickling  or  preserving  in  any  manner  for  table 
use  are  picked  green ;  for  oil,  when  fully  ripe.  It  seems  to  be  the 
opinion  here  that  olives  increase  in  amount  of  oil  produced  if  left  on 
the  tree  some  weeks  after  fully  ripe,  but  the  quality  of  the  oil  deterio- 
rates. 

Manufacture  of  oil. — To  make  good  oil  the  olives  should  first  be  thor- 
oughly cleansed  of  all  earth  and  leaves.  If  washing  is  necessary  to 
effect  this,  they  must  then  be  carefully  dried,  after  which  they  should 
be  conveyed  at  once  to  the  mill ;  but,  if  this  is  impracticable,  they  may 
be  spread  out  4  or  5  inches  deep  in  a  dry,  airy  place,  care  being 
taken  to  turn  them  over  thoroughly  every  three  or  four  days  to  prevent 
fermentation.  If  the  olives  are  allowed  to  ferment  the  quality  of  the 
oil  is  effected  injuriously  both  in  color  and  taste.  There  ai*e  several 
varieties  of  machines  for  crushing  the  olives.  Extensive  producers 
have  at  least  one  grooved  mill  which  crushes  the  olives  but  leaves  the 
pips  or  stones  intact.  The  oil  from  the  latter,  although  amounting  to 
7  or  8  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  is  of  an  inferior  quality,  and  its  admixture 
detracts  from  the  brightness  and  excellence  of  the  first  pressing.  The 
olives,  reduced  to  paste,  are  put  in  sacks  made  of  a  species  of  rush  or 
reed  (Juncus  acutus),  of  strips  of  bark,  or  of  hemp  and  placed  under 
the  press  (worked  by  screw  or  lever),  when  the  first  extraction  of  oil  is 
made.  This  is  the  "  virgin  oil,"  absolutely  pure  and  highest  in  value. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    PALERMO.  679 

To  the  paste  or  mash  from  which  the  virgin  oil  has  been  extracted, 
the  pips,  previously  removed,  are  added,  boiling  water  is  poured  on 
pressure  again  applied,  and  another  and  inferior  grade  of  oil  expressed. 
The  operation  repeated  a  third  time  produces  a  still  more  inferior  grade 
of  oil,  used  mostly  in  the  arts. 

In  all  these  operations  absolute  cleanliness  is  indispensable ;  mills, 
presses,  and  utensils  should  be  frequently  washed  in  a  solution  of  lye, 
as  the  slightest  contact  with  rancid  matter  will  impart  a  disagreeable 
odor  to  the  oil. 

In  some  districts  the  crushing-mill  is  dispensed  with,  the  only  ma- 
chinery used  being  a  small  screw-press.  In  such  case  the  sack  of  olives 
is  placed  on  the  bed  of  the  press,  trampled  down  by  men,  and  then  the 
pressure  applied,  and  the  so  called  "virgin  oil "  produced.  The  tramp- 
ling is  repeated,  water  added,  and  pressure  renewed,  and  so  on,  repeat- 
ing all  the  operations  until  nothing  remains  but  the  shells  of  the  pips 
and  the  dry  pulp  of  the  olives.  The  oil  obtained  by  this  method  is  more 
dense  and  mucilaginous  than  the  other.  Leaving  the  press  the  oil  is 
poured  into  glazed  earthenware  jars,  well  washed  with  cold  water  (to 
which  is  added  a  little  vinegar)  and  wiped  dry  with  clean  cloths.  The 
best  form  for  these  jars  is  that  of  a  frustrum  of  a  cone  reversed.  In 
some  cases  vessels  hollowed  out  of  calcareous  stone  are  used,  after  be- 
ing thoroughly  cleansed  with  lime  water.  These  jars  or  vessels  are 
placed  in  dry  cellars,  cool  in  summer  and'sufficieutly  warm  in  winter  to' 
prevent  congelation  of  the  oil,  as  this  impedes  the  deposition  of  the 
lees  (morchia). 

The  winter  temperature  of  these  cellars  should  be  from  15°  to  18° 
centigrade  (59°  to  64.4°  Fahrenheit).  In  June  the  oil  should  be  clear,- 
and  can  be  poured  off  into  other  vessels. 

This  first  pouring  off  is  the  "  superfine  oil "  (olio  sopraffino).  From 
what  remains  in  the  jars  a  second  pouring  off  or  decanting  takes  place 
a  month  later,  and  this  produces  the  "fine  oil"  (olio  fino),  and  in 
August  still  another  decanting  from  the  bottom  brings  forth  the  third 
grade,  called  "fat  oil"  (olio  grasso),  used  in  manufactures. 

The  purification  of  the  oil  and  deposition  of  the  lees,  or  morchia,  may 
be  accelerated  by  washing  or  rinsing  with  pure  water  or  a  solution  of 
alum.  The  color  of  the  oil  may  be  bleached,  or  clarified,  by  a  solution 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  in  the  proportion  of  20  to  24  parts  of  water 
to  1  of  acid.  There  should  be  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  acid  to  each 
pound  of  oil.  The  mixture  must  be  placed  in  a  vessel  and  agitated 
until  it  becomes  milky,  the  agitation  repeated  several  times  during  the 
first  twenty -four  hours,  and  then  left  quiet  for  eight  days  to  settle. 
The  oil  may  then  be  decanted,  and  will  be  found  extremely  clear  and 
limpid.  This  process  also  destroys  any  bad  odors  that  may  linger  about 
the  oil,  though  for  this  purpose  vinegar  or  alcohol  seems  better. 

Preparinfj  for  market. — For  pickling  the  largest  and  most  fleshy  olives 
aie  sel«M't(Ml.  They  should  be  immersed  in  pure  water  for  five  or  six 
15GA 19 


680        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

days,  the  water  being  changed  four  or  five  times  per  day,  and  when 
they  have  lost  all  bitterness  placed  in  a  vessel  (earthen  jars  are  used 
here)  filled  with  brine,  care  being  taken  that  they  are  immersed,  alter 
which  they  are  ready  for  use  in  sixty  days,  and  will  keep  for  a  year 
or  more. 

Another  method  consists  in  steeping  the  olives  in  lye  until  the  pulp 
is  penetrated  5  then,  having  ascertained  by  taste  that  they  have  lost 
their  bitterness,  they  are  immersed  in  water,  as  before,  renewed  two 
or  three  times  per  day  for  four  or  five  days,  or  until  all  disagreeable 
flavor  has  disappeared.  This  done,  they  are  immersed  in  brine,  to 
which  may  be  added,  according  to  taste,  some  odoriferous  herb,  as 
fennel.  Cloves  and  cinnamon  are  also  used. 

Maturity. — The  trees  commence  fruiting  at  from  six  to  eight  years 
of  age. 

Yield. — From  experiments  made  in  Sicily  it  has  been  ascertained 
that  a  mature  tree  yields  8.50  kilograms,  and  a  hectare  (about  2J  acres) 
of  land,  in  perfect  condition,  850  kilograms  of  oil  per  annum,  from  which 
it  has  been  concluded  that  an  olive  grove  in  Sicily  of  the  extent  of  1 
hectare  will,  as  a  rule  produce  an  average  quantity  of  oil  of  from  642 
to  734 kilograms  per  annum. 

Planting  and  propagating. — This  depends  on  the  soil  and  its  forma- 
tion. In  Sicily  they  are  planted  from  20  to  40  feet  apart,  the  closest 
being  on  side  hills  and  poor  !and,  and  the  farthest  apart  in  rich  val- 
leys. From  seed  and  by  grafting.  Trees  dying,  renew  themselves 
from  the  root. 

Successful  cultivation. — The  importance  of  avoiding  all  exposed  locali- 
ties in  planting  olive  groves  is  enjoined  upon  them.  As,  for  instance, 
when  the  trees  would  be  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  from  snow-covered 
mountains,  the  hot  dry  blasts  from  the  deserts  of  Arizona  or  New 
Mexico  and  strong  sea  winds  laden  with  salt.  It  would  also  be  wise  to 
plant  different  varieties  of  trees  until  those  best  suited  to  special  locali- 
ties can  be  ascertained. 

Ko  doubt  is  entertained  that  in  the  sheltered  valleys  of  California,  as 
well  as  on  the  favorably  exposed  foot-hills  and  along  the  southern 
coast  thereof,  the  olive  would  do  well  and  prove  a  profitable  source  of 
revenue.  I 

Insect  pests. — These  are  very  numerous,  and  commit  great  havoc.  As 
there  is  a  whole  library  of  books  on  the  subject,  it  is  impossible  in  a 
report  of  this  kind  to  give  any  summary  that  would  be  of  value. 

PHILIP  CARROLL, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Palermo,  March  7,  1890. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    SICILY.  681 

SICILY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  LAMANTIA,  OF  CATANIA.. 
THE  OLIVE  IN   ANCIENT  AND  MODERN  TIMES. 

It  is  said  that  Asia  is  the  olive's  native  place,  and  that  Cecrope  brought 
it  to  Athens  and  the  Phocesis  to  Marseilles  (600  years  B.  0.).  The 
olive  plant  is  known  from  past  centuries,  and  a  proof  thereof  is  that  we 
find  it  mentioned  in  the  Genesis,  Homer,  and  in  Hesiod.  The  legend  of 
the  pigeon  having  returned  on  the  Noah's  ark  with  a  small  olive  branch 
as  a  sign  of  peace  is  well  known.  It  would,  therefore,  seem  that  the 
olive  tree  vegetated  on  the  land,  even  before  the  universal  deluge.  The 
ancients  paid  to  the  olive  great  honors,  and,  as  a  mark  of  admiration, 
they  believed  that  the  plant  had  risen  through  Minerva's  action.  Con- 
sequently, they  consecrated  it  to  that  deity,  and  Columella  declared  it 
"  The  first  tree  of  all  trees  " — olea  prima  omnium  arborum  est.  In  Asia 
nature  disseminated  the  first  olive  shoot,  which  afterwards  is  seen  cul- 
tivated all  over  Asia  Minor,  Phoenicia,  Palestine,  and  Syria.  The  an- 
cient Hebrews,  Etrurians,  Greeks,  and  Romans  paid  the  olive  tree 
divine  honors. 

The  olive  tree  likes  the  sea,  the  calcareous  soil,  the  mounts  and  roll- 
ing hills,  as  well  as  the  lake  borders  and  river  shores.  That  is  because 
it  was  diffusely  grown  all  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  Phoenicia,  and 
Palestine,  as  it  is  now  seen  in  Greece,  not  in  the  interior,  but  all  along 
the  Ionic  Islands  and  Archipelago,  Cyclades  and  Sporandes,  still  in  a 
wild  growing  state. 

In  what  epoch  the  Greeks  did  really  extract  the  oil  from  the  fruit 
and  use  ifc  for  illuminating  and  condiment,  as  it  is  done  now,  it  is  im- 
possible to  learn,  for  want  of  historical  records.  But  one  thing  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  the  primitive  extraction  of  oil  and  its  use  is  lost  in 
the  obscurity  of  night.  When,  between  the  seventh  and  eighth  cen- 
turies, or  eight  hundred  years  (B.  C.),  the  Greek  colonies  extended  them- 
selves towards  the  northern  coast,  they  probably,  with  their  industry 
and  commerce,  imported  also  the  olive  culture. 

In  the  sixth  century  (B.  C.)  the  olive  tree  was  cultivated  in  southern 
Italy,  in  Sardinia,  and  in  Sicily.  The  Romans  knew  the  olive  later 
than  the  Greeks.  A  century  previous  to  that,  we  learn  from  Pliuv, 
no  olives  existed  then  in  Rome,  but  that  they  did  exist  all  along  the 
Adriatic  coast,  cultivated  by  Greeks.  Gradually,  later  on,  the  olives 
were  introduced  into  central  and  southern  Italy,  hence  into  this  island 
of  Sicily. 

The  olive  tree  is  now  cultivated  in  southern  Europe,  as  in  Spain, 
Portugal,  and  France,  Austria-Hungary,  Provence,  Italy,  Greece,  and 
Turkey  in  Europe. 

Italy  is,  however,  a  region  of  the  few  most  privileged  ones  by  nature, 


682 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


wherein  the  plant  can  easily  vegetate  and  produce  profitably.  In  fact, 
out  of  the  69  Italian  provinces  only  in  19  of  them  the  olive  plant  is 
not  cultivated.  The  production,  as  considered  in  regard  to  land  occupied 
by  the  olive  culture,  is  more  profitable  in  Sicily,  and  precisely  in  the 
provinces  of  Palermo,  Trapani,  and  Caltanissetta.  As  reported  by  the 
ministro  di  agricoltura  in  1874,  it  seems  that  the  present  olive  culti- 
vated land  in  Italy  (together  with  other  plants)  occupies  an  extension  of 
900,311  hectares,  yielding  an  average  of  3,385,591  hectoliters  of  oil,  or 
3.76  hectoliters  per  hectare. 

The  annual  exportation  from  Italy  is  635,000  quintals,  equal  to  63,500 
tons,  and  the  best  and  finest  oil  is  made  at  Pisa  and  Lucca,  and  mostly 
in  the  whole  region  of  Tuscany,  on  account  of  good  picking  and  curing 
the  olives  and  extracting  and  refining  the  oil. 

The  following  table  shows  the  olive  cultivated  land  and  the  total 
production  of  oil  in  Italy  : 


Regions. 

Superfice 
olive  culti- 
vated land. 

Total  oil 
production. 

Hectares. 

Hectoliters. 

4,591 

6,318 

3,536 

9  321 

84,  931 

343,  264 

Emilia                                                                                      

4  694 

14  757 

76,  271 

195,659 

119  278 

285  006 

41,  667 

95,  834 

South  Adriatic        

270,  090 

857,  649 

139,  288 

636,  540 

Sicily                                              

104,  373 

730,  238 

51,  582 

211,  005 

Total                                                                       .                   

900  311 

3  385  591 

General  average,  3.76  hectoliters  per  hectare. 

After  Italy  the  most  oil-producing  country  is  Spain ;  next  comes 
France,  Algeria  included,  and  Austria-Hungary. 

In  Greece  and  Turkey  the  olive  tree  is  also  extensively  cultivated, 
but  the  oil  is  mostly  fit  and  used  for  soap-making. 

In  no  other  country  of  Europe  does  the  oil  equal  the  Italian  made  in 
quality. 

As  shown  in  the  table,  the  extension  of  olive  cultivated  land  in  Sicily 
is  104,373  hectares,  with  an  average  production  of  730,238  hectoliters 
oil  a  year,  and  at  rate  of  nearly  7  hectoliters  per  hectare.  The  oil,  how- 
ever, it  is  proper  to  say,  is  generally  too  rich  and  strong,  on  account  of 
the  poor  system  of  picking  the  fruit  and  not  refining  the  oil.  The  finest 
oil  in  this  island  is  made  in  Termini-Iinerese,  24  miles  from  the  city  of 
Palermo,  by  using  the  same  system  of  Tuscany.  I  now  proceed  with 
the  practical  one,  by  answering  categorically  the  circular. 

QUESTIONS  ABOUT  OLIVES. 

Varieties. — The  name  of  best  varieties  for  pickling  in  this  consular 
district  is  the  Marmorigna  of  Catania,  an  egg-shaped  olive,  with  small 
stone  and  much  pulp,  giving  a  good  oil. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    SICILY.  683 

The  names  of  best  varieties  for  oil  are:  La  Biancolilla  (little  white),  , 
an  oblong  white,  yellowish  olive,  even  when  it  is  ripe,  yielding  a  very  fine 
oil;  La  Calabrese,  a  small  olive,  but  very  productive,  yielding  excellent 
oil ;  La  Ogliara,  of  medium  size,  giving  an  ordinary  quality  of  oil ;  La 
Cerasola  or  Prunara,  a  precocious  and  pulpy  olive,  yielding  plenty  oil, 
but  very  rich  ;  it  is  used  for  eating.  La  Raitana,  a  very  late  fruit,  of 
ordinary  quality  of  oil ;  and  La  Galtabellottese,  an  oblong  black  olive 
when  ripe,  giving  rather  a  rich  oil. 

The  names  of  other  varieties  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit  are 
the  following :  La  Mortillara,  Giarraffa,  Patornesc,  Mesxinese,  Nasitana, 
Pizzutella,  Piricuddara,  Saracena,  Siragusana,  and  San  Francescana. 

Situation. — The  said  varieties  are  grown  in  Sicily  in  the  provinces  of 
Palermo.  Trapani,  Caltanissetta,  Catania,  and  Messina,  at  the  distance 
of  from  100  to  300  meters  from  the  sea,  and  at  an  altitude  of  300  to  800 
meters  above  the  sea-level,  exposed  to  sun  and  planted  on  hilly,  roll- 
ing land,  for  it  is  the  best,  and  on  flinty,  calcareous,  argillaceous  soil. 

Climate. — The  climatic  temperature  is:  minimum  5°  centigrade  in 
January,  maximum  35°  in  August,  and  17°  average  in  May. 

The  average  rain-fall  in  Sicily  is  considered  to  be  from  25  to  30  inches 
in  the  year.  More  than  that  rain  would  help  the  culture  greatly. 

Irrigation. — There  is  no  regular  method  of  irrigating  olive  trees,  and 
a  good  crop  of  fruit  depends  entirely  upon  favorable  weather  and  rain- 
fall in  the  proper  season. 

Cultivation. — The  earth  about  must  be  regularly  dug  at  least  twice  a 
year;  that  is,  in  the  month  of  June  and  August,  and  manured  at  the 
end  of  the  winter. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  to  be  done  regularly  after  the  fruit  has  been 
gathered. 

Picking. — The  olives'for  making  oil  are  to  be  picked  when  turning  to 
the  dark  violet  color,  for  then  the  pulp  is  easily  detached  from  the 
stone.  When  so  picked  they  give  the  following  favorable  result,  viz: 

Palp 51.26 

Water 14.38 

Stone 20.16 

Residue 8.  38  v 

Oil  of  the  curl 0.  06 

The  following  system  maybe  established  as  the  proper  time  for  pick- 
ing the  fruit : 

(1)  Olives  gathered  before  full  maturity  give  very  fine,  but  very  little, 
oil.  . 

(2)  Olives  gathered  at  full  maturity  yield  the  most  quantity  of  oil 
and  of  a  good  quality. 

(3)  Olives  gathered  late  produce  oil  of  a  poor  quality. 

Pickling. — The  olives  for  pickling  must  be  picked  when  full  grown, 
but  in  green  color.  After  so  picked  they  are  prepared  for  making  oil 
and  for  pickling. 


684         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  process  of  pickling  green  colored  olives  in  Sicily  is  very  simply 
done,  viz,  by  putting  them  in  salt  water,  made  out  of  one  pound  of  sea- 
salt  to  every  gallon  of  fresh  water,  stored  in  barrels,  casks,  or  any  other 
receptacle,  and  let  them  remain  there  until  eaten.    In  that  manner  they 
are  shipped  and  kept  for  home  trade.    As  to  the  process  of  making  oil. 
it  is  impossible  for  me  to  describe  it  minutely. 
Maturity.— Trees  commence  fruiting  at  the  age  of  eight  years. 
Yield. — The  average  yield  from  J  to  4  hectoliters  of  fruit. 
Planting  and  propagating. — The  distance  apart  is  from  16,  22,  and  32 
feet,  and  propagated  by  several  methods. 

VINCENT  LAMANTIA, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Catania^  January  21, 1890. 


SICILY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WOODCOCK,  OF  CATANIA. 
[  Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41$.  1 

At  least  ten  varieties  of  the  olives  of  the  present  age  were  known  and 
cultivated  by  the  ancient  Eomans.  There  are  the  Pausio,  Algiano, 
Licinio,  Sergio,  Culminio,  Orchide,  Eegio,  Cereifce,  Nevio,  and  Mirteo. 
Of  these  the  best  for  yielding  oil  are  the  Licinio  and  the  Sergio.  The 
fruit  of  the  Pausio,  Eegio,  and  Orchide  is  of  fine  flavor,  and  excellent 
for  eating  as  condiment,  and  yields  a  good  quality  of  oil. 

In  this  part  of  Italy ,  especially  in  the  neighborhood  of  Syracuse,  there 
are  probably  greater  varieties  of  the  olive  than  were  known  to  the  old 
Eomans.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  Ptesano  (native),  by  some 
called  the  African ;  the  Oglialoro,  which  produces  a  smaller  fruit  than 
the  Psesano,  but  it  is  rich  in  oil;  the  Biancolino  (white),  of  which  the 
pulp  of  the  fruit  is  white  ;  the  Pizzuto  (pointed),  the  fruit  being  some- 
what pointed  in  shape;  the  Prunaro  (plum),  the  fruit  being  roundish  in 
form  ;  the  Dattio  (date),  of  which  the  fruit  is  elongated  and  oval  |n  fo»m ; 
and  the  Ferlese,  the  fruit  of  which  yields  a  finely-flavored  oil,  and  is  ex- 
cellent for  comfits. 

The  varieties  that  are  preferred  for  the  utility  of  their  product  and 
durability  of  the  trees  are  the  African  and  Oglialoro.  These  trees  are 
possessed  of  great  longevity,  living  to  be  three  and  four  hundred  years 
old,  and  continuing  to  be  green,  healthy,  and  productive.  The  other 
varieties  do  not  attain  so  great  an  age,  especially  the  Ferlese  and  Bian- 
colino. 

A  stony  or  calcareous  soil  is  best  for  the  olive.  It  must  not  be  planted 
in  damp  or  clayey  ground.  Irrigation  is  not  necessary ;  in  fact,  it  is 


THK  OLIVF.   IN  SICILY.  685 

injurious  to  the  tree.  The  trees  require  a  loose, dry  soil.  A  hill  side  is 
suit'able,  provided  there  is  no  danger  of  denudation  by  water  and  the 
soil  is  supported  about  the  trees  by  terraces. 

The  usual  method  of  propagation  is  to  sow  the  seed,  plant  suckers, 
or  off-shoots  that  spring  up  from  the  roots  of  the  parent  trees,  or  by 
grafting  the  best  varieties  upon  the  wild-olive  stock. 

An  olive  orchard  may  be  commenced  from  cuttings  in  the  following 
manner :  Prepare  the  ground  by  spading  to  the  depth  of  3  feet  and 
surround  the  same  by  a  deep  trench.  Let  the  soil  thus  prepared  re- 
main for  a  time  exposed  to  the  sun.  Take  young  vigorous  branches 
two  or  three  inches  in  diameter  from  the  kind  of  tree  preferred;  cut  the 
same  into  lengths  of  about  one  and  a  half  feet,  being  careful  not  to  in- 
jure the  bark.  Smear  each  end  of  the  cutting  with  stable  manure,  coat- 
ing the  same  with  ashes.  Then  plant  the  cuttings  upright  in  the  soil 
so  that  the  upper  end  will  be  a  couple  of  inches  beneath  the  surface. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  j^lant  the  cutting  the  right  end  up,  as  upon  the 
tree;  otherwise  it  will  not  take  root. 

Many  prefer  to  grow  the  wild  olive  from  the  seed,  and  when  grown  to 
the  proper  size,  graft  upon  its  stock  the  best  varieties.  Whichever 
method  is  resorted  to,  the  time  for  planting  must  be  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  spring  equinox. 

The  first  year  after  planting,  the  ground  should  be  frequently  hoed; 
and  in  the  second  and  subsequent  years  the  rake  must  be  used,  that 
the  young  roots  may  acquire  strength  and  vigor  in  a  mellow  soil.  For 
the  first  two  years  the  young  plant  must  not  be  pruned.  The  third  year 
it  should  be  pruned,  leaving  but  two  branches  thereon.  During  all  this 
time  the  ground  should  be  hoed  and  raked  frequently.  In  the  fourth 
year  the  weaker  of  the  two  branches  must  be  removed.  After  cultivat- 
ing thus  for  five  years  the  plants  are  ready  for  transplanting  to  the 
orchard. 

In  transplanting  to  the  orchard,  a  distance  of  sixty  or  more  feet  must 
be  maintained  between  the  trees,  where  the  soil  is  rich.  In  poor  soil 
the  distance  should  be  thirty  or  more  feet  apart. 

A  year  before  transplanting  to  the  orchard,  the  holes  for  the  trees 
should  be  dug  to  the  depth  of  4  feet.  This  should  be  done  that  the  soil 
of  the  holes  may  become  fertilized  by  the  rays  of  the  sun.  If  the  trees 
are  to  be  transplanted  in  autumn  the  ground  must  be  dry :  if  in  spring 
the  soil  should  be  fresh  and  the  trees  moved  before  they  commence  to  bud. 
Prior  to  planting  it  is  well  to  mark  the  position  of  the  plants  as  to  the 
points  of  compass,  and  give  them  the  same  position  in  the  orchard. 

The  young  orchard  (thus  commenced)  must  be  plowed  and  hoed  at 
least  twice  a  year.  After  the  solstice,  when  the  earth  erodes  by  the 
heat,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  roots  of  the  young  trees  do  not  become 
exposed  to  the  sun.  After  the  autumnal  equinox  equal  care  must  be 
had  (especially  if  the  orchard  be  upon  a  hill-side)  that  the  rains  do  not 
denude  the  roots.  Each  year  the  shoots  that  put  forth  from  the  stein 


686  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

must  be  removed.  Every  third  year  the  ground  about  the  trees  should 
be  manured,  the  amount  to  be  determined  by  the  condition  of  the  soil. 

It  is  often  the  case  that  even  in  dry  situations  a  moss  gathers  upon 
the  trees.  When  this  occurs  the  moss  must  be  removed  by  scraping. 
Dregs  of  the  oil  should  be  smeared  upon  the  trunks  of  the  less  vigorous 
trees.  This  will  destroy  the  insects  that  infest  the  bark  and  thus  injure 
the  trees. 

After  the  lapse  of  eight  years  the  trees  must  be  thoroughly  pruned ; 
cutting  away  all  sprouts,  and  such  branches  as  obstruct  the  air  and 
sunlight ;  but  no  large  branch  should  be  cut  near  the  body  of  the  tree ; 
and  the  lower  branches  should  be  spared,  because  being  more  exposed 
to  the  warmth  they  are  the  most  productive. 

At  eight  years  old  the  olive  is  but  a  mere  infant  tree.  At  fifteen 
years  of  age  it  bears  but  little  fruit.  When  thirty-five  or  forty  years 
old  it  begins  to  bear  abundantly,  but  then  only  every  other  year.  Every 
alternate  year  there  is  generally  a  poor  crop.  At  this  age  a  hectare 
(^rfoo  acres)  of  trees  in  the  fruitful  year  generally  yields  from  3  to  4 
quintals  metrique  (660  to  668  pounds)  of  olives,, or  about  240  or  320  kilo- 
grams (530  to  705  pounds)  of  oil. 

When  the  trees  are  fully  grown  the  ground  should  be  plowed  at  in- 
tervals during  the  year,  and  should  be  once  hoed  during  the  autumn. 
The  cost  of  this  per  annum,  including  the  pruning  and  cleaning  of  the 
trees,  is  about  106  to  130  lire  ($19.80  to  $25.09)  per  hectare  (2^ftf0 
acres). 

For  oil  the  fruit  should  be  gathered  when  it  commences  to  change 
color  from  gray  to  dark  red.  The  fruit  must  be  picked  by  hand,  not 
knocked  off  with  poles,  and  care  taken  not  to  bruise  it.  If  bruised  or 
injured  in  any  way  it  soon  becomes  rotten,  and  the  oil  from  it  is  of  poor 
quality.  As  soon  as  gathered  the  oil  should  at  once  be  compressed 
from  the  fruit.  In  Sicily  there  are  mills  for  this  purpose.  The  fruit  is 
placed  between  two  stones  and  the  stones  forced  together  by  screw 
power.  It  spoils  the  fruit  to  let  it  lie  in  heaps  in  a  store-house  before 
extracting  the  oil.  The  oil  as  soon  as  extracted  is  placed  in  large  jars. 
The  jars  should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  vinegar  and  water  before 
receiving  the  oil.  When  the  jars  have  been  filled  with  the  oil,  they  are 
placed  in  rooms  where  the  temperature  is  kept  about  15°  above  zero 
(R6aumar),  (or  Fahrenheit  about  50°  above  zero).  In  the  month  oV  June 
following,  as  soon  as  the  oil  becomes  clear  (impurities  settling  to  the 
bottom)  the  upper  strata  of  oil  (the  clearest)  in  the  jars  must  be  poured 
off  into  other  jars,  the  cloudy  or  poorer  quality  remaining.  This  oil  is 
the  first  grade  or  best  quality.  In  a  month  after  this  process  is  repeated, 
the  turned-off  oil  being  second  grade  or  quality.  After  the  lapse  of 
another  month  the  process  is  again  repeated,  giving  an  oil  of  third 
quality.  The  dregs  are  now  left  in  the  first  jars,  and  are  here  used  for 
making  soap,  rubbing  on  the  bark  of  sickly  young  trees,  etc. 

For  export  the  olives  must  be  gathered  by  hand  in  the  month  of  De- 


THE    OLIVE    IN    TUSCANY  687 

r,  when  the?  are  of  a  green  or  whitish  green  color,  according  to 
the  kind  of  fruit.  The  fruit  is  then  placed  in  barrels  or  large  jars  and 
covered  with  a  strong  brine.  In  this  condition  the  fruit  is  exported. 
The  brine  is  thus  prepared:  Into  a  barrel  or  tub  is  poured  fresh,  clean 
water  until  it  is  three  fourths  full ;  over  this  is  hung  a  basket  filled  with 
coarse  salt,  the  bottom  of  the  basket  being  3  or  4  inches  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  water.  When  the  water  becomes  completely  impregnated, 
and  will  hold  no  more  salt  in  solution,  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Black  olives  for  condiments  are  thus  prepared :  They  must  be  gath- 
ered by  band  when  they  begin  to  ripen  and  commence  to  turn  black. 
They  must  not  be  fully  ripe.  When  gathered  they  are  cleaned  and 
salted  in  baskets.  The  proportion  of  fruit  and  salt  is  about  a  large 
handful  of  coarse  salt  to  a  gallon  of  the  fruit.  Coarse  salt  is  first  spread 
in  the  bottom  of  the  basket,  then  a  layer  of  fruit,  then  of  salt,  and  so 
alternately  until  the  basket  is  full.  In  this  condition  the  fruit  must  re- 
main a  month,  then  with  fresh  water  cleanse  the  fruit  from  the  salt 
and  place  it  in  clean  jars,  covering  the  surface  with  laurel  leaves. 

Another  method  of  preparing  the  black  olive  for  table  use  is  thus : 
As  above  the  olives  must  be  picked  when  they  commence  to  lose  their 
green  color,  becoming  somewhat  dark.  Place  the  fruit  in  shallow  bas- 
kets in  the  shade,  letting  it  remain  thus  for  a  day.  Then  close  the 
fruit  in  jars  for  twenty-four  hours.  Then  salt  the  fruit  in  jars,  scatter- 
ing upon  each  layer  of  the  fruit  two  handfuls  of  fine  salt  to  a  gallon  of 
the  olives.  Some  hours  afterwards  when  the  fruit  is  impregnated  with 
the  salt,  remove  it  to  other  jars,  pouring  upon  it  a  copious  supply  of  olive 
oil  of  the  first  quality  that  is  pleasant  to  the  taste.  Cover  the  surface 
with  laurel  leaves. 

ALBERT  WOODCOCK, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Catania,  July  21,  1884. 


TUSCANY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WELSH,    OF  FLORENCE. 
[Repubiished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41-}.] 

I  have  th.  honor  to  hand  you  my  reply  to  the  circular  issued  by  the 
Department  of  State,  under  date  of  the  4th  of  December,  1883,  and  re- 
ceived at  this  consulate  on  the  23d  of  January,  1884. 

I  regret  the  delay,  which  has  been  unavoidable,  and  in  this  connec- 
tion I  may  mention  that  the  answer  from  the  consular  agency  at  Cag- 
liari,  Sardinia,  reached  me  on  the  15th  instant,  and  that,  although  vines 
and  olives  are  grown  to  a  large  extent  in  this  district,  there  are  scarcely 
any  exports  of  the  same  made  through  this  consulate.  I  have,  there 
fore,  had  much  difficulty  in  arriving  at  the  information  I  am  able  to 
give. 


688         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 
OLIVES  AND  OLIVE  TREES. 

Olive  trees  are  adapted  to  few  countries,  being  so  delicate  that  they 
can  thrive  under  the  influence  of  a  mild  temperature  only.  Cold  winds 
and  a  soil  too  fresh  or  too  dry  are  equally  unfavorable  to  their  produc- 
tiveness. Therefore,  on  the  Mediterranean  coasts,  and  nominally  in  Italy, 
it  seems  that  olive  trees  meet  with  most  of  the  conditions  favorable  to 
their  development.  Olive  trees  in  a  favorable  climate  and  soil  grow 
quickly,  and  are  both  strong  and  leafy. 

In  Tuscany  the  diameter  of  the  trunk  measures  from  0.25  meters  to 
0.30  and  0.42  meters  (9J  inches,  11 J  inches,  1  foot  4J  inches).  The  or- 
dinary height  of  the  tree  when  fully  developed  is  from  5  to  7  meters 
(16  feet  to  22  feet  7  inches),  and  the  maximum  and  exceptional  height 
is  from  8  to  12  meters  (25J  feet  to  38  feet). 

It  is  difficult  to  state  the  length  of  life  and  productiveness  of  olive 
trees.  In  the  most  favorable  countries,  however,  they  remain  fruitful 
during  two  hundred  or  three  hundred  years,  and  if  after  this  term  of 
life  they  do  not  bear,  young  shoots  are  produced  by  them  which  become 
fruitful,  so  that  actually,  when  properly  tended,  they  may  be  said  never 
to  die. 

Among  the  olive  trees  the  following  are  the  better  known  in  Tuscany : 

Infrantoio  (fit  for  the  press),  one  of  the  most  delicate  and  very  sus- 
ceptible to  cold. 

Olivastro  (dark  brown  olive),  found  on  the  hills  ;  hardy,  but  not  very 
productive. 

Moraiolo  (resembling  the  mulberry),  hardy,  ripening  early,  and  fairly 
productive. 

Razzo  or  Grossaio  (large  and  lucent),  much  appreciated  for  the  abun- 
dance and  size  of  its  olives  and  the  good  quality  of  its  oil. 

Coreggiolo  (resembling  the  crucible  from  its  lowering  branches),  sus- 
ceptible to  cold  weather,  and  consequently  not  adapted  to  high  localities, 
but  still  growing  with  northern  expossure. 

Gremignolo  (a  coarse  description  of  olive),  ripening  in  March  or  April, 
and  found  in  the  Pisan  Mountains. 

Leccino  (holm-oak),  coarser,  but  very  hardy,  and  not  susceptible  to 
cold. 

Quercetano  (resembling  the  oak),  deriving  its  name  from  QueVceta,  a 
small  place  in  the  Lucchese,  where  it  is  largly  cultivated,  owing  to  its 
strong  constitution  and  resistance  to  sea  winds. 

Indolcitoio  (tender  and  sweet),  whose  fruit,  larger  than  other  varie- 
ties, but  with  little  oil,  is  eaten  fresh  after  having  been  for  some  time 
well  soaked. 

The  varieties  mostly  used  in  Tuscany  are  the— 

Infrantoio,  with  favor  able  exposure,  and  the  Moraiolo  elsewhere.  The 
Infrantoio  grows  well  in  sheltered  places  and  on  hillocks.  This  plant 
is  very  susceptible  to  exposure  to  or  changes  of  weather.  The  Moraiolo, 
cultivated  in  a  meager  and  arid  soil,  is  very  hardy  and  bears  well. 


THE    OLIVE    IN    TUSCANY.  (189 

Olive  trees  arc  generally  reproduced  from  ligneous  excrescences  of 
the  stock  or  roots,  iu  the  form  of  a  half  an  egg,  from  which  they  are  called 
uovoli,  cut  in  the  spring,  placed  in  holes  made  in  a  plowed  soil,  covered 
with  fine  earth  and  watered  according  to  the  exigencies  of  the  season. 
The  uovolo  sends  forth  shoots,  the  most  robust  of  which  are  brought  up, 
and  in  the  third  year  of  their  existence  may  be  planted.  The  repro- 
duction by  seed  is  not  exclusive,  however.  Small  plants  are  cared  for 
in  a  nursery  and  grafted  on  in  the  third  year,  and  in  the  fourth  are 
transplanted.  Olive  trees  are  planted  in  square  ditches  of  over  2  meters 
(6  feet  5J  inches)  and  at  a  depth  of  about  1  meter  (3  feet  3  inches), 
with,  proper  arrangement  for  drainage. 

Olive  trees  commence  to  bear  one  year  after  being  planted,  and  farm- 
ers anticipate  the  amount  and  increase  of  the  crop  from  the  date  thereof, 
relying  upon  the  Tuscan  sayings,  viz: 

Se  mignola  d?  Aprile,  vacci  col  barile  (bearing  in  April,  look  for  a  bar- 
relfnl ;  abundant  crop)* 

Se  mignola  di  Maggio,  vacci  col  saggio  (bearing  in  May,  hope  for  the 
best ;  scarce  crop). 

Se  mignolidi  Giugno,  vacci  colpugno  (bearing  in  June,  expect  a  hand- 
ful ;  poor  crop) ;  which  are  confirmed  by  the  following : 

La  prima  oliva  e  oro  (the  first  olive  is  gold). 

La  seconda  argento  (the  second  is  silver). 

La  terza  val  niente  (the  third  is  of  no  value). 

That  is  to  say  that  the  tree  precocious  in  its  bearing  produces  best; 
less  sure  are  those  flourishing  later,  and  the  produce  of  those  bearing 
last  is  of  little  or  no  value. 

In  well-disposed  orchards  olive  trees  are  planted  at  a  distance  of  from 
4  to  6  meters  (13  to  19  feet  4  inches)  one  from  the  other.  The  number 
of  trees  is  generally  from  400  to  600  per  hectare  (2J  acres). 

Pruning  in  the  best-conducted  orchards  consists  in  well  clearing  out 
the  center  of  the  tree  in  order  that  all  the  branches  bearing  may  have 
plenty  of  light,  sun,  and  air.  The  trees  are  pruned  every  two  or  three 
years.  Any  dying  or  dead  branches  are  taken  off  as  soon  as  noticed. 
Every  year  the  soil  is  turned  with  the  spade  and  every  other  year  ma- 
nured. It  is  thought  by  scientists  that  pruning  is  carried  to  too  great 
an  extent.  Columella,  the  ancient  agriculturist  ,who  greatly  advanced 
oil  culture,  says  of  this  plant  that  "  the  plowing  of  ground  is  a  re- 
quest, the  manuring  is  a  prayer,  and  the  pruning  is  an  order  to  produce 
fruit." 

The  best  orchards  in  the  Lucchese  may  produce  each  two  years  180 
hectoliters  (510  bushels)  of  olives  per  hectare  (2J  acres),  from  which 
quantity  there  can  be  had  2J60  kilograms  of  oil  (4,761.33  pounds),  or 
about  24J  hectoliters  (646  gallons). 

It  is  calculated  that  one  hectoliter  (2.83  bushels)  of  olives  gives  12 
kilograms  of  oil  (26J  pounds),  and  Domenico  Capponi,  in  his  treatise  on 
olive  oils,  considers  fairly  remunerative  the  production  of  from  10  to  15 
kilograms  (22  to  33  pounds)  per  hectoliter  of  olives  (2.83  bushels). 


690        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  average  biennial  product  is  estimated  at  120  hectoliters  per  hec- 
tare (340 1  bushels,  2J  acres),  equal  to  1,440  kilograms  of  oil  (3,174.62 
pounds),  or  about  16£  hectoliters  (430  gallons).  The  olive  tree  in  Tuscany 
produces  an  average  of  1.188  kilograms  oil  (2  pounds)  per  year.  Such  re- 
sults, however,  are  given,  but  in  good  years  and  considering  then*  uctuation 
of  the  product,  the  biennial  average  is  reduced  to  11  hectoliters  (290 
gallons)  of  oil  per  hectare  (2J  acres),  at  the  price  of  136  lire  ($27.20)  per 
hectoliter  (26.417  gallons),  as  being  the  average  price  for  the  last  six 
years,  giving  the  gross  amount  of  748  lire  per  annum.  To  that  is  added 
the  value  of  olive  husks,  from  1  lire  to  2.50  lire  per  quintal,  and  of  fagots 
derived  from  the  pruning,  which  amount  to  64  lire  every  two  years,.inak- 
ing  a  gross  amount  of  780  lire  per  hectare  and  per  year  ($156  from  2J 
acres.) 

The  following  statement  will  show  about  the  expenses  of  working  a 
hectare  of  olive  trees  and  the  approximate  net  receipts,  calculating  for 
one  instead  of  two  years : 

Lire. 

Working  the  ground 20.00 

Pruning 36.  Co 

Manuring 300.00 

Plucking  olives 40.00 

Pressing  olives 7.20 

Interest  at  5  per  cent,  per  annum 20.20 


423. 40 

Which,  deducted  from  the  gross  amount  of  780  lire,  leaves  356.10  lire 
net. 

It  is  generally  calculated  that  the  expenses  of  an  orchard  represent 
one-third  of  the  actual  value  of  the  produce,  and  that  estimate  is  made 
as  an  average.  The  expenses,  however,  exceed  by  far  said  figure,  as 
the  above  estimate  shows.  The  olive  culture  is  sometimes  managed  by 
what  is  called  mezzeria,  or  a  system  when  half  the  net  profits  are  paid  to 
laborers,  all  the  expense  but  that  of  pressing  the  olives  being  borne  by 
the  owner. 

Tuscan  oils  from  Lucca,  Calci,  and  Buti  are  esteemed  as  the  first  oils 
.of  the  world.  Not  all  Tuscan  oils,  however,  reach  that  degree  of  perfec- 
tion, but  even  judging  in  mass,  they  are  considered  the  best.  For  twenty 
years  past  Tuscany  has  not  produced  oil  for  burning  or  for  lubrication, 
all  attention  being  given  to  the  production  of  salad  and  cooking  oils. 

In  some  places  hot  water  is  used  to  facilitate  the  pressing.  The  best 
rules  adopted  for  extracting  oil  are  the  following,  viz : 

(1.)  To  expedite  the  careful  gathering  of  olives  already  fallen  from 
the  tree. 

(2.)  To  harvest  the  olives  as  soon  as  ripe,  plucking  the  fruit  by  hand 
or  whipping  the  trees  gently. 

(3.)  To  press  olives  before  fermentation  and  to  dispose  them  in  small 
strata  in  the  baskets. 


THE    01, LYE    IN    TUSCANY.  691 

(4.)  To  press  slowly  and  at  a  cold  temperature. 

(5.)To  have  all  machinery  and  recipients  very  ctaan,  as  well  as  to  in- 
sist on  the  cleanliness  of  the  laborer.  Crushing  presses  of  old  system  are 
used,  and  the  quantity  of  olives  submitted  to  each  pressure  varies  from 
150  to  250  liters  (4J  to  7  bushels),  but  not  over. 

Olives  must  be  well  pressed  and  ground  for  about  one  hour,  after 
which  they  are  reduced  to  a  paste  and  placed  in  frails,  submitted  to 
presses,  and  then  mixed  with  cold  water  for  a  second  pressure,  and  even 
a  third  pressure,  but  with  hot  water  in  that  case.  The  oil  produced  by 
a  first  gentle  pressure  is  the  virgin  oil;  the  other  is  mixed,  and  consti- 
tutes a  second  quality,  usually  called  olio  mangiable  (table  oil) ;  a  third 
quality  is  derived  from  the  deposit  of  oil,  and  used  by  colonists  for  burn- 
ing. 

Olive  oil  is  preserved  in  jars  varnished  inside,  containing  from  50  to 
300  liters  and  over  (13.200  to  79.251  gallons).  Olive  husks  crushed  and 
pressed  again  give  an  in/erior  oil  for  lubricating  purposes.  The  clarifi- 
cation of  oil  must  not  be  too  cold  nor  too  hot.  The  temperature  is  not  to 
vary  from  10°  to  12°  centigrade  (54°  Fahr.),  in  order  that  the  oil  fluid 
be  such  as  to  facilitate  the  deposit  of  heterogeneous  substances. 

The  process  of  preparing  olives  for  table  use  consists  in  their  sweet- 
ening or  drying ;  those  green  are  sweetened,  and  the  ripe  olives  are 
dried.  To  sweeten  they  are  placed  in  clean  water  during  five  or  six 
days,  changing  the  water  four  or  five  times  a  day.  When  they  have 
lost  their  bitterness  they  are  transferred  into  a  pitcher  of  brine  with  a 
few  branches  of  fennel,  taking  care  to  keep  them  well  plunged  in.  After 
sixty  days  they  are  good  for  table  use  and  are  so  preserved  until  the  fol- 
lowing year.  They  can  be  sooner  prepared  for  table  use  by  crushing, 
extracting  the  nut  and  keeping  the  fruit  moist  for  four  or  five  days  and 
changing  the  water  four  or  five  times  a  day.  They  are  then  placed  in 
brine,  and  after  six  or  eight  days  may  be  eaten  alone,  or  with  vinegar 
and  oil,  according  to  taste.  Olives  can  also  be  sweetened  by  keeping 
them  in  brine  until  they  lose  their  bitterness,  after  which  they  are 
placed  in  water  renewed  twice  or  three  times  a  day  for  four  or  five  days 
until  they  lose  their  disagreeable  taste.  Then  they  are  kept  in  brine, 
adding  thereto  fennel,  cloves,  cinnamon,  or  nutmeg,  but  the  fennel  if 
used  must  be  used  alone.  Dark  olives  are  dried  by  exposure  to  the  sun 
for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days,  and  are  subjected  to  a  slight  sprinkling 
of  salt. 

Another  process  is  to  place  the  fruit  in  baskets,  with  alternate  layers 
of  salt.  In  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours  the  juice  will  commence  to 
leave  the  fruit,  and  after  five  or  six  days  the  fruit  is  sufficiently  dry  for 
table  use.  Day  by  day  the  baskets  should  be  gently  shaken  and  a  little 
salt  sprinkled  on. 

Olives  for  oil  are  to  be  picked  when  thoroughly  ripe,  which  is  clearly 
shown  by  the  bright  black  color,  and  also  by  the  fact  that  at  such  tirae 


692         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

their  pulp  is  easily  severed  from  the  nut  and  has  a  violet  color,     its 
compounds  are : 

Pulp 56.02 

Water 14.38 

Skin 9.38 

Nut 20.16 

Oil  from  the  nut 06 

Total 100.00 

From  experiments  made  it  results  that  one  hectoliter  (2.83  bushels) 
contains  from  48,000  to  50,000  olives,  the  difference  being  ascribed  to 
the  variety,  according  to  soil,  climate,  and  season.  Olives  accumulated 
for  some  weeks  might  number  54,000  or  56,000  per  hectoliter  (2.83 
bushels). 

The  "  queen  olives  of  commerce  n  are  considered  in  Tuscany  as  the 
selected  fruit  of  the  common  olive. 

There  is  no  system  of  artificial  irrigation  in  use  for  olive  culture  in 
Tuscany. 

The  annual  rain-fall  in  this  district  is  about  1.067mm,  equal  to  about 
42  inches. 

Official  statistics  show  that  the  following  countries  import  olive  oil 
from  Italy,  ranking  in  importance  as  to  quantity  of  oil  as  named :  France, 
England,  Austria,  Russia,  South  America,  United  States,  Netherlands, 
Turkey,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Denmark,  Portugal,  Belgium,  Greece, 
Switzerland,  Egypt,  Brazil,  Algiers,  etc.  Barrels,  bottles,  or  tin  cans 
are  used  to  hold  the  oil. 

In  Tuscany  there  are  three  prevailing  diseases  which  seriously  affect 
the  olive  tree,  viz  : 

Lupa,  meaning  literally  wolf,  but  actually  being  a  description  of  dead 
rot,  produced  very  often  by  excessive  pruning.  To  cure  this  the  affected 
parts  are  gouged  out  and  a  hardening  liquid  preparation  applied,  that 
the  circulation  of  sap  may  continue. 

Mosca  dell  olivo  (the  olive  fly). — This  insect  lays  its  eggs  into  the  olive 
itself,  and  when  the  deposit  is  discovered  the  olives  are  gathered  im- 
mediately. Should  the  eggs  be  allowed  to  remain  the  fruit  is  much 
deteriorated,  if  not  ruined.  The  eggs  are  red,  and  therefore  easily  dis- 
covered, i 

Bruco  dell  olivo  (the  olive  grub). — This  insect  is  the  most  dangerous 
enemy  to  the  olive  tree  here,  consuming  the  sap  and  thereby  drying  up 
branches  and  buds.  When  discovered  the  tree  must  be  thoroughly 
pruned,  all  the  foliage  removed,  and  every  portion  containing  the  insect 
burned  or  buried  away  from  the  plantation. 

ZONE  FOR  THE  CULTURE   OF  OLIVE   TREE. 

The  zone  in  which  the  Oliva  Europcea  is  most  appreciated  and  its 
culture  most  remunerative  is  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The 


1HH    OLIVE    IN    TUSCANY. 


693' 


olive  tree  does  not  thrive  with,  extremes  of  temperature ;.  a  climate  too 
hot  and  dry  or  too  cold  and  moist  is  not  favorable  to  its  culture.  It 
thrives  well  on  the  sea  coast  or  on  the  hill-side,  producing  buds  in  March 
at  a  temperature  of  10.50°  or  11°  centigrade  (52°  Fahr.),  blossoming  in 
April  at  15°  centigrade,  flourishing  in  May  at  18°  centigrade,  and  form- 
ing the  fruit  in  June  at  21°  centigrade. 

The  lowest  winter  temperature  supported  without  damage  is  7°  or  8° 
centigrade ;  but  this  temperature  can  not  be  withstood  any  length  of 
time,  indeed  not  over  a  week. 

OLIVE  CLIMATE. 

(a.)  The  minimum  of  the  temperature  should  be  7°  or  8°  centigradej 
and  that  not  to  exceed  eight  days. 

(b.)  Snow  five  or  six  times  per  year,  and  the  snow  to  not  last  more  than 
two  or  three  days  at  a  time.  Over  that  would  undoubtedly  injure  the 
tree.  v 

(c.)  Olives  should  commence  to  ripen  before  the  end  of  October,  and 
the  average  temperature  should  not  be  lower  than  16°  centigrade. 

(d.)  The  months  of  June,  July,  and  August  should  be  dry  to  render 
the  olive  healthy. 

From  25mra  to  30mni  (1  inch)  of  rain  is  necessary  before  June,  suppos- 
ing the  previous  winter  to  have  been  a  fairly  wet  one. 


District*. 

Latitude. 

Altitude. 

Maximum. 

Minimum. 

o 
43    47 

Feet. 
72.0 

o 
*39.  5 

o 
til 

Pisa                           .                  

43    48 

8.0 

35.5 

9.5 

Sienna 

43    20 

348.5 

36.2 

8  5 

*  Extreme  heat  known  in  summer  at  Florence ;  actually  the  thermometer  seldom  rises  over  30°  cent. 
..r  -''•  Fahr. 

t  This  degree  of  cold  is  very  rarely  felt.  The  thermometer  at  Florence  during  the  winter  very  sel- 
dom falls  lower  than  5°  cent,  or  25°  Fabr. 

EXPORT  OF  OLIVE  OIL. 

I  have  now  given  the  method  of  making  pure  olive  oil,  but  it  is  to  be 
regretted  that  no  pure  oil  is  exported  from  Italy.  The  cotton-seed  oil 
is  made  and  imported  in  large  quantities  for  mixing  with  the  olive,  thus 
giving  to  the  dealer  a- larger  profit  than  he  would  receive  from  the  pure 
oil.  Twenty- five  per  cent,  of  the  liquid  exported  is  composed  of  cotton- 
seed oil,  and  the  mixture  sometimes  contains  as  much  as  50  per  cent. 

My  dispatch  No.  23,  dated  May  2,  1883,  gives  an  easy  method  of  dis- 
covering the  presence  of  the  adulterating  liquid.*  The  cotton-seed  oil 

*  The  test  of  Prof.  Commendatore  Bechi,  director  of  the  Technical  Institute  and  of 
the  Agrarian  School,  is  as  follows : 

In  a  glass  bulb  place  5  cubic  centimeters  of  the  olive  oil  to  be  tested ;  add  to  this 25 
cubic  centimeters  of  alcohol  of  98°  areometer.  Then  add  5  cubic  centimeters  of  the 
test,  which  is  composed  thus:  One  gram  of  crystallized  nitrate  of  silver  dissolved  in 
l-.'U  cubic  rt  ntimft»-rs  of  alcohol  98°  areometer.  The  bulb  containing  the  matterjust 


694        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

is  not  unhealthy,  but  simply  detracts  from  the  flavor  of  the  pure 
article. 

WILLIAM  L.  WELSH, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Florence,  March  17,  1884. 


VENETIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  NOTES,  OF  VENICE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41£.] 

If,  as  has  been  seen,  the  production  of  oranges  and  lemons  at  a  special 
point  of  the  Venetian  territory  is  in  reality  a  forced  and  artificial  indus- 
try, that  of  the  olive,  so  characteristic  in  many  other  parts  of  Italy,  is 
hardly  better  suited  to  the  natural  conditions  of  the  country  here,  and 
only  reaches  the  importance  of  an  industry  in  the  same  limited  region. 
In  all  the  eastern  and  central  portions  of  Yenetia  the  plant  itself  is 
rarely  seen,  and  its  cultivation  for  product  insignificant  or  null.  At 
the  extreme  west,  on  the  hilly  slopes  with  southern  exposure  around 
Verona,  are  found  occasional  plantations,  though  their  extent  and  pro- 
duction have  constantly  decreased  since  the  sixteenth  century  in  con- 
sequence of  the  change  of  climate,  caused  by  the  excessive  denudation 
of  the  mountains,  and  the  exaggerated  risk  and  difficulty  thus  produced 
to  the  cultivation,  besides  the  outlay  of  time  and  capital  before  a  return 
can  be  gathered.  In  an  industry  thus  discouraged  and  declining,  little 
effort  is  made  for  improvement,  and  in  general,  as  it  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  of  all  forms  of  culture,  so  is  it  perhaps  that  which  has  least  bene- 
fited by  the  application  of  art  or  intelligence. 

The  olive  cultivated  here  and  throughout  Italy,  whatever  modifica- 
tions it  may  have  undergone  by  climate  and  situation,  belongs  to  but 
one  species — Olea  JEuropea — which,  however,  with  long  neglect  and 
hardship  is  subject  to  a  transformation  so  marked  as  to  appear  a  change 
of  nature.  When  the  tree  becomes  scrubby  and  uncouth,  changes  the 

described  is  then  placed  in  water,  the  temperature  of  which  must  be  brought  to  84° 
centigrade  (151°  Fahrenheit).  After  half  an  hour's  immersion  the  oil,  if  impure,  be- 
comes of  a  dark,  muddy  color,  and  with  practice  and  caution  the  actual  proportion  of 
the  adulterating  liquid  can  be  determined. 

Another  method  is  to  place  5  centimeters  of  the  oil  into  a  bulb  and  add  thereto  30 
centimeters  of  alcohol  98°.  Shake  the  mixture  thoroughly,  and  then  let  it  rest  until 
the  oil  and  alcohol  separate.  Then  transfer  the  alcohol  to  another  glass  bulb  and  add 
the  test  (same  quantity  as  before).  Put  the  bulb  in  the  bath  and  heat  the  water  to 
the  same  grade  (84°  centigrade  or  151°  Fahrenheit),  when  if  the  oil  is  impure  a  dis- 
tinct dark  color  will  be  produced.  This  test  is  based  on  the  essential  quality  pos- 
sessed by  the  glycerine  of  the  cotton-oil  to  reduce  the  nitrate  of  silver.  It  is  always 
well  to  also  use  the  test  with  pure  olive  oil,  when,  if  the  oil  be  thoroughly  pure,  no 
decoloration  will  l»e  observed. 


i  A.  695 

form  of  both  its  !  nl  branches,  bears  only  abortive  fruit  or  none 

at  all.  and  assumes  almost  the  character  of  a  dilleient  species,  in  this 
form  it  is  known  as  the  Olea  siiratu-n.  Un grafted  or  abandoned  trees 
always  tend  to  return  to  this  primitive  type. 

In  the  Veronese  olive  plantations  a  number  of  varieties  are  distin- 
guished, resulting  from  local  conditions,  by  which  the  plant  is  still  easily 
influenced.  Among  these  are  specially  prized  the  Cosaliva  or  /V 
a  low  spreading  tree,  with  pendent  boughs,  long  lance-shaped  leaves, 
and  small  oval  fruit,  which  has  the  merit  of  bearing  each  year  regu- 
larly, not  at  all  certain  with  other  trees ;  the  Drnpo  forte,  taller  than 
the  above,  with  narrower  and  sharper  leaves  and  fruit,  rich  in  oil,  but 
very  delicate  and  capricious  in  its  product;  the  Gagnan,  likewise  a  con- 
siderable tree,  with  branches  less  inclined  and  roundish  fruit  very  full 
of  oil;  the  tree  is  hardy,  but  only  bears  every  other  year;  the  Rosa, 
lt<t:;«,  or  Razer,  the  tallest  of  its  kind,  with  large  pulpy  fruit  extremely 
rich  in  oil,  but  it  bears  only  in  two  or  even  three  years,  and  its  oil  is 
only  middling  in  quality.* 

For  table  use,  the  varieties  which  give  the  best  fruit  are  called  usu- 
ally compostar  (from  compost,  French  compote,  a  conserve).  These  are 
the  compostar  simple,  a  delicate  tree  with  large  oval  fruit,  but  very 
variable  in  size  and  quality,  according  to  locality  ;  the  compostar  grasso, 
fruit  large  and  round,  more  hardy,  but,  like  the  above,  bearing  well 
only  in  favorable  years ;  the  compostar  di  Spagna,  fruit  oblong,  bears 
only  in  good  years  and  favorable  situations ;  the  compostar  piccolo, 
thrives  everywhere,  but  inferior  in  quality  ;  and  others  less  deserving  of 
mention. 

Methods  of  cultivation. — The  methods  of  cultivation  and  of  propagation 
are  simple  in  the  extreme.  The  plant  may  be  propagated  by  the  talea, 
a  quadrangular  slip  of  the  bark,  some  3  inches  long,  with  a  portion  of 
wood  or  woody  protuberance  adhering  to  it ;  or  else  by  a  fragment  of 
the  trunk,  branch,  or  root,  planted  inearth  well  and  deeply  broken  up, 
with  the  point  only  uncovered;  but  the  tree  thus  produced  would  be 
weakly  and  short-lived.  On  the  other  hand,  plants  produced  from  the 
although  the  most  robust  and  durable,  give  no  fruit  till  twelve  or 
fifteen  years  old,  and  are  not  in  full  bearing  till  twenty-five  or  thirty, 
while  the  slow  return  of  the  tree  is  already  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles 
to  its  cultivation.  Between  these  objectionable  methods,  the  usual 
practice  here  is  to  reproduce  from  polloni,  or  sprouts,  which  rise  spon- 
taneously from  the  more  superficial  roots  of  the  old  tree  at  their  first 
ramitfcatioD,  or  from  wounds  caused  by  instruments  of  labor.  These 
sprouts  are  allowed  to  grow  on  the  spot  to  about  3  inches  diameter; 
the  root  is  then  uncovered  and  the  bearing  portion,  with  the  sprout  at- 
tached, removed  to  its  future  locality,  the  breach  being  neatly  smoothed 
and  covered  with  a  plaster  of  dung  diluted  iu  water  before  replacing 
the  earth.  The  sprout,  at  the  moment  of  planting,  is  docked  at  about 
a  foot  from  the  ground,  and  the  cut  extremity  covered  with  a  similar 
15GA 20 


696        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

plaster  of  dung  and  clay.  The  trees  produced  in  this  manner  commence 
bearing  at  the  age  of  five  or  six  years.  Should  these  young  plants  be 
established  in  a  locality  differing  much  in  soil  or  exposure  from  their 
original  home  they  are  grafted  from  trees  already  adapted  to  the  situa- 
tion. 

When  a  new  plantation  is  to  be  made  the  ditches  for  each  row  are 
opened  some  time  before,  with  a  width  of  4  or  5  feet,  and,  if  possible,  3 
feet  deep,  or,  if  in  separate  holes,  they  should  be  6  feet  square  and  as 
deep  as  the  soil  will  permit,  and  the  first  9  inches  of  earth  kept 
apart  to  allow  that  from  below  to  profit  more  fully  by  the  action  of  the 
air.  When  replaced  it  should  be  liberally  mixed  with  manure,  or,  if 
none  at  hand,  with  bits  of  leather,  of  hoof  or  horn,  woolen  rags,  shrubs, 
grass,  or  dead  leaves,  taking  care  to  mix  such  materials  well  with  the 
earth,  but  not  in  contact  with  the  roots. 

The  distance  between  plants  varies  much  with  situation,  but  the 
medium  in  ordinary  cases  is  to  allow  10  or  15  yards  between  rows  and 
from  6  to  10  in  the  row.  A  circular  ridge  of  earth,  a  yard  or  so  across, 
should  be  raised  around  the  plant  that  the  rain  water  may  be  kept  ami 
forced  to  filter  among  the  roots.  Some  cultivators  envelop  the  stems 
for  fear  of  exposure,  but  this  is  not  necessary  at  the  season  of  planting, 
and  has  the  effect  of  preventing  the  absorption  of  light,  air,  and  solar 
heat,  most  necessary  to  the  plant  at  this  period. 

INTERCROP   CULTURE  IN  OLIVE   PLANTATIONS. 

In  most  cases  the  intervening  spaces  are  cultivated  with  the  ordinary 
crops  of  the  country,  maize,  wheat,  luzern,  or  a  rotation  of  those  crops  ; 
.but,  while  the  constant  movement  of  the  soil  between  the  trees  is  ad- 
vantageous, the  exhaustion  of  its  nutritive  elements  by  such  planta- 
tions is  certainly  a  prejudice,  especially  after  the  trees  have  attained  a, 
certain  size  and  vigor.  The  best  authorities  urge  their  discontinuance 
after  ten  or  twelve  years,  without,  however,  neglecting  to  spade  the 
ground  in  April  or  May,  and,  if  possible,  in  August  of  each  year. 
Those  who  attach  primary  importance  to  their  olive  crop  oftener  sow 
vetches,  lupines,  beans,  and  such  vegetables  only  around  their  trees, 
and  turn  them  in  with  the  spade  or  plow,  a  practice  which,  by  common 
consent,  gives  precisely  the  manure  best  suited  to  the  requirements  of 
the  plant. 

MANURE,   AND  PROTECTION  FROM    COLD. 

About  once  in  three  years  the  supply  of  more  stimulating  manure, 
should  be  renewed,  and  for  this  purpose,  as  before  mentioned,  besides 
the  ordinary  stable  product,  the  refuse  of  the  tannery,  remains  of  hoofs, 
and  other  substances  containing  azotates,  phosphates,  and  carbonates 
of  potassa  are  excellent  material. 

It  is  usual,  on  the  approach  of  winter,  after  the  crop,  to  raise  a  con- 
siderable heap  of  earth  around  the  foot  of  each  tree  to  protect  the  roots 


i\     VKNKTIX.  b'97 

from  a  possible 6X0688  of  cold.  The  olive  perishes  if  exposed  (o  ;i  tem- 
perature of  11°  or  12°  centi.uTad"  below  zero  (  =  4-10°  or  +12°  Fahr.), 
ami  if  at  tacked  at  the  season  of  renewed  vegetation,  even  at  —7°  or  —8° 
centigrade  (  =  4-19°  or  +20°  Fahr.). 

PRUNING  AND  CULTIVATING. 

A  general  pruning  takes  place  in  spring  as  soon  as  all  clanger  of  re- 
turning frost  has  disappeared,  when  decayed  or  suffering  branches,  as 
well  as  those  which  have  borne  fruit  for  several  years,  are  removed,  leav- 
ing the  sap  to  be  engrossed  by  the  young  sprouts  of  the  year,  it  being 
the  nature  of  the  olive  to  put  forth  and  nourish,  during  one  season,  the 
branches  which  are  to  bear  fruit  the  next,  as  the  multiplication  of  these 
branches  tends  constantly  to  disseminate  the  productive  force  in  a 
thicket  of  unprofitable  shoots,  in  which  case  the  tree  will  give  a  satis- 
factory crop  only  once  in  two  or  three  years.  Constant  pruning  is  nec- 
essary to  concentrate  its  vitality.  No  less  attention  is  required  to  com- 
bat the  effort  of  the  upper  limbs,  the  so-called  ghiottoni — gluttons — to 
draw  the  sap  of  their  own  vigorous  growth  at  the  expense  of  the  fruit- 
ful branches  lower  down.  The  best  bearing  olives  are  generally  kept 
low,  often  with  pendent  boughs,  and  this  practice  becomes  a  necessary 
precaution  in  exposed  and  windy  situations. 

YIELD   OF   OLIVES. 

It  is  extremely  difficult  to  fix  the  normal  yield  of  olives  in  a  region 
where  their  cultivation  is  so  precarious,  and  where  the  success  of  the 
crop  is  more  subject,  perhaps,  than  that  of  any  other  to  the  influence  of 
«  ason.  Without  careful  and  intensive  cultivation  the  plant  be- 
comes savage  and  bears  nothing.  With  the  best  treatment  it  will  give 
G  to  8  liters  (7  to  8.J  quarts)  at  10 years,  16  quarts  at  17  years,  and  32  at 
LT>  years  ;  but  this  only  in  exceptionally  favorable  years,  with  refreshing 
rains  in  August  and  September. 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  olive  in  no  case  commences  bear- 
in-  fruit  before  the  age  of  6  years.  It  reaches  a  great  age,  600  to  800 
years  on  the  average,  frequently  1,000,  or  more.  Researches,  more  or 
less  reliable,  have  been  published,  affirming  that  each  cultivated  plant 
gives  during  its  existence  an  average  product  of  10,356  kilograms  of 
oil,  varying  infinitely,  of  course,  with  the  age  and  nature  of  the  tree 
and  mode  of  culture. 

GATHERING  AND  PREPARING  THE  OLIVES. 

Olives  intended  for  the  press  are  gathered  at  full  maturity  in  Octo- 
ber, November,  and  even  as  late  as  January,  with  much  difference  of 
practice  in  this  respect,  as  the  fruit  of  the  same  tree  ripens  with  very 
unequal  promptness  and  grows  richer  in  oil  to  the  last  moment.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  over  ripe,  the  oil  is  much  more  subject  to  become 


698        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

rancid,  besides  the  risk  of  injury  from  premature  frost  or  snow  and 
insects,  so  that  the  surer  practice  is  to  gather  while  some  part  of  the 
fruit  is  still  green. 

For  table  use,  on  the  contrary,  it  should  be  plucked  not  quite  ripe, 
and,  the  finest  and  largest  being  selected,  to  neutralize  the  contained 
acid  which  renders  them  acrid  to  the  taste,  they  are  placed  as  soon  as 
gathered  in  a  vessel  of  glass  or  earthenware,  filled  with  lime-water  in 
which  the  olives  float,  and  the  orifice  closed  with  osier.  After  standing 
thus  for  twenty-four  hours  the  lime-water  is  drawn  off  from  below  and 
replaced  by  water,  fresh  and  pure ;  thenceforward  it  should  be  re- 
newed every  twelve  hours,  alternating  pure  and  lime  water  till  the 
liquid  comes  from  the  jar  flat  and  tasteless.  In  this  condition  the 
olives  may  be  long  kept  good  if  immersed  in  a  solution  of  seasalt  fla- 
vored with  any  aromatic. 

For  drying,  the  olives  are  gathered  later  and  riper,  and  dried  in  the 
sun  or  oven  like  any  other  fruit. 

PROCESS  OF  EXTRACTING  THE  OIL. 

The  processes  for  extracting  the  oil  all  date  from  time  immemorial, 
and  are  of  the  most  primitive  description.  After  fermentation  the  fruit 
yields  its  oil  much  more  readily  but  of  inferior  quality  and  already  with 
a  commencement  of  rancidity.  Nevertheless  the  difficulty  of  extract- 
ing it  completely  with  their  imperfect  appliances,  leads  many  to  provoke 
fermentation  by  keeping  the  olives  closely  covered  with  matting  or 
woolen  cloths.  They  are  then  placed  in  a  hopper,  from  which  they  drop 
gradually  into  the  hollow,  inverted,  and  truncated  cone  of  a  great  stone 
mortar,  in  the  bottom  of  which  turns  a  sort  of  millstone,  grinding  fruit 
and  stones  to  a  coarse  paste.  The  pulpy  mass  is  now  mixed  abundantly 
with  warm  water,  placed  in  sacks  of  hempen  cord,  and  ready  for  the 
press.  This  last  is  of  the  simplest  mechanism ;  a  heavy  wooden  beam 
from  8  to  12  yards  in  length,  fixed  at  one  end  and  acted  on  by  a  screw 
at  the  other,  forms  a  lever  of  the  second  class.  The  sacks  are  placed 
on  the  platform  in  piles  of  two  and  three  or  three  and  four  on  each  other, 
in  a  double  heap,  to  adjust  them  to  the  inclination  of  the  press-beam, 
and  as  the  pressure  increases  are  crowded  back  and  still  bathed  with 
warm  water  until  the  pulp  begins  to  leave  the  sack  with  the  oif .  This  is 
the  first  draught  and  the  first  quality  of  oil.  The  refuse  mass  is  then 
emptied  again  into  the  mortar,  with  a  liberal  addition  of  warm  water, 
ground  over,  and  again  put  to  press,  yielding  still  a  fair  quality  of  indif- 
ferent oil.  The  whole  operation  is  repeated  a  third  time,  and  after  pass- 
ing through  a  coarse  sieve,  even  a  fourth  time,  but  these  last  dregs  are 
only  fit  for  burning  or  mechanical  purposes.  This  is  all  that  can  be  ob- 
tained by  the  press  power  at  present  in  use  here,  and  yet  so  rich  is  the 
fruit  that  after  this  insistent  extraction,  the  oil  still  held  in  the  refuse 
gives  it  unequaled  value  as  a  fertilizer  or  as  food  for  animals. 

The  oil  from  these  repeated  pressions,  largely  mixed  with  pulpy  and 


THE    OTJVE    IN    VKXKTIA.  699 

fibrous  mat  tor,  passes  into  a  largo  vat,  where  its  freer  and  purer  portion 
rises  to  the  surface  while  the  "morchia"  or  pulpy  mixture  is  drawn 
off  from  below  into  large  shallow  basins,  in  which,  when  subjected  to  a 
warmer  temperature,  the  albumen  coagulates,  and  the  remaining  oil, 
with  that  already  collected,  is  placed  in  stone  jars  ready  for  sale.  From 
the  refuse  flux,  if  subjected  to  fermentation,  which  causes  the  still  re- 
fractory oil  vescicles  to  burst,  a  certain  quantity  of  very  bad  oil  may  be 
extracted,  but  this  operation  is  generally  left  to  the  press  hands  for 
their  perquisites. 

Another  process  is  still  more  primitive.  Here  the  olives  are  placed 
in  a  long  woolen  sack,  and  trampled  under  foot  until  the  pulp  is  well 
separated  from  the  stones.  The  sack  is  then  doubled  on  itself  and 
placed  under  the  press,  with  constant  additions  of  warm  water  as  the 
operation  proceeds,  and  the  oil  obtained  purified  in  the  manner  above 
described.  The  refuse  and  unbroken  stones  are  then  sold  to  the  own- 
ers of  grinding  mills  for  a  fresh  extraction.  The  product  obtained  by 
this  simpler  process,  though  less  in  quantity,  is  much  preferred  in  com- 
merce, being  the  pure  extract  of  the  pulp  alone,  the  unavoidable  mixt- 
ure with  that  of  the  kernels  after  grinding  greatly  impairing  the  flavor 
of  the  whole. 

CIRCUMSTANCES  FAVORABLE  TO  THE  GROWTH  OF  OLIVES. 

All  the  circumstances  which  favor  the  growth  of  the  olive  are  such 
as  generally  place  it  either  on  hillsides  or  the  shelves  at  their  feet, 
where,  well  protected  from  the  cold  winds  of  the  north,  it  may  bask  in 
a  long  season  of  summer  sun,  and  where,  also,  it  finds  oftener  the  light 
soil  of  granitic  or  schistous  detritus  that  suits  it  best,  while  the  large 
mixture  of  clay  common  to  valleys  and  bottoms  produces  the  damp  and 
compact  formation  of  all  others  the  most  inimical  to  its  nature. 

It  is  traditionally  the  plant  of  warm  regions  and  of  long  dry  seasons ; 
an  over  supply  of  water  would  be  more  injurious  to  it  than  otherwise, 
and  no  irrigation  is  attempted  or  thought  of  here.  However,  moderate 
watering  at  the  opportune  moment  is  always  of  benefit,  and,  as  before 
mentioned,  those  years  when  some  rain  occurs  in  August  and  Septem- 
ber, improve  the  crop.  Where  the  tree  is  intermittent,  these  are  the 
bearing  years. 

Far  from  dreading  the  neighborhood  of  the  coast,  it  has  been  said 
that  the  olive  is  never  found  more  than  150  kilometers  from  the  sea; 
and  although  instances  are  recorded  of  ancient  plantations  in  Piedmont 
somewhat  farther  inland,  it  is  certainly  true  that  the  olive  orchards  of 
Kurope  skirt  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  most  flourishing 
are  those  that  clothe  the  narrow  margin  of  rocky  soil  between  mountain 
and  sea.  Those  described  above  in  the  region  of  Verona,  at  about  1 !>."> 
kilometers  from  the  lagoon  of  Venice,  are  among  the  farthest  removed, 
and  not  among  the  most  prosperous. 

Some  notice  has  been  given  above  of  the  productiveness  of  the  olive, 


700 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


as  rather  precarious  in  the  uncongenial  circumstances  of  the  region  ;  I 
have  not  been  able  to  procure  any  detailed  statement  of  the  economical 
elements  of  the  culture,  but  as  the  plant  is  grown  either  in  the  midst 
of  other  crops  or  on  ground  which  would  be  otherwise  unavailable,  it 
is  not  generally  regarded  here  as  a  factor  of  importance  in  the  account 
of  a  farm.  The  latest  statements  give  the  present  production  of  oil  in 
the  province  at  about  10,000  hectoliters  (264,000  gallons)  consumed  en- 
tirely there  and  in  the  neighboring  region.  The  preparation  of  the  fruit 
for  table  use  is  exclusively  domestic,  or,  at  most,  for  the  retail  trade  and 
consumption  of  the  town  population  adjoining,  and  no  mention  is  made 
of  it  in  the  statistics  of  the  country. 

The  rainfall  registered  for  the  city  of  Verona  fora  period  of  20  years, 
from  1861  to  1878,  is  as  follows  : 


Inches. 

1861 19.21 

1862 32.44 

1863.., 29.31 

1864 26.16 

1865 21.51 

1866 29.21 

1867 18.68 

1868 40.72 

1869 56.61 

1870...  ..  29.85 


Inches. 

1871 31.10 

1872 47.10 

1873 38.77 

1874 27.16 

1875 22.12 

1876 42.07 

1877. 34.18 

1878...  ....  35.04 


Average 32. 29 


FIGS. 


The  fig  is  regarded  here  rather  as  a  vile  and  common  plant,  insuffi- 
cient either  in  quantity  or  quality  for  preservation  as  an  article  of  ex- 
port, and  requiring  neither  care  nor  attention  in  its  growth  j  it  thrives 
everywhere  unheeded,  in  sheltered  spots,  near  country  houses  or  along 
garden  walls,  and  only  serves  to  supplement  the  outfit  of  the  market 
gardener  for  the  nearest  town.  The  fruit  at  Venice  is  neither  succulent 
nor  very  well  flavored,  though  large  and -showy,  and  often  ripens  badly, 
or  rather  decays  in  ripening.  At  Verona  it  is  cultivated  with  care  in  a 
few  localities,  and  one  variety,  with  a  fruit  very  small  and  intensely 
sweet,  the  Segalini,  much  resembling  and  probably  an  acclimation  of 
the  Piccoli  Verdini  of  Tuscany,  but  inferior,  has  a  local  reputation.  Be- 
sides this,  the  Napoletani  and  Santi.,  introduced  from  the  south,  are 
dried  for  home  use. 

As  the  tree  is  only  found  casually  in  odd  corners,  and  usually  single, 
there  can  be  no  estimate  of  yield  per  acre. 

For  planting,  any  portion  of  a  branch,  slightly  beaten  and  bruised,  if 
placed  in  the  earth  will  readily  take  root;  the  variety  preferred  may  be 
grafted  on  it  at  a  proper  age. 

Along  the  shores  of  the  Lake  of  Garda  the  product  less  in  demand 
for  the  market  as  fresh  fruit,  is  dried  in  small  quantities  by  the  simple 
process  of  exposing  to  the  sun  on  osier  gratings  and  packed  in  small 
kegs  with  a  little  sugar  and  a  liberal  sprinkling  of  flour  ;  or  else  strung 
on  twigs  and  hung  in  the  sunshine  till  completely  evaporated,  but  till 


OLIVE    CULTURE    IN   SPAIN.  701 

this  only  Cor  family  consumption  ;  there  is  no  exportation  of  the  article, 
the  consumption  of  which,  on  the  contrary,  is  entirely  supplied  by  im- 
portation from  the  south. 

Me  WALTER  B.  NOTES, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Venice,  March  3,  1884. 


SPAIN. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  OPPENHEIM,  OF  CADIZ. 

[tit-published  from  Consular  Reports  No.  4H-] 

OLIVE   CULTURE  IN  SPAIN. 

Origin. — The  olive  tree  has  been  cultivated  from  the  most  remote  his- 
torical times.  The  ancients  believed  the  tree  to  have  been  spontane- 
ously created  by  a  beneficent  divinity,  and  the  Greeks  attributed  the 
gift  sometimes  to  Minerva,  then  again  to  Mercury.  Diodorus  states 
that  Arista3us  introduced  the  tree  into  Sicily,  and  was  the  first  to  use 
stone  mills  and  rustic  presses  for  the  extraction  of  oil.  Both  the  fruit 
and  oil-pressing  were,  however,  known  to  the  Egyptians  at  a  period 
even  more  remote  than  that  of  Greek  myths,  as  is  evidenced  by  wall 
pictures  representing  the  process  of  filling  the  olives  into  sacks,  which, 
when  full,  were  placed  in  presses,  from  which  the  oil  is  seen  to  flow. 
Strangely  enough,  that  very  Egyptian  process  of  pressing  in  sacks  was 
until  a  few  years  ago  in  use  in  remote  districts  of  Spain  (in  La  Mancha), 
and  may  still  be  practiced  at  this  day.  There  exists  some  doubt  as 
to  whether  the  olive  tree  is  indigenous  to  Spain.  The  wild  species  is 
undoubtedly  found  in  many  districts,  from  Catalonia  to  Cadiz,  but  by 
many  it  is  held  that  these  wild  trees  are  merely  the  survivors  of  aban- 
doned plantations,  which  have  reverted  to  the  aboriginal  form.  Be  this 
us  it  may,  and  whether  the  tree  be  an  immigrant  or  "  to  the  manor  born," 
Spain  is  certainly  to-day  its  chosen  home,  and  it  is  generally  admitted 
that  three-fourths  of  the  olive  zone  in  Europe  lies  within  the  borders 
of  the  Peninsula. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  of  the  olive  tree  cultivated  in  Spain  are  nu- 
merous. The  list  following  shows  the  kinds  that  are  most  largely  raised, 
and  describes  the  size  and  appearance  of  the  fruit. 

(1)  The  Manianillo  :  This  tree  under  good  conditions  of  soil  and  tem- 
perature, grows  to  a  large  size.  It  is  found  in  Seville  and  in  Granada 
in  great  abundance,  also  in  the  maritime  zone  and  some  of  the  protected 
and  I'd  1  ile  spots  of  the  central  region.  It  needs  a  rich  soil,  or,  wanting 
that,  high  manuring  and  cultivation  ;  makes  good  oil,  but  in  the  province 
•ol  fSeville  is  mostly  used  for  pickling.  It  is  a  great  bearer,  and  the 


702  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

fruit,  which  is  large,  matures  early.  The  dimensions  and  weight  are  as 
follows  :  length,  25  millimeters;  diameter  through  the  thickest  part,  23 
millimeters ;  weight  of  pulp,  7  grams ;  weight  of  stone,  1  gram. 

(2)  The  Sevillano  Gordal :  A  small  tree ;  is  found  chiefly  in  Seville  and 
the  lowlands  of  western  Andalusia;  wants  rich  soil,  manuring,  and 
usually  irrigating  also ;  is  not  resistant  to  cold,  and  must  not  be  pruned 
freely,  as  it  is  very  sensitive  to  mutilation ;  does  not  yield  much  oil,  and 
that  little  is  of  poor  quality  ;  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  pickling ;  it 
bears  the  largest  fruit  known,  which  is  identical  with  the  u  queen  olives  " 
of  commerce.    It  is  a  small  bearer  and  matures  late.     Dimensions  and 
weight  of  fruit  are  :  length,  40  millimeters,  by  30  millimeters  in  diame- 
ter ;  pulp  weighs  from  12  to  14  grams,  and  stone  about  2  grams. 

(3)  The  Bcllotudo  :  A  large  and  luxuriant  tree  ;  not  confined  to  any 
special  district;  requires  phosphates  in  abundance  and  careful  pruning, 
as  the  limbs  have  a  tendency  to  intertwine ;  gives  good  oil  and  matures 
early,  but  is  a  small  bearer.     Dimensions  and  weight  of  fruit :  length,  23 
millimeters;  diameter,  19  millimeters  ;  weight  about  3.2  grams  for  pulp, 
and  0.9  for  stone. 

(4)  The  Redondillo  :  A  medium-sized  tree ;  a  hardy  and  resistant  vari- 
ety, found  chiefly  in  Central  and  Northern  Spain;  needs  good  soil, 
manuring,  and  thorough  cultivation,  also  careful  and  extensive  prun- 
ing for  the  same  reason  as  above  variety;  is  excellent  for  pickling,  and 
gives  good  oil  also;  is  a  large  bearer,  and  the  fruit  matures  very  early, 
requiring  only  3,400  heat  units  (vide  infra).     Dimensions  and  weight 
are:  length,  18  millimeters;  diameter,  16  millimeters;  weight  of  pulp, 

2.5  grams,  and  of  stone,  0.5  gram. 

(5;  The  Lechin  :  Under  good  conditions  this  tree  reaches  a  large  size ; 
is  found  in  the  provinces  of  Jaen  and  Cordoba,  though  not  in  abun- 
dance, being  really  a  northern  variety,  as  it  is  very  hardy  and  resistant. 
In  Spain  it  is  only  used  to  make  oil;  in  France,  however,  it  is  a  favor- 
ite for  pickling ;  is  a  large  bearer,  and  fruit  matures  early.  This  olive 
is  one  of  the  smallest  known,  total  weight  being  approximately  1.3 
grams. 

(6)  The  Nevadillo  bianco :  A  tree  of  fair  size,  found  chiefly  in  Jaen, 
Cordoba,  and  Cadiz  ;  must  be  planted  only  in  well-sheltered  spots,  being 
sensitive  to  winds  and  to  frosts;  is  only  used  for  oil-pressing;  ^matures 
the  fruit  early  and  is  a  prolific  bearer.     Dimensions  and  weight  of  fruit 
are:  length,  23  millimeters;  diameter,  15  millimeters;  weight  of  pulp, 

3.6  grains ;  and  of  stone,  0.7  gram. 

(7)  The   Varal  bianco:  A  large-sized  tree,  with  straight  and  vigorous 
branches  ;  chiefly  found  in  the  province  of  Jaen  ;  needs  manuring  and 
careful  cultivation ;  the  fruit,  which  is  always  scanty  in  quantity,  makes 
good  oil,  and  is  only  used  for  that  purpose;  matures  irregularly,  mak- 
ing collection  troublesome.     Dimensions  and  weight  of  fruit :  length,  23 
millimeters;  diameter,  17  millimeters  ;  weight  of  pulp,  2.8  grams ;  and 
of  stone  0.6  gram. 


OLIVE    CULTURE    IN    SPAIN.  703 

(S)  Tip-  A  small  tree,  throwing  out  but  few  brandies  ;  very 

hardy,  and  then-tore  adapted  to  a  cold  climate-  is  chiefly  raised  in 
Navarre  and  in  Aragon;  requires  light  and  fertile  soil,  plenty  of  humid- 
ity and  manuring,  under  which  conditions  it  is  a  most  prolific  bearer; 
if  matures  early,  and  is  by  many  considered  as  one  of  the  most  desira- 
ble varieties  ;  the  fruit  yields  good  oil,  and  is  also  excellent  for  pickling. 
Dimensions  and  weight  are:  length,  28  millimeters;  diameter,  16  milli- 
meters :  weight  of  pulp,  3.2  grams;  of  stone,  0.8  gram. 

(9)  The  Racimal:  A  medium-sized  tree ;  resists  a  cold  climate  well,  and 
thrives  lairly  even  on  poor  soil ;  makes  oil  of  a  fair  quality,  though 
leaving  much  refuse  in  pressing;  is  given  to  "off  years;"  the  fruit 
matures  very  early,  probably  earlier  than  that  of  any  other  variety. 
Dimensions  and  weights   are :   length,  23  millimeters ;   diameter,   15 
millimeters  ;  weight  of  pulp,  3  grams;  of  stone,  0.7  gram. 

(10)  The  Varal  negro :  A  fair-sized  tree,  with  straight  and  large  bran- 
ches; only  thrives  in  well-sheltered  spots,  as  it  hardly  resists  a  tempera- 
tuie  lower  than  —  5°  Cent.,  especially  when  followed  by  a  quick  thaw; 
found  sparingly  in  Jaeu  and  Cordoba ;  requires  very  careful  pruning  and 
cultivation,  and  bearing  limbs  should  be  ringed;  yields  good  oil;  is 
objected  to  on  account  of  its  being  given  to  "  off  years ;"  in  good  years, 
however,  it  is  a  large  bearer,  and  the  fruit  matures  early.    Dimensions 
and   weight  are:  length,   25   millimeters;   diameter,   17   millimeters; 
weight  of  pulp,  2.2  grams  ;    of  stone,  0.9  gram. 

(11)  The  Gordal. — A  tree  of  large  size,  and  fine,  vigorous  branches, 
also  a  very  quick-growing  variety  ;  is  one  of  the  kinds  most  generally 
distributed  throughout  Spain;  is  largely  cultivated  in  Andalusia  and 
in  the  central  provinces ;  requires  good  soil,  manuring,  and  much  culti- 
vation in  order  to  bear  well;  resists  the  cold  very  well,  matures  early, 
and  is  a  prolific,  regular  bearer;  the  fruit  is  good  both  for  oil  and  for 
pickling,  and  its  dimensions  and  weight  are  :  length,  23  millimeters ;  di- 
a meter.  18  millimeters;  weight  of  pulp,  3.7  grams;  and  of  stone,  0.5 
gram. 

(12)  The  Verdejo. — A  tree  of  medium  size,  with  a  tendency  to  dwarf 
considerably  if  not  well  cared  for;  is  found  chiefly  in  Catalonia,  Log- 
rofio,  and  Madrid;  very  hardy  and  resistant  to  cold;  the  yield  will  be 
in  proportion  to  fertility  of  soil  and  the  care  given  to  cultivation;  is 
generally  used  for  pickling  only  ;  is  not  an  early  maturing  variety.     1  )i- 
m«-nsioiis  and  weight  of  fruit  are:  length,  22  millimeters;  diameter,  12 
millimeters  ;  weight  of  pulp,  3.1  grams ;  of  stone,  O.G  gram. 

(13)  The  Madrileno. — A  medium-sized  tree,  of  symmetrical  appear- 
ance, limbs  arching  over;  found  chiefly  in  the  south  and  in  the  mari- 
time zone ;  its  name  appears  to  be  a  misnomer,  as  it  is  not  cultivated  in 
Madrid  or  in  the  central  provinces  generally ;  requires  good  cultivation 
and  cautious  pruning;  the.  fruit  is  excellent  for  pickling,  next  to  the 
'•queen  "  in  si/**,  and  of  d<-li«-ious  flavor ;  gives  i'.tir  oil,  but  only  yields 
a   Miiall  quantity  in  j>r'.p,>rti..n  to  tin-  weight  of  its  pulp;   matuivs  late 


704  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

and  is  not  prolific.  Dimensions  aud  weight  of  fruit  are:  length,  35  mil- 
limeters ;  diameter,  28  millimeters ;  weight  of  pulp,  11  grams ;  of  stone, 
1  gram. 

(14)  The  Cornicabra,  also  called  the  Cornezuelo,  the  largest  olive  tree 
known,  having  strong,  straight  branches,  is  found  all  over  Spain,  but 
is  most  numerous  in  the  central  provinces ;  gives  better  oil  than  any 
of  the  other  late-maturing  varieties,  which,  however,  as  a  class,  are  in 
that  respect  much  inferior  to  the  early-maturing  species;  is  very  resist- 
ant to  cold  and  matures  very  late  (it  requires  3°.978  of  heat,  vide  infra) ; 
production  is  variable.    Dimensions  and  weight  of  fruit  are :  length,  39 
millimeters;  diameter,  19  millimeters;  weight  of  pulp,  4  grams.;  of  stone, 
3 .2  grams. 

(15)  The  Picudo. — A  medium  sized  tree,  with  luxuriant  limbs,  placed 
obliquely  on  the  trunk.    Like  the  above,  it  is  most  frequent  in  the  central 
districts;  bears  a  fruit  which  is  very  much  prized  for  pickling,  and  has 
besides  the  peculiarity  of  being  a  "  clear-stone  "  olive ;  a  fair  bearer, 
but  matures  late,  though  earlier  than  the  variety  immediately  preced- 
ing.   Dimensions  and  weight  of  fruit  are:  length,  30  millimeters  ;  diam- 
eter, 18  millimeters  ;  weight  of  pulp,  3.2  grams;  of  stone,  1  gram. 

(16)  The  Nevadillo  negro. — A  medium-sized  tree,  very  luxuriant,  and 
with  short  and  distorted  limbs ;  is  largely  cultivated  in  the  province  of 
Jaeu,  where  it  is  prized  above  all  other  varieties ;  produces  most  plentiful 
and  excellent  oil ;  with  careful  cultivation  and  good  soil  it  is  a  large  and 
regular  bearer  ;  matures  late ;  the  fruit  is  pointed  and  much  bent  at  the 
distal  end,  causing  this  end  to  point  at  a  right  angle  from  the  axial  line. 
Its  dimensions  and  weight  are  :  length,  23  millimeters ;  diameter,  15 
millimeters ;  weight  of  pulp,  3.6  grams  ;  of  stone,  0.7  gram. 

Every  one  of  the  above-mentioned  varieties  can  be  reproduced  in 
several  ways,  which  will  be  further  descanted  on  when  describing  the 
mode  of  planting.  The. most  generally  adopted  modes  of  propagation 
are  either  by  planting  estacas,  which  are  round,  large  limbs  specially 
raised  for  the  purpose  on  the  parent  tree,  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm  and 
from  2  to  3  meters  long,  or  gar  rotes,  which  are  shoots  of  from  70  to  90 
centimeters  in  length,  two  of  such  shoots  being  usually  planted  in  one 
pit.  By  the  first  system  the  trees  bear  after  three  years,  but  with  (jar- 
rotes  it  takes  usually  from  six  to  eight  years.  Full  bearing  is  in  the 
larger  varieties  not  reached  before  twenty  to  thirty  years  after  planting. 
With  the  small  and  dwarf  varieties  twelve  to  fifteen  years  may  be  nearer 
the  truth.  The  maximum  of  growth  is,  at  least  with  all  large  varieties, 
not  reached  before  eighty  years,  and  individual  trees,  either  on  account 
of  especial  vigor  or  favorable  surroundings,  keep  on  growing  for  cent- 
uries, reaching  gigantic  size.  A  French  writer  mentions  three  enor- 
mous olive  trees  standing  near  Tarascon.  In  the  hollow  trunk  of  one 
of  them  twenty  persons  could  stand  next  each  other,  and  another  had 
branches  16  meters  long.  The  trees  were  reputed  to  be  nine  hundred 
years  old.  The  trees  standing  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  near  Jerusalem, 


OLIVI-:  •  SPAIN.  705 

are  by  many  beiu'vcd  to  be  the  identical  ones  that  stood  there  at  the 
time  of  Jesus  Christ.  The  duration  of  the  productive  period  is  also 
most  difficult  to  determine ;  all  that  is  known  is  that  it  lasts  extremely 
long,  when  not  cut  short  by  injuries  to  the  tree  or  exhaustion  of  soil 
surrounding  it. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Olive  trees  raised  from  the  stone  of  the 
fruit  always  revert  to  the  original  form,  called  here  acebiwhe  or  wild 
olive ;  henpe  in  order  to  reproduce  desirable  varieties  it  is  necessary  to 
plant  parts  taken  from  the  living  tree,  whether  shoots,  branches,  or 
roots.  The  most  general  modes  of  reproduction  is  either  by  estacas  or 
by  garrotes.  Both  modes  are  followed  pretty  nearly  all  over  the  country, 
though  in  the  central  provinces  the  second  process  is  the  more  general, 
whilst  the  contrary  holds  good  for  the  south  and  the  extreme  north. 
The  best  time  for  planting  (by  either  mode)  is  from  January  to  March  in 
the  maritime  zone,  from  January  till  April  in  the  central  provinces,  and 
from  January  till  May  in  the  north  ;  and  it  may  be  taken  as  a  safe  rule- 
to  plant  only  when  the  frosts  are  over  and  before  the  trees  have  begun  to 
bud.  The  estaca,  which,  as  before  stated,  is  a  stout  limb  about  3  meters 
long,  should,  if  possible,  be  planted  immediately  after  being  cut  from 
the  parent  tree.  The  hole  is  dug  to  a  depth  varying  from  1  to  2  meters, 
the  depth  increasing  with  the  severity  of  the  climate  ;  square  pits  90 
centimeters  each  way  are  the  best,  but  quadrangular  ones  are  less  ex- 
pensive and  generally  used  5  this  pit  should  be  about  85  to  90  centi- 
meters long  by  from  20  to  30  wide,  and  if  planting  on  inclined  ground, 
the  length  should,  cross  the  line  of  descent.  At  the  bottom  of  the  pit  a 
layer  of  well-rotted  manure  is  first  deposited,  upon  which  a  layer  of 
active  outer  soil  is  laid  to  a  depth  of  3  or  4  centimeters ;  the  limb  is 
then  placed  in  the  center  of  the  pit  and  earth  (from  the  upper  layer, 
not  that  dug  from  the  pit)  is  then  put  in,  thoroughly  broken  up,  and 
pressed  down  with  the  feet ;  when  about  even  with  the  surrounding 
earth,  a  small  concavity  is  left  in  order  to  retain  rain  or  irrigation 
water.  This  operation  is  best  performed  by  two  men ;  one  keeps  the 
limb  in  position  and  compresses  the  earth,  whilst  the  other  is  filling 
in.  In  Andalusia  it  is  usual  to  pile  up  moist  clay  against  the  protrud- 
ing part  of  the  estaca  until  no  more  than  about  30  centimeters  of  its 
length  is  visible ;  this  is  held  to  be  very  efficient  in  all  hot,  dry  re- 
gions, as  otherwise  it  often  happens  that  the  limb  produces  shoots 
from  the  lower  part  only,  whilst  the  upper  part  dries  up.  The  moist 
day  is  piled  in  the  form  of  a  slender  cone,  and  at  half  its  height  an 
opening  is  left  for  supplying  the  limb  with  water,  which  in  dry 
weather  must  be  done  plentifully.  The  garrotes  are  cuttings  of  from 
70  to  90  centimeters  in  length,  which  with  most  varieties  may  be  sup- 
plied in  goodly  numbers  by  such  pruning  as  will  benefit  the  tree.  The 
pits  are  dug  somewhat  less  deep  than  for  the  estacas,  and  two  of  the 
garrotes  are  planted  together,  leaning  towards  each  other  in  such  a  po- 
sition that  the  l\vi»  riittings  and  the  bottom  of  the  pit  form  a  triangle, 


TOG        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

of  which  the  apex  is  even  with  the  ground.  In  regard  to  manuring 
and  filling  the  pit,  the  process  is  similar  in  both  modes  of  planting, 
only  the  upper  part  of  the  smaller  cuttings  must  be  covered  with  about 
10  centimeters  of  loose  soil.  The  sprouts  from  these  smaller  cuttings 
are  more  exposed  to  damage  by  frost  and  by  animals  than  is  the  case 
with  the  plan  first  described,  and  the  bearing  age  is  also  reached  some 
four  or  five  years  later,  but  it  is  held  that  the  trees  raised  in  that  way 
are  more  vigorous  and  productive. 

Other  modes  of  propagation,  such  as  by  shoots  from  the  living  roots 
of  a  dead  tree,  or  by  raising  stocks  from  seed  upon  which  to  graft  later 
on,  are  known  to  give  excellent  results,  and  are  occasionally  practiced; 
but  the  vast  majority  of  Spanish  growers  confine  themselves  to  the  two 
processes  here  described. 

Cultivation. — During  the  first  eight  or  ten  years  after  planting,  the 
orchard  should  be  plowed  three  times  each  year  (with  a  plow  making  a 
furrow  10  inches  deep),  and  the  soil  immediately  surrounding  the  plants 
hoed  three  times  the  first  and  second  year,  and  later  on  twice  a  year.  It 
will  frequently  happen  that  plants  do  not  sprout  the  first  year,  in  which 
case  an  extra  supply  of  water  and  labor  should  be  devoted  to  such  plants  5 
should  they,  however,  not  produce  shoots  for  two  complete  years,  they 
should  be  dug  up  and  replaced  by  others.  The  distance  at  which  trees 
should  be  placed  depends  primarily  upon  the  variety  planted,  the  rule 
being  to  allow  an  interval  equal  to  twice  the  height  of  the  full-grown  tree. 
This  is  the  general  rule,  which  must,  however,  be  departed  from  accord- 
ing to  local  circumstances  of  topography,  soil,  and  climate.  Consider- 
ations in  favor  of  closer  planting  are  that  trees  closely  planted  resist 
both  frost  and  drought  better  and  also  cause  the  soil  to  retain  humidity 
longer.  Against  it  may  be  urged  that  trees  lacking  ventilation  are  more 
liable  to  the  attacks  of  fungous  parasites  and  noxious  insects j  nor  must 
it  be  forgotten  that  the  roots  of  the  olive  tree  extend  horizontally  half  as 
far  again  as  the  branches  do,  and,  as  the  diameter  of  the  crown  is  usually 
equal  to  the  height  of  the  tree,  close  planting  may  stunt  root  development. 
The  trees  may  be  placed  either  in  squares  or  on  the  diamond  plan,  as  de- 
scribed when  treating  of  orange  culture.  The  most  approved  way  of  ma- 
nuring olive  orchards  is  to  dig  a  small  circular  ditch  around  each  tree;  the 
manure  (which  must  always  be  well  rotted  and  rich  in  phosphates)  is 
placed  therein  and  covered  with  soil.  The  diameter  of  the  circle  within 
the  ditch  must  vary  according  to  the  size  of  the  tree,  the  object  aimed  at 
being  to  place  the  manure  within  the  range  of  absorption  of  the  outer 
rootlets.  Manuring  is  usually  effected  once  every  three  years,  and  the 
best  time  is  the  fall  of  the  year.  Plaster  from  old  walls  is  a  beneficial 
addition  to  the  stable  manure,  and  may  also  be  spread  within  the 
circle  surrounding  the  tree;  and  calcined  bones  in  moderate  quantities 
are  known  to  incite  growth  and  to  greatly  increase  the  yield.  Gas- 
parin  states  that  100  kilograms  of  manure  produce  about  3  kilograms 
of  oil.  Hidalgo  Tablada,  a  practical  agronomist  and  recogniwd  an- 


ou\  I  rRK    IN    SPAIN.  707 


thority  on  fruit  culture,  gives  MIL'  ivsuli  of  his  experiments  as  more 
favorable  still.  According  to  him,  100  kilograms  of  well-rotted  manure 
applied  as  above  directed  increased  the  product  of  eacb  tree  the  first 
year  by  J..r>0  kilograms,  the  second  year  by  3  kilograms,  and  the  third 
year  by  "2  kilograms,  giving  for  the  three  years  a  total  increase  of  7.50 
kilograms.  Irrigation  is  advisable  only  in  dry  districts  or  in  times  of 
drought;  in  ordinary  years  and  in  places  where  there  is  a  moderate  rain- 
fall the  grown  trees  thrive  very  well  without  it.  Latitude  does  not  fur- 
nish any  secure  guidance  as  to  the  benefit  conferred  by  irrigation,  and, 
as  a  matter  of  tact,  the  practice  is  more  common  in  the  north  and  center 
than  in  Andalusia.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  irrigation  has  a  tend- 
ency to  impoverish  the  soil  (by  washing  away  the  mineral  constituents); 
hence,  whenever  it  is  practiced,  manuring  must  go  along  with  it  ±mri 

•'.  In  Saragossa  irrigation  is  much  practiced,  and  so  is  manuring, 
whilst  in  Seville  there  is  very  little  of  either  one  or  the  other.  If  the 
orchards  are  properly  and  deeply  plowed,  two  or  three  irrigations  each 
year  will  be  found  sufficient.  When,  from  the  direction  of  the  wind  or 
other  signs,  there  is  apprehension  of  a  very  severe  frost,  copious  irriga- 
tion will  often  preserve  the  trees  from  injury,  as  the  evaporation  from 
the  soil  has  a  tendency  to  mitigate  the  effects  of  a  sudden  lowering  of. 
temperature. 

I'  r  unlng  and  ringing.  —  Pruning  olive  trees  is  by  many  growers  con- 
sidered as  the  most  delicate  operation  connected  with  olive  culture, 

».41  as  the  one  upon  which  the  prosperity  of  the  orchard  most  de- 
pends. Independently  of  removing  withered  or  injured  branches,  the 
purposes  of  pruning  are  the  following  : 

(1)  The  removal  of  the  secondary  and  tertiary  branches  that  only 
bear  weak  and  sterile  twigs,  thus  making  room  for  the  development  of 
more  healthy  and  vigorous  ones. 

(2)  The  elimination  of  superfluous  primary  limbs  when  they  obstruct 
ventilation  and  light. 

(3)  The  general  thinning  out  of  the  branches  of  certain  varieties  that 
have  a  tendency  to  extreme  luxuriancy  and  to  the  intertwining  of  limbs. 

(4)  The  correction  of  the  habit  of  producing  very  long  vertical  shoots 
(which  are  usually  sterile),  thereby  favoring  the  forming  ot  lateral 
bearing  twigs. 

For  the  cutting  of  larger  limbs  the  following  directions  are  given  : 
Let  the  limb  be  sawn  off  even  with  the  trunk,  taking  great  care  not 
to  damage  the  edges  of  the  bark,  as  it  is  those  edges  which  are  eventu- 
ally to  grow  over  and  cover  up  the  wound.  In  order  to  facilitate  this 
healing  process,  the  exposed  part  of  the  wood  is  made  slightly  con- 
ing a  scoop-shaped  chisel  for  the  purpose  ;  the  wound  is  then 
plastered  with  a  salve  made  of  wet  clay  and  cow-dung,  which  should  be 
applied  with  a  brush.  It  is  very  important  that  this  work  be  well  and 
neatly  done,  leaving  no  protruding  splinters  or  irregular  surfaces.  The 
smaller  branches  may  be  cut  with  the  hatchet,  always  taking  great  care 


708  FRUIT  rui/ruKK  IN  FORKIGN  COUNTRIES. 

not  to  remove  any  more  bark  than  is  absolutely  necessary  ;  and  for  the 
removal  of  shoots  and  twigs  pruning-shears  are  to  be  used.  In  regard 
to  the  best  time  for  pruning,  the  custom  varies  in  different  districts. 
Some  writers  on  the  subject  contend  that  if  pruning  is  effected  when  the 
sap  ascends  in  the  spring  the  healing  process  is  more  rapid  5  others  are 
of  opinion  that  it  is  best  to  prune  at  the  end  of  winter  and  before  the 
sap  has  begun  to  move  upwards.  It  is,  however,  universally  admitted 
that  pruning  is  only  to  take  place  after  the  fruit  has  been  collected  and 
before  budding  has  begun.  Thorough  pruning  is  generally  only  done  once 
every  two  or  three  years,  and  as  the  pruned  trees  give  a  smaller  yield 
the  first  year  after  the  operation,  it  is  well  to  divide  the  trees  into  two 
or  three  classes,  one  of  which  is  pruned  and  trimmed  every  year,  thus 
dividing  the  work  and  equalizing  the  annual  yield. 

As  a  direct  means  of  stimulating  the  production  and  ripening  of  fruit 
the  practice  of  "ringing"  is  recommended.  The  process  consists  in 
removing  an  annular  strip  of  bark,  varying  from  one-half  to  1J  centi- 
meters in  width,  from  the  base  of  secondary  or  tertiary  flower-bearing 
branches,  thereby  preventing  the  descent  of  the  sap,  which  is  thus 
utilized  for  the  formation  of  fruit.  This  operation,  which  must  be  per- 
formed when  the  tree  has  begun  to  blossom,  but  before  the  flowers  are 
fully  expanded  and  fecundation  has  begun,  is  of  great  usefulness  with 
varieties  that  are  given  to  u  off  years,"  or  to  exuberant  flowering  not 
followed  by  bearing.  Individual  trees,  as  well  as  varieties  bearing 
scantily  and  irregularly,  have  been  made  to  yield  both  plentifully  and 
regularly  by  this  process,  which,  however,  like  all  pains-taking  prac- 
tices, is  limited  to  a  few  careful  growers. 

Climate  and  situation. — The  olive  tree  in  Western  Europe  thrives  in 
the  open  air  as  far  north  as  46°,  though  beyond  44°  it  only  bears  ir- 
regularly and  scantily  5  from  that  point  the  size  of  the  tree  and  the 
regularity  of  yield  increase  as  one  proceeds  farther  south  until  18°  is 
reached ;  beyond  that  latitude  the  tree  grows  luxuriantly,  but  does  not 
yield  fruit.  Spain  being  situated  between  35°  59'  49"  and  43°  47'  29" 
of  north  latitude,  the  whole  of  its  territory  is  within  the  limits  of  the 
olive  region. 

Observation  has  established  the  fact  that  the  olive  in  order  to  mature 
requires  a  certain  number  of  units  of  heat  during  the  period  o^  most 
active  vegetative  life,  said  period  beginning  with  the  first  appearance  of 
the  blossoms  and  ending  with  the  first  severe  frost.  This  number  of 
heat  units  (each  of  1°  centigrade),  which  varies  with  different  varieties, 
and  ranges  from  3,400°  up  to  3,978°,  is  to  be  computed  by  adding  the 
mean  heat  of  each  day  during  the  period  between  blossoming  (which 
requires  a  temperature  of  +19°)  and  the  first  frost.  Any  district  in 
which  the  temperature  will  sum  up  to  3,978°  during  that  period  is  there- 
fore adapted  to  olive  culture,  provided  the  winter  is  not  severe  enough 
to  kill  the  tree.  In  that  sense  the  limit  of  its  endurance  is  a  tempera- 
ure-7°  to- 8°,  which,  however,  must  not  last  beyond  eight  continuous 


i  IK  I.     IN    S1M1V 


709 


days,  (iiven  tin1  nn  MI  temperature  of  the  summer  months  and  the  time 
of  blossoming  in  any  steited  place,  the  time  of  maturity  may  be  deduced; 
thus  in  Seville  the  olive  tree  blooms  about  the  1st  of  May,  and  the  mean 
temperatures  are : 


Month. 

Days. 

Mean  tem- 
perature. 

May 

31 

°C. 
ov  a 

30 

°4  1 

July 

31 

>>Q   9 

31 

30  1 

...         _  .  . 
St'ptt-  inl)Rf        -  

30 

•">  3 

(  )t-t,  ,),,>[•                                                      .         ... 

31 

'•"7  'J 

184 

It'  we  divide  the  number  of  degrees  by  six,  we  obtain  the  mean  monthly 
temperature,  27°.3,  which,  multiplied  by  184  (the  number  of  days),  gives 
a  total  of  r>,<)23°;  hence  the  fruit  in  Seville  usually  matures  about  the 
1st  of  October. 

For  Mora- 1 a  <le  Tajima,  6  miles  to  the  east  of  Madrid,  where  blossom- 
ing takes  place  at  the  end  of  May,  the  figures  are : 


Month. 

Days. 

Mean  tem- 
perature. 

Mav                  .           

10 

°C. 

10  2 

Juw       !  

30 

25  2 

j,,lv                                           

31 

2fi  ^ 

Vu-'ii^t           .. 

31 

26  1 

30 

20  2 

October                   

"31 

14  " 

30 

10  '> 

31 

5  7 

224 

147.2 

Giving  mean  temperature  for  eight  months  18°.4,  which,  multiplied  by 
I'L't.  gives  4,121°;  hence  the  olive  matures  towards  the  middle  of  De 
cember. 

Valladolid  may  be  cited  as  a  place  where,  owing  to  late  blossoming 
and  early  frosts,  the  maturing  of  the  fruit  is  impossible.  Assuming 
blossoming  to  take  place  on  the  15th  of  June,  there  will  be : 


Month. 

Days. 

Mean  t«  in- 
perature. 



]-, 

19 



31 

26  3 



31 

24 

September  

30 

20  6 

31 

8  % 



138 

98.4 

vember  the  temperature  fall*  to  4°. 


710  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Giving  5t  mean  temperature  of  19.7°,  which,  multiplied  by  138  sums  up 
to  2,718°,  less  by  about  700°  than  is  required  for  maturing  even  the 
earliest  variety  of  the  fruit. 

Altitude,  in  as  far  as  it  brings  about  a  decrease  of  the  temperature, 
is  equivalent  to  latitude,  and  it  is  admitted  that  each  181  meters  of 
height  represent  a  change  of  climate  equivalent  to  1°  of  latitude,  from 
which  the  conclusion  may  be  drawn  that  olive  culture  can  be  carried 
on  at  high  altitudes  only  in  the  southern  parts  of  its  habitat,  and  vice 
versa.  In  the  vicinity  of  Madrid  there  are  productive  groves  stand- 
ing on  ground  that  has  655  meters  of  elevation  above  sea-level.  The 
altitude  being  40°  24'  30",  and  615  meters  being  equivalent  to  3°  24', 
the  climatic  conditions  are  those  of  latitude  53°  48'  30".  In  the  prov- 
ince of  Granada  trees  are  found  at  an  altitude  of  1,000  meters  above 
sea-level,  representing  5°  31'  30",  which  added  to  the  latitude  of  the 
district,  which  is  37°  II7  10",  brings  up  the  effective  latitude  to  42° 
42'  40". 

Exposure  and  incline  are  most  important  factors  in  olive  culture. 
Exposure  varies  in  its  effects,  both  according  to  latitude  and  to  local  cir- 
cumstances, hence  no  invariable  rule  can  be  given,  though  generally 
southern  exposure  is  best,  as  being  less  liable  to  frost.  In  a  warm, 
dry  climate,  however,  trees  thus  placed  will  need  irrigation  in  order  to 
do  well.  Near  the  northern  limits  of  the  olive  region,  and  on  high 
ground,  where  frosty  nights  are  common  in  the  fall,  eastern  exposure 
is  deprecated,  because  in  such  situations  the  first  rays  of  the  sun  bring 
about  very  sudden  and  abrupt  changes  of  temperature.  A  quick  thaw 
after  a  moderate  frost  will  generally  cause  more  injury  than  a  period  of 
more  severe  cold  followed  by  gradual  thawing;  this  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  after  a  spell  of  very  hard  cold  the  trees  most  injured  are  tho.se 
most  accessible  to  the  rays  of  the  sun. 

As  regards  incline,  it  is  held  by  most  growers  that  slightly  rising 
ground  is  preferable  to  a  perfect  level.  The  benefit  from  an  inclined 
situation,  with  southern  exposure,  increases  as  one  goes  further  north, 
as  the  obliquity  of  the  sun's  rays  is  thereby  counteracted.  The  rise 
should,  however,  not  exceed  the  ratio  of  6  meters  to  100,  as  on  steeper 
ground  cultivation  by  plowing  becomes  difficult  and  the  soil  covering 
the  roots  on  the  upper  side  of  the  tree  is  apt  to  wash  away.  At  inclines 
much  exceeding  the  above  it  is  usually  necessary  to  bank  up  ttte  ground, 
thus  creating  a  succession  of  small  level  terraces,  involving  much  labor 
and  expense,  and  also  losing  the  advantage  derived  from  the  greater 
perpendicularity  of  the  suu's  rays  upon  inclined  surfaces. 

Natural  or  artificial  obstacles  to  injurious  winds,  such  as  mountains, 
forests,  or  walls,  shelter  a  certain  extent  of  ground  on  their  lee  side. 
Spots  sheltered  on  the  north  are  usually  considered  as  being  benefited 
thereby  to  the  extent  of  fully  one  degree  of  latitude.  The  ground  shel- 
tered extends  horizontally  in  the  ratio  of  11  to  1,  as  compared  to  the 
height  of  the  obstacle ;  thus,  a  mountain  chain  1,000  meters  high  will 


OLIVE    CULTURE    IN    SPAIN.  711 

shelter  the  land  on  its  lee  to  a  distance  of  11,000  meters  from  its  apex. 
Beyond  that  point,  however,  the  injurious  effects  of  winds  th,us  impeded 
is  more  potent  than  it  would  be  it'  the  obstacle  did  not  exist.  The  Sierra 
of  Guadarraina,  which  rears  its  crest  up  to  2,385  meters,  shelters  its 
southeast  exposure  to  a  distance  of  26,235  meters,  but  beyond  that 
limit  the  action  of  the  cold  winds  crossing  its  summits  from  north  to 
south  is  felt  most  keenly. 

The  neighborhood  of  the  sea  is  by  no  means  prejudicial  to  olive 
orchards,  and  in  the  maritime  zone,  wherever  the  proper  conditions  of 
soil  and  climate  prevail,  olive  culture  is  carried  on  in  close  proximity  to 
the  shore.  The  ancient  dictum,  laid  down  both  by  Latin  and  Aral) 
authors;,  that  olive  culture  could  only  be  prosecuted  within  30  leagues 
from  the  sea,  has,  however,  been  disproved  by  modern  experience. 

,srf,,7. — it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  general  proposition  that  soil  adapted 
to  the  vine  is  well  suited  also  to  olive  culture.  The  characteristics  of 
such  a  soil  will  be  looseness  and  fair  permeability,  and  for  the  olive  it 
is  necessary  that  the  soil  and  active  subsoil  should  have  a  depth  of  at 
ItMst  one  meter.  A  calcareous  soil,  meaning  thereby  one  which  con- 
tains a  large  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime,  is  considered  valuable  for 
dive  culture,  especially  so  in  the  south;  in  a  northern  district,  where 
the  summer  is  short,  such  soils  are  open  to  the  objection  of  being  oold, 
as  their  white  coloring  prevents  absorption  of  heat.  The  presence  of 
oxide  of  iron  in  such  soil,  by  giving  it  a  reddish  tint,  corrects  this  objec- 
tion, and  it  is  on  such  soils  usually  that  great  yields  are  obtained  on 
the  high  central  plateaus  and  in  the  north.  Both  magnesia  and  sul- 
phate of  lime  are  efficient  substitutes  for  carbonate  of  lime — and  some 
sulphate  may  always  be  advantageously  applied  with  the  manure.  Oil 
produced  on  soils  poor  in  these  ingredients  has  usually  a  greenish 
tinge,  and  is  not  as  limpid  as  oil  from  soils  containing  them.  Potash 
is  a  necessary  constituent  tor  olive  culture,  and  when  not  present  in 
suilirient  quantity,  must  be  artificially  supplied.  A  tendency  to  ex- 
uberant flowering  and  aborting  of  the  fruit,  shows  a  deficiency  of  phos- 
phates in  the  soil,  which  must  be  remedied  in  order  to  obtain  good 
yields. 

The  hygrometric  properties  of  the  soil  are  an  important  factor,  which, 
however,  must  necessarily  be  appreciated  according  to  the  general 
climatic  conditions  of  the  locality.  Here  it  is  held  that  in  order  to  be 
well  adapted  to  the  olive  tree,  soil  should  retain  its  looseness  after  a 
rain  of  forty-eight  hours'  duration,  and  that  during  the  hot  season  it 
should  contain  10  per  cent,  of  its  weight  in  water. 

/v.sf.v. — The  olive  tree  is  subject  to  a  disorder  which  some  years  ago 

-ave  rise  to  considerable  controversy,  some  authors  holding  that  it  was 

caused  by  insect,  while  others  ascribed  it  to  the  agency  of  a  fungus.     It 

by  different  names  in  the  different  districts;  in  Andalusia  it  is 

spoken  of  as  mclera,  mangla,  melazo,  tinuela,  tizne  (smut),  accitillo,  etc., 

and  in  other  parts  it  is  frequently  called  negra,  negrilla  or  ncgrura,  all 

156A 21 


712        FKUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

meaning  blackness,  and  indicating  the  outward  appearance  of  the  af- 
fected  trees.  The  disorder  is  now  generally  believed  to  be  caused  by  a 
fungus  either  identical  or  closely  allied  to  the  Dematium  monophyllum, 
already  alluded  to  as  one  of  the  most  damaging  parasites  of  the  orange 
tree.  Trees  standing  on  very  moist  ground  are  especially  subject  to  its 
attacks,  though  dry  ground  does  not  give  immunity  when  the  foliage  is 
luxuriant;  removing  excess  of  moisture  from  the  soil  and  liberal  prun- 
ing so  as  to  admit  light  and  air,  are  both  preventive  and  cure  for  the 
disorder. 

The  olive  tree  has  many  enemies  amongst  the  insect  tribe,  and  the 
following  is  a  list  of  those  most  frequently  encountered: 

The  olive  bug  (Lecunium  olece),  which  fastens  itself  to  the  green  parts 
of  the  tree  and  sucks  its  j  uices.  Pruning  the  infested  limbs,  and  thereby 
giving  free  access  to  light  and  air,  is  the  most  efficient  remedy,  and  the 
larger  affected  parts  are  to  be  smeared  over  with  petroleum. 

The  olive  moth  (Aeophora  olivetta,  also  Oruga  minadora)  does  damage 
chiefly  in  the  caterpillar  state.  Bernard  describes  its  appearance  thus : 

Ifc  is  about?  millimeters  in  length,  and  is  composed  of  twelve  segments,  the  body 
is  of  the  same  color  as  the  under  side  of  the  olive  leaves  and  sometimes  yellowish ;  its 
mandibles  are  at  first  black,  and  later  on  they  grow  yellow.  It  frequently  penetrates 
under  the  bark  of  the  twigs,  and  causes  the  formation  of  the  s.  c.  agallas  (gall-nuts) 
upon  them.  It  also  introduces  itself  into  the  fruit,  eating  the  pulp  and  even  the 
kernel  itsfclf.  The  perfect  insect  is  greenish  white  in  color,  has  four  wings  and  two 
large  antennae.  Careful  cleaning  and  pruning,  removing  all  visible  nests,  and  the  ap- 
plication of  petroleum  or  of  a  solution  of  lime  to  the  limbs  are  the  means  usually  suc- 
cessful in  fighting  this  pest.  It  seems  to  be  established  that  this  insect  is  never  found 
on  a  tree  infested  with  the  olive  bug. 

The  olive  fly  (Dacus  olecB)  is  an  insect  about  5  millimeters  in  length, 
yellowish  red  in  color,  with  three  black  stripes  on  the  abdomen,  wings 
larger  than  its  body,  and  of  a  golden  color  with  black  striae.  This  in- 
sect lays  its  minute  eggs  upon  the  nascent  fruit,  and  the  worm  burrows 
galleries  into  it  and  feeds  upon  the  pulp.  When  the  caterpillar  has 
reached  its  full  size,  it  resembles  that  of  the  olive  moth,  but  it  has  only 
11  segments  instead  of  12,  and  its  mandibles  are  always  black.  When 
this  insect  has  obtained  a  foothold,  it  is  best  to  gather  the  fruit  at  once 
(even  though  it  be  green  and  yield  but  very  little  oil),  as  this  prevents 
the  propagation  of  the  pest  and  may  thereby  avert  more  serious  dam- 
age the  following  season. 

The  olive  flea  (pulguilla  del.olivo)  derives  its  name  from  its  peculiar 
mode  of  rising,  which  looks  more  like  jumping  than  flying.  It  is  about 
5  millimeters  long,  has  transparent  ovoid  wings  dotted  with  yellow, 
thread-like  antennae,  and  greenish  abdomen.  The  larva,  or  worm,  is 
light  green,  with  head  of  a  dark  red.  It  places  itself  usually  on  the 
petioles  of  the  leaves  and  buds;  its  time  of  fecundation  coincides  with 
the  blossoming  of  the  olive.  The  larvae  are  deposited  on  a  layer  of  a 
whitish  downy  matter  called  by  the  country  people  algodon  del  olivo 


.E    CULTURE    IN    SPAIN.  713 

(Anglice,  cotton  of  the  <>li  .     The  insect's  life  duos  not,  hist  much 

>iul  one  month,  but  it  causes  many  blossoms  to  fall  off,  and  rain 
showers  in  blooming  time,  though  in  themselves  prejudicial  to  the  yield, 
are  effectual  in  d.  4'  the  insect. 

Two  small  beetles,  respectively  the  Rylesinm  olesperda  and  the  Phloio- 
tribus,  are  especially  destructive  to  the  soft  white  layer  underneath  the 
bark  j  the  ova  an*  deposited  between  the  bark  and  the  wood  of  broken 
branches,  or  after  pruning.  The  perfect  insects  are  about  3  millimeters* 
in  length. 

The  Aspidiotus  cowhyformis  is  an  insect  about  5  millimeters  in 
length,  ashy  in  color,  provided  with  a  proboscis  with  which  it  fastens 
itselfs  to  the  bark  of  the  tree  in  great  numbers,  generally,  however, 
avoiding  the  leaves  or  tender  shoots.  This  facilitates  their  removal  by 
rubbing  with  a  coarse  mop  or  brush.  As  with  all  other  noxious  insects, 
petroleum  is  an  effective  remedy. 

A  small  worm,  commonly  called  taladrilla  (Anglice,  small  borer),  of 
which  the  perfect  form  is  not  identified,  introduces  itself  into  the  stone 
of  the  olive,  and  after  devouring  the  kernel,  makes  its  exit  by  way  of 
the  petiole,  causing  the  fruit  to  drop  off,  usually  in  an  unripe  state.  In 
this  case,  as  with  the  olive  fly,  it  is  advised  to  sacrifice  the  year's  yield 
and  gather  the  fruit  at  once,  in  order  to  prevent  the  recurrence  of  the 
i  he  following  season. 

Picking. — The  time  of  ripening  varies  considerably  according  to  lo- 
:  d  the  species  cultivated.     When  intended  for  pickling  the  pick- 
ing in  Andalusia  usually  begins  about  the  middle  of  September  and 
lasts  till  about  the  10th  or  loth  of  October.    The  fruit  at  that  time  has 
lied  its  full  development  as  far  as  size  is  concerned,  but  is  yet  green 
ami  hard.    For  oil  pressing  the  harvest  begins  in  November,  and  may 
is  late  as  early  January.    The  usual  mode  of  gathering  is  by  knock- 
uit  down  with  sticks,  which  is  to  be  deprecated  on  account  of 
reat  damage  done  to  the  tender  shoots  on  which  the  next  season's 
fruit  is  to  be  borne.    Careful  growers  pick  by  hand,  which  is  less  expe- 
ditious, but  more  profitable  in  the  long  run. 

ling. — For  pickling  there  are  two  processes  in  use. 

The  first  one  is  the  slow  process,  and  the  modus  operandi  is  as  follows: 
Place  the  freshly  picked  olives  in  fresh  water,  which  must  be  changed 
day,  and  let  them  lie  thus  about  a  fortnight.  The  water  should  be 
drawn  off  quickly  and  promptly  replaced,  not  leaving  the  fruit  exposed 
to  the  air  more  than  is  absolutely  necessary.  The  water  drawn  off  will 
at  first  be  very  bitter;  this  bitter  taste  will  go  on  decreasing  day  by 
day,  and  the  taste  must  be  taken  as  a  criterion  as  to  when  this  process 
is  to  be  considered  completed,  a  fortnight  or  twenty  days  at  most  being 
usually  the  time  required.  The  olives  are  then  placed  in  a  pickle 
made  of  salt  and  water,  of  a  strength  indicated  by  the  French  sali- 
iioineter  as  0°,  found  in  practice  to  be  equivalent  to  a  proportion  of 


714         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

about  1  volume  of  salt  to  14  volumes  of  water.  It  is  best  to  use  butts  or 
barrels  in  which  wine  or  brandy  has  been  kept;  those  having  been  put 
to  any  other  use  are  apt  to  give  the  olives  the  flavor  of  their  previous 
contents;  if  new  vessels  are  provided,  they  should  be  of  oak,  not  pine, 
and  they  should  be 'soaked  about  thirty  days  before  being  used.  At  the 
bottom  a  layer  of  olive  twigs  and  leaves  is  first  placed,  which  protects 
the  olives  from  injury  by  pressure,  and  on  the  top  of  the  fruit  another 
similar  layer  is  placed,  taking  care  to  have  this  layer  well  covered  by 
the  brine ;  the  whole  is  kept  down  by  some  oak  staves  weighted  with 
bricks  or  stone,  all  of  which  must  of  course  be  scrupulously  clean,  as 
any  noxious  taste  or  flavor  imparted  to  the  brine  will  affect  the  olives. 
The  vessels  should  be  covered  with  a  cloth  or  tarpaulin,  in  order  to  ex- 
clude dust.  Olives  thus  treated  will  be  in  good  order  for  bottling  or 
for  consumption  within  about  four  months,  and  will  keep  sound  certainly 
two  years. 

For  pickling  by  the  quick  process  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  is  pre- 
pared, this  solution  to  be  of  a  strength  of  about  4°  of  the  French  sal- 
inometer,  and  the  fruit  placed  therein.  After  remaining  in  soak  tin 
hour  a  few  olives  must  be  sampled  by  cutting,  in  order  to  ascertain 
how  far  the  solution  has  penetrated  into  the  pulp;  the  depth  of  such 
penetration  can  be  readily  noticed  by  the  color,  and  should  not  exceed 
half  the  thickness  of  the  pulp  5  if  after  an  hour  this  is  not  the  case,  other 
samplings  must  take  place  at  intervals  of  not  more  than  ten  minutes, 
until  the  olives  are  found  to  be  in  the  proper  condition.  Then  the  solu- 
tion is  to  be  immediately  drawn  oft  and  replaced  by  fresh  water,  which 
must  be  changed  quickly  three  or  four  times,  the  fruit  being  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  last  water  for  twenty-four  hours.  During  that  time 
the  brine  is  prepared,  and  next  day  the  olives  are  placed  in  it,  following 
the  same  directions  as  were  given  when  describing  the  first  process. 
By  this  mode  the  olives  will  be  ready  for  use  within  about  thirty  days. 

In  both  modes  of  preparation  the  olives  should  after  being  once  wetted 
never  be  exposed  to  the  air  more  than  a  few  minutes  at  a  time ;  and  to 
handle  the  fruit  ladles  of  wood  or  tin  dippers  should  be  used. 

This  gives  a  fair  outline  of  the  modes  in  general  use  for  pickling, 
although  undoubtedly  some  of  the  picklers  have  special  recipes,  upon 
which,  however,  no  definite  information  could  be  Obtained.  Ifc  may  be 
stated  here  that  pickled  olives  in  the  Seville  trade  are  at  present  roughly 
classed  as  Manzanillas  and  Gordales,  meaning  thereby,  respectively,  very 
small  or  very  large  (the  latter  being  the  "  queen  olives"),  which  names 
have  no  connection  with  the  variety  of  the  fruit  put  up. 

Oil-pressing.— Oil- pressing  is  carried  on  in  many  ways,  some  of  them 
yet  very  primitive.  The  first  pressing  is  done  by  means  of  a  mill  some- 
what akin  to  a  cider-mill ;  the  pulpy  mass  then  has  hot  water  poured 
on  it,  and  is  subjected  to  a  second  pressing,  which  in  the  Seville  dis- 
trict is  now  usually  accomplished  by  hydraulic  machinery.  The  refuse 
from  this  second  pressing  is  used  as  fuel,  and  in  some  cases  as  a  cattle 


OLIVE    CULTURE    IN    SPAIN.  715 

food.  Recently  a  new  process  has  come  into  vogue  whereby  a  fur- 
ther quantity  of  fatty  matter  is  extracted,  which  is  used  for  making 
soap.  Where  it  is  riot  thought  advisable  to  utilize  the  refuse  in  any  of 
the  above  ways,  it  will  prove  a  very  valuable  fertilizer  for  the  olive 
grove. 

The  yield  of  oil  from  a  given  weight  of  fresh  fruit  varies  from  16  to 
25  per  cent,  j  the  latter  figure  is  not  often  reached  even  with  the  best 
oil-yielding  varieties  and  the  most  improved  processes.  I  have  obtained 
data  showing  a  higher  percentage,  but  I  believe  that  the  figures  ex- 
pi  vssed  the  proportion  of  oil  to  a  given  weight  of  olives  which,  as  is 
usual  in  Andalusia,  had  been  lying  heaped  up  on  the  mill  floors  for  sev- 
eral weeks,  thus  losing  moisture  and  weight. 

Extent  and  yield. — The  area  covered  by  olive  plantations  in  Spain  is 
not  accurately  known.  The  official  cadastral  data  are  notoriously  mis- 
leading, nor  do  they  exist  in  any  shape  whatever  in  relation  to  some 
provinces ;  no  professional  economist  would  take  them  to  be  more  than 
mere  approximations,  of  which  the  factor  of  error  would  probably  vary 
in  every  district,  rendering  any  scheme  of  rectification  extremely  diffi- 
cult. Hidalgo  Tablada,*  who  bears  the  reputation  of  being  a  safe  guide 
on  such  matters,  makes  the  following  estimates : 

AJCU  of  olive  groves hectares..      2,099,651 

Number  of  olive  trees  (80  per  hectare) 167,972,080 

Arrobas  of  oil  produced  (1  arrobat  to  6  trees) 27,992,347 

Value  of  annual  yield  (at  10  pesos  perarroba) pesos..  279,953,470 

GTOBS  product  per  hectare do...  133.33 

From  which  product  he  deducts  80  percent,  for  cultivation,  harvesting, 
sing,  interest,  and  taxes,  leaving  net  income  of  26.67  pesos  per  hec- 
( equivalent  to  $2.08  per  acre).    This  extremely  low  average  yield 
can  only  appear  credible  to  those  who,  like  myself,  have  seen  nines  of 
olive  groves  in  a  state  of  utter  neglect,  unprotected  from  the  inroads  of 
cuttle  or  game,  and,  in  fact,  left  to  thrive  or  perish  without  the  inter- 
vention of  human  agency  save  at  cropping  time.    The  province  of  Cadiz 
has  a  perfect  wilderness  of  just  such  groves,  and  of  course  the  product 
n j ust  in  these  cases  be  miserably  small. 

The  province  of  Seville  possesses  a  number  of  carefully  cultivated 
proves,  ranking  probably  in  that  respect  along  with  the  best,  and  the 
value  of  olive  orchards  in  that  district  some  fourteen  years  ago  ranged 
from  a  minimum  of  rsvn.  500  ($25)  to  a  maximum  of  rsvn.  4,000  ($200) 
]><>r  aranzada.f  The  value  of  a  good  orchard  does  not  frequently  ex- 
ceed the  latter  sum  at  the  present  day,  although  the  working  expenses 
and  income  of  an  aranzada  of  that  class,  as  given  me  by  a  planter  from 
i!i<>  Utrera  district  (Seville),  seem  to  indicate  a  higher  value.  These 

*  He  wrote  in  1870. 

t  The  arroba=ll£  kilograms=about  25  pounds  avoirdupois. 

t  The  aranzada=37  57  ares,  or  0.9284  of  au  acre. 


716  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

figures — which  in  my  opinion  only  apply  to  a  small  grove  of  exceptional 
excellence — are  as  follows  : 

Pesos. 

Gross  yield— 90  arrobas  of  oil,  worth 675 

Plowing Pesos..     10 

Pruning  and  cleaning do 60 

Harvesting do...     75 

Pressing do...     90 

Interest  and  wear  and  tear  of  plant do...  100 

335 

Net 340 

From  which  deduct  taxes  (about  20  per  cent,  of  net  yield) •. 68 

Leaving  net  income .. 272 

Equal  to  about  $58  per  acre. 

The  following  data,  in  reference  to  a  grove  of  180  aranzadas  situated 
near  Ecija  (province  of  Seville),  show  what,  in  my  opinion,  may  be  con- 
sidered mean  results  of  careful  culture  on  a  large  scale : 

Fruit  collected  (in  fanegas).* 

Fanegas. 

1868 1,624 

1869 1,045 

1870 2,910 

1871 2,784 

1872 6,131 

1873 2,346 

1874 1,205 

1875 1,317 

1876 5,706 

1877 820 

1878 3,076 

1879 920 

1880 8,375 

Mean  annual  product  (equal  to  16. 35  per  aranzada) 2, 943 

Taking  the  oil  yield  at  15  pounds  per  fanega  of  fruit,  and  estimating 
oil  at  7.50  pesos  per  arroba  (of  25  pounds),  the  average  value  of  the 
harvest  per  aranzada  will  be  73.50  pesos  (equivalent  to  $15.28  per  acre). 
This  estate  previous  to  1868  had  not  been  carefully  tended,  And  it  is, 
therefore,  fairer  to  take  the  mean  of  the  last  five  years  (1876  to  1880) 
as  a  standard,  the  extraordinary  crop  of  1880  being  offset  by  the  very 
small  yields  of  1877  and  1879.  For  this  quinquennium  the  account  stands 
thus:  Total  of  five  years'  yield,  18,897  fanegas  of  fruit ;  annual  yield, 
3,779  fanegas  5  annual  yield  per  aranzada,  21  fanegas,  yielding  315 
pounds,  equal  to  12f  arrobas  of  oil,  which,  at  7.50  pesos  per  arroba, 
have  a  value  of  94.50  pesos,  equivalent  to  $19.66  per  acre.  Great 
as  is  the  range  of  estimates  in  relation  to  the  results  of  olive  culture 

*  The  fanega  of  olives  weighs  from  65  to  75  pounds,  and  yields  from  12  to  16  pounds 
of  oil. 


OLIVE    CULTURE    IN    SPAIN. 


717 


for  pressing  oil,  it  would  ho  as  nothing  when  compared  to  the  vari- 
ations in  the  figures  bearing  upon  the  raising  of  fruit  for  pickling  pur- 
poses. I  do  not  believe  that  authoritative  data  can  be  obtained  on  the 
subji'ct,  and  I  therefore  think  it  best  not  to  discuss  the  financial  results 
of  this  branch  of  culture  at  all.  It  may  be  stated,  however,  that  any 
fanner  engaged  in  raising  fruit  for  pickling  would  expect  a  larger  cash 
income  per  acre  than  if  raising  for  oil,  both  on  account  of  the  more  per- 
is).able  nature  of  the  finished  commodity  and  of  the  more  contracted 
and  more  fluctuating  market.  Olive  oil  is  a  staple  of  the  first  irapor- 
t; ;  m-e  in  this  country,  of  which  any  quantity  almost  can  always  be  dis- 
d  of  readily  for  cash.  The  pickled  fruit  is  looked  upon  more  in  the 
light  of  a  fancy  article,  the  sale  of  which,  it  is  true,  is  just  now  very 
brisk,  but  which  some  vagary  of  taste  or  fashion  may  any  day  render 
Jess  readily  salable. 

Exports. — The  following  are  the  latest  official  figures  showing  the 
exports  of  olive  oil  and  of  pickled  olives  from  Spain: 

OLTVE  OIL. 


Tears. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


Kilograms.  Petos. 

Average  of  five  years,  1877-1881 1 17,585,865  16,148,877 

year  1881 24,625,487  22,901,702 

Calendar  year  1882 13,730,474  12,357,426 

PICKLED  OLIVES. 

A vt>i age  of  five  years,  1877-1881...                                                                 ....         1,574,309  788,154 

Calendar  year  1881 1,926,350  963,176 

Calendar  year  1882 1,722,945  861,472 

The  destination  of  these  exports  for  the  year  1882  is  given  as  follows  : 

OILS. 

Kilograms. 

Germany 956,417 

Algeria 1,531,326 

Belgium 63,663 

France 3,123,874 

Holland 53,208 

Great  Britain 2.189,611 

<in>r:iltar 342,390 

Portugal 760,093 

Sweden 442,354 

2,824,990 

1'orto  Rico 476,161 

1'n it »M!  States 80,596 

oo 183,771 

Argentine  Republic 240,399 

:>.XV 192,119 

Philippine  Islands 101,001 

Allother  countries ,, 168,501 

13,730,474 


718  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

PICKLED   OLIVES. 

Kilogram  P. 

Algeria 142,508 

France 58,727 

Great  Britain 146,868 

Cuba 770,970 

Porto  Rico 104,625 

United  States . 203,163 

Mexico 31,563 

Argentine  Republic 141, 016 

Uruguay 33,797 

Venezuela 17,851 

Philippine  Islands 38,982 

All  other  countries 32,875 


1, 722, 945 

ERNEST  L.  OPPENHEIM, 

Consul. 


UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Cadiz,  March  11,  1884. 


MALAGA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MARSTON. 

Varieties. — The  name  of  the  best  variety  for  pickled  olives  is  the 
"  Mansanilla;';  the  best  varieties  for  olive  oil  are  the  "  Picudo  "  and 
"  Ojiblanco." 

Other  choice  varieties  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit  are,  for  eating, 
"  Mansanilla,"  the  largest  of  which  are  called  the  u  Queen  olive."  Jit 
Malaga  for  oil  the  best  is  the  "  Picudo  ;"  in  Cordova,  the  "  Ojiblanco." 

The  trees  which  produce  the  above  are  grown  in  the  provinces  of 
Malaga,  Granada,  Cordova,  Jaen,  and  Seville. 

Situation. — Distances  from  the  sea,  2  or  3  kilometers ;  almost  any 
elevation  above  sea-level;  the  more  sun  the  better.  The  olive  tree 
will  grow  almost  any  where,  but  best  on  level  land;  white  subsoil  is 
best. 

Climatic  influences. — Temperature  45°,  90°,  and  78°  Fahr. 

No  rain  fall  record  to  be  had  here.  I 

Trees  and  fruit  require  as  much  rain  as  possible. 

Irrigation. — No  irrigation  for  olive  trees. 

Cultivation. — The  land  is  cultivated  three  times  each  year,  during 
winter  and  spring. 

Pruning. — Every  three  years — one-third  of  the  orchard  each  year. 

Picking.— For  pickling,  green  ;  for  oil,  when  ripe. 

Pickling. — To  pickle  olives  the  following  process  is  followed  in  this 
province.  Put  the  olives,  when  green  and  just  before  they  ripen,  in 
fresh  water  for,  say,  fifteen  or  twenty  days,  changing  the  water  every 


OLIVES    IN   MALAGA.  719 

two  or  three  days  during  the  interval  ;  at  the  end  of  that  time  they 
then  make  a  brinw  of  suit  ami  water,  and  iu  order  to  prove  the  suffi- 
ciency of  salt  they  place  a  fresh  egg  in  the  brine ;  if  the  egg  floats  on 
ttfe  surface,  the  condition  of  the  brine  is  good,  and  they  then  submerge 
the  olives  in  such  quantities  that  they  will  all  be  covered.  They  then 
make  a  kind  of  lattice- work  of  bamboo  canes,  the  canes  being  split  in  two 
parts  and  fastened  together,  and  these  are,  when  arranged,  placed  on 
the  surface  of  the  water  to  keep  the  olives  from  floating  to  the  top. 
The  olives  are  then  allowed  to  remain  in  this  brine  for  at  least  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  days  before  they  are  ready  for  use,  or  longer  if  they  are 
not  required  for  sale  and  shipment. 

After  being  taken  out  of  the  brine,  in  order  to  please  the  taste  of  the 
Spanish,  people,  they  are  frequently  seasoned  according  to  taste  of 
those  who  are  going  eat  them,  by  adding  garlic,  laurel  leaves,  thyme, 
or  other  herbs. 

Oil. — The  olives  intended  for  making  oil,  after  gathering  are  placed  in 
small  compartments  under  cover,  from  which  place  they  are  taken  to 
the  mill  to  be  ground.  These  mills  in  the  country  are  of  the  most  prim- 
itive kind,  their  capacity  being  about  25,  40,  to  100  fanegas  per  diem. 
From  the  mill  where  they  are  ground  the  paste  that  remains  is  put  into 
esparto  mats  or  bags  and  then  placed  in  presses  of  different  kinds,  hy- 
draulic and  those  more  ancient  with  the  old-fashioned  wooden  screw, 
which  extract  through  pressure  all  the  oil,  and  from  these  presses  the 
oil  runs  through  little  gutters  into  a  tub  or  receptacle  of  large  propor- 
tions. They  then  pour  in  boiling  water,  which  separates  the  oil  from  the 
water  contained  and  extracted  from  the  olives  themselves.  The  oil  is 
allowed  to  remain  at  least  one  month,  in  order  to  settle  before  being 
drawn  off  for  market,  but  the  longer  it  remains  in  the  tub  or  vat  the 
clearer  it  becomes. 

Oil  is  always  moved  from  country  to  city  in  goat-skins  (prepared 
and  made  for  the  purpose)  by  mules  and  donkeys. 

Maturity. — Trees  commence  fruiting  at  eight  or  ten  years. 

Yield.— There  is  great  diversity  of  opinions  upon  this  subject — de- 
pends upon  size  and  age  of  tree ;  I  can  find  no  one  who  will  venture  an 
opinion. 

Planting. — The  trees  are  planted  12  yards  apart,  and  propagated  by 
planting  branches. 

Insect  pests. — There  are  none. 

H.  C.  MARSTON, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Malaga,  December  G,  1889. 


720  FRUIT    CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

MALAGA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MAE8TON. 

* 

[Republished  from   Consular  Reports  No.  41|] 

Varieties. — The  province  of  Malaga  produces  but  few  olives,  Cordoba 
and  Seville  being  the  localities  most  favorable  to  their  growth.  I  have, 
however,  obtained  all  the  information  possible  at  Malaga  upon  the 
subject  of  olives,  viz : 

There  are  two.  kinds  of  olive  trees  which  grow  near  Malaga,  but  not 
to  any  great  extent.  The  "  verdialis w  proudces  the  olives  used  for 
making  oil,  while  the  olives  from  a  tree  called  the  u  manzanilla"  are 
used  for  eating  purposes.  Olive  trees  begin  to  yield  at  ten  years,  and 
at  the  age  of  fifteen  years  they  are  in  their  prime,  and  live  for  hun- 
dreds of  years. 

The  "  queen  olive  of  commerce  w  is  a  splendid  variety,  and  is  pro- 
duced in  Cordoba  and  Seville,  but  not  in  the  province  of  Malaga. 

Cultivation. — The  process  of  cultivation  is  plowing  the  ground,  except 
in  the  immediate  neighborhood  of  the  tree,  where  the  ground  is  loos- 
ened and  broken  by  a  hoe. 

Maturity. — The  older  the  olive  tree  the  more  it  produces. 

Yield. — I  can  get  no  estimate  in  this  province  as  to  the  average  yield 
per  acre.  It  is  estimated  here  that  trees  of  fifty  years  old  may  produce 
from  200  to  400  pounds  of  olives,  according  to  the  richness  of  the  land 
and  the  care  taken  in  the  cultivation.  Every  100  pounds  of  olives 
is  said  to  produce  25  pounds  of  oil. 

Planting. — The  trees  are  usually  planted  about  12  yards  apart. 

Fielding. — Olives  for  table  use  are  put  in  very  salt  water,  and,  with 
the  addition  of  certain  herbs  and  pimento,  etc.,  remain  until  they  are 
fit  for  eating.  The  olives  for  making  oil  are  ground  into  a  kind  of  pulp, 
and  with  the  use  of  a  press  the  oil  is  extracted. 

Situation. — Hill-sides.  Olive  trees  do  not  grow  to  any  extent  near 
the  sea-coast  on  account  of  the  sea  winds,  which  are  injurious. 

Soil. — Any  soil  will  answer  for  the  growth  and  production  of  olives. 
They  require  110  water  except  that  produced  by  rain. 

Rain-fall. — The  annual  rain-fall  in  Malaga  for  the  four  years  ending 
1883  was  follows : 

Inches. 

1880 , 23.80 

1881 30.73 

1882 16.33 

1883 17.05 

Average  rain  for  four  years,  21.98  inches. 

Olive  oil. — It  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  determine  the 
average  production  of  olive  oil  in  Spain,  for  there  are  no  statistics; 
nevertheless  40,000,000  to  45,000,000  arrobas  may  be  considered  an 
average  crop,  of  which  only  about  5,000,000  arrobas  are  exported,  the 


OLIVES    IN    MALAGA    AND    TURKEY.  721 

remainder  b  1  in  Spain.     The  principal  cities  from  which  oil  is 

exported  are :  Malaga,  Sevilla,  Valencia,  and  Barcelona,  the  last  two, 
however,  only  in  a  limited  quantity. 

The  crop  of  1882-7S3  in  Andalusia  is  considered  a  good  one  regarding 
quantity  as  well  as  quality. 

According  to  private  notes,  about  1,426,000  arrobas  were  brought  into 
Malaga  by  railway  from  July  1,  1882,  up  to  May  31,  1883,  of  which 
about  1,012,000  arrobas  were  again  exported.  There  was  on  the  31st 
of  May,  1883,  some  414,000  arrobas  as  stock  on  hand  in  Malaga. 

The  largest  exports  were  made  to  the  following  countries,  viz :  Ger- 
many, 386,400  arrobas  ;  England,  276,000  arrobas ;  France,  156,400  ar- 
robas ;  United  States  and  South  America,  55,200  arrobas. 

It  is  not  possible  to  give  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  quantity  of  oil 
entering  Malaga  by  beasts  of  burden,  the  largest  part  of  which  is  con- 
sumed in  the  town  (the  daily  consumption  being  about  500  arrobas) ; 
thus  some  138,000  arrobas  may  have  been  brought  into  Malaga  during 
the  eleven  months  preceding  May  31, 1883,  forming  a  total  (with  the 
above-mentioned  1,426,000  arrobas)  of  1,564,000  arrobas.  Prices  during 
the  said  period  ruled  from  30  to  35  reals  vellon  per  arroba  in  store,  the 
market  having  been  depressed  since  the  end  of  March,  1883. 

H.  C.  MARSTON, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Malaga,  March  28, 1884. 


TURKEY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  HEAP,  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE. 
[Republiahed  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41$.] 

Varieties. — Through  cultivation  an  olive  slip  becomes  in  twenty  to 
t  \\en  ty-five  years  a  tree  of  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  in  height.  The  kind 
known  in  the  Levant  as  the  "  thafnoyah  "  produces  the  fruit  best  suited 
for  the  table,  and  it  is  generally  grafted^-  When  grafted  they  give  fruit 
in  three  or  four  years,  but  when  planted  in  slips  they  seldom  bear  fruit 
in  less  than  fifteen  years,  and  the  best  results  are  not  obtained  until 
they  have  reached  the  age  of  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  years.  Other 
descriptions  are  grown  more  especially  with  a  view  to  the  manufact- 
ure of  oil  for  exportation  and  domestic  consumption. 

Cultivation. — As  a  rule  the  olives  grown  in  this  country  receive  little 
cultivation  after  the  young  trees  reach  maturity.  At  the  end  of  autumn 
rly  in  winter  a  trench  of  2  to  3  feet  in  diameter  and  from  18  to  27 
inches  in  depth  is  dug  round  each  young  tree  and  filled  with  animal 
manure  more  or  less  rich  according  to  the  age  and  strength  of  the  tree. 
The  manure  is  well  covered  with  soil  so  as  to  prevent  its  being  disturbed 


722        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

and  to  keep  it  as  long  as  possible  in  the  position  best  fitted  to  feed  the 
roots  of  the  tree.  The  ground  between  the  trees  is  generally  neglected. 

The  "  queen  olive  of  commerce  n  is  almost  unknown  here.  It  is  the 
pick  of  the  largest  and  finest  fruits  produced  by  the  best  olive  trees  of 
Spain. 

Maturity. — The  olive  tree  generally  comes  into  full  bearing  about 
its  twenty-fifth  year  when  it  has  been  grown  from  slips ;  but  when 
grafted  it  yields  abundantly  between  its  eighth  and  twelfth  year.  In 
both  cases  it  continues  to  produce  largely  every  alternate  year  for 
about  fifty  or  sixty  years,  and  if  cultivated  as  mentioned  above  it  will 
continue  to  yield  fruit,  though  less  largely,  up  to  the  age  of  one  hun- 
dred years. 

Yield. — Under  ordinary  circumstances  a  young  healthy  tree  that  has 
reached  maturity  will  produce  in  a  u  poor"  year  about  82J  pounds,  and 
with  careful  cultivation  the  same  tree  will  yield  in  a  "  good  "  year  double 
that  quantity. 

The  trees  vary  in  yield  every  alternate  year.  An  acre  will  contain 
120  trees,  and  each  tree  will  yield  an  average  of  about  100  pounds  of 
fruit ;  the  produce  of  the  acre  will  therefore  be  about  12,000  pounds.  As 
it  takes  about  60  pounds  of  fruit  to  produce  1  gallon  of  oil,  the  yield  of 
the  acre  will  be  200  gallons. 

In  Smyrna,  etc.,  a  few  new  mills  have  been  constructed  to  be  worked 
by  steam,  but  elsewhere  the  mills  continue  to  be  worked  on  the  old  sys- 
tem, notwithstanding  the  urgent  necessity  of  substituting  improved  ma- 
chinery. 

Planting.— The  trees  are  generally  planted  in  rows  at  about  20  feet 
apart,  but  in  some  places  they  are  grown  much  closer,  especially  on  the 
steep  slopes  of  hills.  In  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  where  the  land 
is  often  broken  and  irregular,  they  are  planted  in  places  where  the  soil 
is  so  arid  and  barren  that  it  will  hardly  grow  anything  else. 

Picking. — When  olives  are  intended  for  pickling  a  small  portion  is 
plucked  while  green  to  be  pickled  in  that  state  ;  but  the  larger  portion 
of  the  fruit  intended  for  preserving  is  gathered  when  it  has  fully  ripened 
and  has  turned  black.  It  is  preferred  in  this  state  by  those  who  relish 
the  oily  flavor,  and  there  is  a  large  consumption  of  black  pickled  olives 
in  Turkey.  * 

Oil  of  a  superior  quality,  but  small  in  quantity,  is  extracted  in  some 
districts  from  green  olives  that  have  been  plucked  or  have  fallen  from 
the  trees ;  but  as  a  rule  olives  specially  intended  for  producing  oil  are 
picked  only  when  they  have  become  quite  ripe  and  black.  It  is  chiefly 
from  the  seed-vessel  that  olive  oil  is  obtained,  and  not  from  the  seed, 
contrary  to  the  general  rule  of  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

J'icJcling. — To  preserve  black  olives  for  the  table,  the  fruit  is  packed 
in  casks  or  boxes  with  a  layer  of  common  salt  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
thick  at  the  bottom.  On  this  is  laid  a  layer  of  olives  about  two  and 
a  half  to  three  inches  in  depth,  upon  which  a  light  covering  of  salt  ig 


OLIVES    JN    TURKEY.  723 

sprinkled,  and  so  on  until  the  cask  or  box  is  filled,  the  upper  la-yrr  of 
salt  being  deeper  than  the  others  except  the  lower  one.  The  staves  of 
the  cask  are  left  loosely  bound  to  allow  the  bitter  water  from  the  olives 
to  drain  off.  When  they  are  drained  the  hoops  are  tightened. 

To  preserve  green  olives  for  the  table,  the  fruit,  after  having  been 
washed,  is  packed  in  casks  in  its  natural  state.  The  casks  have  a  small 
hole,  bored  in  the  bottom  to  allow  the  water  to  run  off  slowly.  They 
are  tilled  with  olives  to  about  3  inches  of  the  top,  and  the  cask  is  then 
iilled  to  the  brim  with  fresh  water  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  until  the 
bitter  taste  of  the  fruit  has  all  but  passed  off.  The  hole  in  the  bottom 
is  then  plugged,  an  aromatized  pickle  is  poured  on  the  fruit,  and  after 
the  pickle  has  taken  effect  a  little  oil  is  added  to  soften  the  olives  and 
reduce  any  bitterness  that  may  remain  in  excess  of  what  is  required  to 
give  them  piquancy  or  an  agreeable  savoriness. 

Extraction  of  olive  oil. — In  the  interior  the  method  practiced  to  extract 
oil  from  olives  is  probably  the  same  as  was  employed  in  the  earliest 
times.  The  fruit  is  collected  in  a  large  bin  near  the  mill  where  the 
cnishiiig  is  done.  The  mill  is  simply  a  large,  circular,  shallow  tank 
with  an  upright  beam  in  the  center,  which  runs  through  a  large  stone, 
and  serves  as  the  pivot  around  which  the  stone  revolves.  A  horse  har- 
nessed to  a  horizontal  pole  attached  to  the  stone  sets  it  slowly  and  la- 
boriously in  motion.  An  improved  apparatus  consists  of  two  stones 
attached  to  the  horizontal  pole  and  are  dragged  around  with  it.  These 
machines  resemble  the  Mexican  arrastra  for  crushing  quartz.  The  one 
last  mentioned,  is  the  most  effective  of  the  two,  as  the  stones  describe  a 
larger  circle,  but  it  requires  greater  power.  The  olives  are  crushed,  but 
the  oil  is  not  expressed.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  fruit  has 
been  thrown  into  the  tank,  the  machine  is  set  in  motion,  and  a  man 
precedes  the  horse  with  a  pole  armed  with  iron  to  push  the  olives  under 
the  stones.  After  a  few  rounds  a  couple  of  gallons  of  water  at  boiling 
heat  are  poured  in  to  assist  the  action  of  the  stones,  and  more  is  added 
as  required,  until  the  mass  acquires  the  consistency  of  a  thick  paste. 
The  mass  is  now  put  into  a  large  jar  and  conveyed  to  the  press,  where 
it  is  kneaded  with  more  hot  water  into  a  thinner  paste,  and  as  often  as 
ii  is  emptied  into  a  shallow  dish  it  is  emptied  into  a  square  cloth  of  the 
same  coarse  material  of  which  the  cloaks  of  the  country  people  are 
made,  which  will  bear  the  greatest  power  of  the  press  without  bursting. 
A  man  forms  the  paste  into  a  square  flat  mass,  folds  the  cloth  neatly 
over  it,  and  ties  it  with  a  string  attached  to  each  corner,  and  places  it 
in  the  press  to  the  number  of  sixteen  or  seventeen  cloths.  The  press  is 
turned  down  by  means  of  a  hand-lever,  and  when  more  power  is  required 
a  rope  is  carried  from  the  lever  to  an  upright  rotary  beam  at  some  dis- 
tance, which  two  men  turn  round  with  bars  rapidly. 

The  oil  and  water  expressed  run  into  a  trough  before  the  pres>s,  which 
though  rudely  hewn  from  a  log  of  wood  is  constructed  on  principles 
showing  a  knowledge  of  the  relative  specific  gravity  of  oil  and  water. 


724  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  trough  is  divided  in  to  two  parts  longitudinally  by  a  partition,  which 
comes  up  to  about  2  inches  below  the  level  of  its  sides,  so  that  when 
the  oil  and  water  run  in  together  on  one  side  of  the  partition,  the  oil, 
coming  to  the  surface,  floats  over  to  the  other  side,  while  the  water  is 
conveyed  away  by  a  pipe  placed  at  the  level  at  which  it  is  desired  to 
maintain  the  water  within  the  trough.  After  the  press  has  been  screwed 
down  as  far  as  it  will  go,  it  is  loosened  and  hot  water  is  poured  upon 
the  pile  to  wash  off  any  oil  that  may  remain  on  the  cloths,  and  they  are 
kneaded  without  being  unfolded.  More  boiling  water  is  poured  upon 
each  package,  and  they  are  again  placed  in  the  press,  to  be  again 
removed  and  undergo  for  a  third  time  the  same  process,  until  no  oil 
remains. 

The  oil  comes  out  a  light-green  color,  and  is  poured  into  a  large  jar 
near  the  press  whence,  after  depositing  any  water  or  dirt  it  may  have, 
it  is  poured  into  skins.  It  is  next  emptied  into  large  earthenware  jars, 
4  or  5  feet  in  height,  where  it  remains  for  at  least  two  months,  till  ail 
impurities  are  deposited. 

Olive  oil  is  refined  by  agitating  it  with  a  saturated  solution  of  caustic 
soda  which  renders  the  whole  soapy ;  but  after  a  time  the  oil  precipi- 
tates a  saponaceous  deposit,  and  the  remainder  becomes  quite  clear  and 
pure  and  is  then  poured  off.  It  is  now  of  a  yellowish  color,  with  a  slight 
odor  and  a  milder  taste.  The  bark  of  the  olive  tree  has  been  used  ex- 
tensively by  the  French  instead  of  cinchona,  and  large  quantities  of 
excellent  soap  are  made  from  the  refuse  of  the  olive  oil. 

Situation. — The  best  results  are  obtained  on  the  sides  of  lower  hills, 
when  the  land  is  of  a  suitable  nature ;  but  very  good  crops  are  obtained 
from  trees  growing  on  the  higher  table-lands. 

Soil. — Although  the  olive  tree  will  grow  on  almost  any  kind  of  ground 
where  it  can  obtain  nourishment,  it  thrives  best  in  a  rich  argillaceous 
soil,  which  is  neither  too  damp  nor  too  dry.  It  grows  in  the  greatest 
perfection  in  the  fine  rich  clays  which,  in  many  parts  of  the  Levant, 
cover  the  hill-sides. 

Although  it  is  not  the  most  suitable  situation  for  them,  olive  orchards 
are  sometimes  planted  near  to  the  sea-coast,  and  in  such  placets  may  be 
frequently  seen  extending  to  within  a  few  yards  of  the  sea-shore.  In 
these  situations  they  often  suffer  from  exposure  to  cold  winds,  a$id  are 
not  so  healthy. 

Irrigation. — When  the  plants  and  trees  are  young  they  are  sometimes 
watered  in  a  rude  fashion,  but  there  is  no  system  of  artificial  irrigation 
in  olive  culture. 

Yield. — Around  Smyrna,  in  Oandia,  Ohio,  and  other  islands  of  the 
Archipelago,  more  time  and  labor  are  bestowed  on  the  cultivation  of  the 
olive  than  it  receives  elsewhere  in  Turkey.  However,  as  even  there,  in 
certain  districts,  the  natives  attach  unequal  or  secondary  importance 
to  this  culture,  very  considerable  differences  are  to  be  found  in  the  cost 
of  cultivation  as  well  as  the  yield  of  this  crop.  Owing  to  these  and 


OLIVES    IN    CKETK.  725 

other  reasons,  especially  the  absence  of  clear  and  regular  accounts 
among  the  native  farmers,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  correct  statement 
of  the  yield,  proceeds,  and  cost  of  cultivation  per  annum  of  an  acre 
planted  iii  olives. 

L'u  iti-f all. — The  annual  rain-fall  in  this  district  during  the  last  four 
years  was: 

Inches. 

hi  is*) 28.33 

In  1>HI 25.76 

In  1882 20.42 

In  1883... 1. - 29.55 

In  the  three  years  first  mentioned  the  annual  rain-fall  was  compara- 
tively light,  and  it  was  only  in  1883  that  it  reached  the  average  of  the 
ten  years  from  1870  to  1879,  inclusive. 

C.  H.  HEAP, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE  GENERAL, 

Constantinople,  April  10, 1884. 


CRETE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  HEAP,  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41^.] 

The  island  of  Crete  (Candia)  is  the  most  important  olive  oil-produc- 
ing district  in  Turkey.  The  olive  harvest  for  the  season  1883-'84,  just 
ended,  is  considered  unusually  small  and  of  poor  quality.  It  only  aug- 
mented by  742,500  gallons  the  stock  of  oil  remaining  from  1882-'83  in 
the  hands  of  merchants  and  with  the  cultivators.  This  result  was  fore- 
seen in  consequence  of  the  exceptionally  fine  crop  of  1882-783,  which 
exceeded  the  expectation  of  the  most  hopeful  growers.  Never,  in  fact, 
had  Crete  been  known  to  produce  so  abundant  a  crop  of  olives  or  one 
of  such  good  quality. 

The  following  returns  show  the  difference  between  the  last  and  the 
preceding  crop: 


District. 

1882-'83. 

1883-84. 

Khandia                 

GaUong. 
4,  125,  000 

Gallons. 

220,  000 

('•unit'* 

6  875  000 

412  500 

2,750  000 

110,000 

13,  750,  000 

742,500 

726  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Of  the  crop  of  1882-'83  there  were  exported  to— 

Gallons. 

England - 3,300.000 

Russia 1,100,000 

Austria 750,000 

Germany 275,000 

Turkey 577,000 

Egypt 412,500 

tf.vria 137,500 

Anatolia 357,500 

Barbary 192,500 

Other  places 75,000 


7, 177, 500 

Owing  to  the  excellent  quality  and  the  low  price  of  the  oil  produced 
in  France  that  season,  there  was  almost  none  exported  to  that  country. 
The  local  consumption  of  Crete  amounted  to  3,272,500  gallons,  and  the 
soap  works  on  the  island  absorbed  about  2,200,000  gallons.  Considera- 
ble stock  remains  on  the  island.  The  sellers  who  know  that  a  good  crop 
is  always  followed  by  a  bad  one  prefer  to  hold  their  oils  in  the  expecta- 
tion of  a  rise  in  prices,  which  can  not  fail  to  come.  At  the  commence- 
ment of  the  olive  harvest,  oil  was  selling  at  $1.39  to  $1.41  the  2^  gallons, 
while  on  the  1st  of  March  last  it  was  quoted  at  $1.67.  In  London  the 
oil  is  selling  at  this  date  at  $174.66  per  ton  weight,  gross. 

G.  H.  HEAP, 

Consul-  General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Constantinople,  April  10,  1884. 


DARDANELLES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  CALVERT. 

Varieties. — The  best  varieties  are  the  Eopadhes.  There  are  a  lew 
other  varieties,  but  they  are  little  cultivated. 

Trees. — The  trees  are  grown  all  over  the  district,  but  principally  in 
the  Gulf  of  Adramytium,  and  from  sea  edge  to  some  miles  inland,  at 
an  elevation  from  sea-level,  say,  to  1,000  feet.  t 

Situation  and  soil. — Wild  olive  trees  generally  affect  sunny  exposure. 
All  situations  but  rocky  sheltered  valleys  give  the  best  fruit  and  most 
oil ;  clay  and  light  soils,  with  rock  or  deep  subsoil. 

Temperature. — Earely  above  90°  or  below  5°  Fahrenheit. 

Rain-fall. — Thirty  inches  per  annum.  The  olive  crop  is  uncertain  and 
does  not  appear  to  be  much  influenced  by  greater  or  less  fall  of  rain. 

Fertilizers. — Not  used  except  when  new  plantations  are  made.  Water, 
if  required,  is  applied  by  hand. 

Cultivation. — When  practicable  the  ground  is  plowed  between  the 
trees  and  grain  crops  raised  ;  more  frequently  in  rocky  situations.  The 


OLIVES    IN    CRETE.  727 

trees  are  surrounded  by  loose  stone  walls  which  are  filled  in  with  soil. 
Goat  or  sheep  manure  is  sometimes  applied. 

Pruning. — Is  limited  to  clearing  out  branches  when  too  close — in  the 
spring. 

Picking  and  curing. — Picking  commences  from  September  up  to  No- 
vember for  green  olives  for  pickling ;  from  November  to  February  for 
black  olives  and  for  oil ;  pickled  with  salt  for  olives  and  for  oil.  The 
olives  are  crushed  in  a  revolving  stone  mill,  the  pulp  is  put  in  goafs- 
hair  bags  and  saturated  with  boiling  water ;  pressure,  hand  or  power, 
is  applied.  The  liquid  runs  off,  the  oil  floats,  and  is  collected  fit  for  the 
market.  The  oil-cake  is  reset  two  or  three  times  and  repressed,  but  the 
oil  is  of  an  inferior  quality.  A  still  further  quantity  of  oil  can  be 
extracted  by  chemical  appliances,  but  it  is  fit  only  for  making  soap. 

Maturity. — Four  to  five  years.  The  life  of  the  olive  tree  is  very  uncer- 
tain. There  are  trees  with  a  girth  from  12  to  15  feet  and  more,  said  to  be 
over  a  thousand  years  old. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Trees  are  planted  from  20  feet  in  poor  to 
40  apart  in  rich  soil,  and  propagated  most  frequently  by  planting  wild 
trees,  by  separation  of  cultivated  trees,  or  by  off- shoots.  In  planting, 
from  February  to  May,  the  steins  of  the  trees,  wild  or  cultivated,  are  cut 
down  to  4  to  5  feet.  They  are  taken  with  the  massive  root,  the  wild  trees 
being  grafted  before  or  after  removal ;  a  hole  is  dug  and  water  poured 
in,  a  portion  of  fine  soil  is  added,  and  the  whole  worked  to  a  semi-fluid 
state.  The  tree  is  then  plunged  in  and  set,  the  rest  of  the  loose  soil  is 
drawn  around  the  tree,  but  not  trodden  down  till  the  following  day. 

Insect  pests. — A  worm  attacks  the  fruit  when  ripening,  in  Thessaly, 
where  the  variety  of  olive  is  much  larger  in  size.  It  does  not  exist 
here.  The  olive  decays  when  the  maggot  grows  and  falls  off  the  tree. 

FRANK  CALVERT, 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Dardanelles,  February  11,  1890. 
156A 22 


III. 


FIGS. 


729 


CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 
MOROCCO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MATHEWS,  OF  TANGIER. 
[Republiahed  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  4H.] 

Varieties. — There  are  various  kinds  of  figs — white,  red,  and  black — 
which  are  dried  for  commercial  purposes.  Of  the  white  variety  there  is 
the  White  Burgasot,  of  excellent  flavor  both  fresh  as  well  as  dry.  It 
does  not  produce  the  early  large  fig,  but  only  second  season  figs. 

The  Marsellaise  or  Athens  fig. — Fruit  very  sweet  and  small,  round  in 
shape  j  it  ripens  in  August,  and  is  the  variety  most  preferred  for  dry- 
ing. 

TJie  Blanquette  fig. — A  middling  variety,  which  resists  cold  weather 
better  than  any  other  varieties,  and  can  prosper  north  of  the  regions  of 
the  olive ;  is  also  of  second  season,  and  is  preferred  while  ripe  before 
drying. 

Of  the  red  varieties  the  best  for  drying  are  the  following :  The  Date 
fig,  the  most  preferred  for  drying  purposes ;  it  ripens  in  August.  The 
Jerusalem  fig  matures  in  September,  very  fine  and  large.  The  Rose 
Blanche,  very  large,  and  is  only  used  for  drying.  Sultana  or  Tunisian, 
a  large,  choice  variety  similar  to  the  Smyrna. 

There  are  numerous  varieties  of  black  figs,  bearing  a  different  name 
in  the  various  countries  where  they  are  grown. 

Morocco  produces  a  large  variety  of  most  delicious  figs.  They  are 
called  by  the  Arabs  "  Kermuse"  in  general,  although  each  variety  has 
its  name.  There  are  figs  of  various  colors,  some  of  which  are  white,  yel- 
low, black,  purple,  and  others  green.  The  Jews  extract"  aguadiente," 
an  ardent  spirit,  from  figs.  In  Spain  they  prepare  a  savory  wine  from 
which  they  extract  spirits  which  they  flavor  and  term  "  anisette." 

Suffren  has  given  a  description  and  figure  of  three  hundred  and  sixty 
varieties  of  figs  cultivated  in  Spain,  France,  and  Italy.  Most  of  the  fig 
trees  yield  two  crops  during  the  year :  the  first,  producing  the  large  fig, 
matures  in  June,  and  the  second  in  August,  September,  and  October. 
The  fig  tree  grows  on  any  soil,  provided  it  is  free  of  stagnant  water  re- 
tained on  the  surface  over  the  roots.  It  prefers  a  light  loam  of  a  cal- 
careus  nature ;  should  this  retain  its  moisture  the  trees  we  uld  grow 
taller ;  in  dry  soils  the  fruit  is  smaller. 

731 


732        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  fig  is  propagated  from  seed,  shoots, 
suckers,  slips,  stakes,  layers,  and  by  grafting.  From  seed  is  only  prac- 
ticed by  some  to  discover  new  varieties.  In  raising  from  slips  or  stakes, 
these  should  be  chosen  from  vigorous  branches  of  the  shoots  of  the  pre- 
vious year,  and  about  26  inches  in  length.  The  proper  time  is  either  in 
February  or  November.  A  hole  is  opened  about  2J  feet  deep ;  good 
manure  and  a  little  lime  should  be  well  mixed  with  the  soil  which  is 
dug  out  of  the  hole.  The  slip  or  branch  is  then  laid  horizontally,  leav- 
ing out  the  last  eye  perpendicularly,  which  on  shooting  out  will  form 
the  tree.  Budding  or  grafting  is  seldom  practiced  in  fig  trees.  The 
distance  between  trees  should  be  16  feet.  During  the  heat  of  summer 
of  the  first  two  years  the  young  plants  should  be  watered. 

Fertilizing. — Manuring  the  trees  will  greatly  increase  their  crops. 
They  require  no  pruning,  only  removing  dry  branches  and  new  shoots 
from  the  trunk.  When  the  tree  obtains  age  it  requires  no  cultivation. 
It  is  well  to  cover  with  straw  the  branches  of  the  trees  while  from  one 
to  three  years  old,  in  the  winter  in  cold  climates,  to  protect  the  eyes  from 
frost,  after  which  the  trees  become  hardier  as  advancing  in  age.  There 
are  male  and  female  trees ;  the  male  is  the  wild  or  goat  fig. 

Male  and  female  fig. — There  should  be  amongst  the  fig  orchards 
some  of  the  masculine  species,  as  those  trees  producing  the  small  vari- 
ety of  fig  and  which  yield  so  abundantly  require  the  proximity  of  the 
male  sort  to  come  to  full  maturity  and  size,  otherwise  the  fruit  drops 
before  coming  to  maturity.  In  the  absence  of  male  trees  in  an  orchard 
where  these  varieties  are  growing  the  male  figs,  which  are  very  small 
and  unfit  to  eat,  are  brought  and  hung  to  the  branches  of  the  feminines. 
The  wild  fig  produces  a  multitude  of  small  insects  of  the  genus  Cynips, 
which  settling  on  the  fruits  of  the  cultivated  trees  convey  the  pollen 
with  which  they  are  infected.  This  is  a  practice  from  time  immemorial. 

Maturity. — The  fig  trees  commence  to  yield  fruit  when  they  are  three 
years  old,  and  come  into  full  bearing  when  they  are  twenty  years  of 
age.  From  one  hectare  of  land  the  yield  generally  is  about  4,000  kilo- 
grams of  dry  figs,  at  value  of  $5  per  100  kilograms ;  total,  $200. 

Yield. — As  an  example  of  the  great  yield  of  the  fig-tree,  I  may  cite 
some  trees  at  San  Pedro  del  Pinatar,  Spain,  which  produced  ^ach  as 
much  as  $12  of  early  figs,  besides  150  pounds  of  dried  sold  for  $3,  and 
7  quintals  of  second-size  figs  sold  for  $9.50,  which  make  the  yield  of 
each  of  these  trees  in  full  bearing  annually  to  the  amount  of  $20.50. 

Curing  the  fig. — The  fruit  must  be  gathered  when  quite  ripe,  when 
they  commence  to  dry  on  the  tree,  on  a  clear  sunny  day,  after  the  dew 
has  d  issipated.  They  are  exposed  to  the  sun  in  lattice  work  made  of  canes 
or  slips  of  boards,  or  in  rough  straw  mats  placed  from  the  ground, 
allowing,  if  possible,  the  air  to  circulate  under.  The  figs  after  a  few 
days  are  pressed  one  by  one  into  shape,  to  facilitate  their  curing.  After 
sunset  the  fruit  is  removed  to  a  dry  and  well- ventilated  place  for  the 


PIGS   IN   MOROCCO.  733 

night.  This  operation  is  followed  until  the  figs  are  perfectly  cured. 
When  they  are  selected,  the  various  sizes  are  spread  on.  sheets  for  a 
few  days  in  a  ventilated  place,  the  windows  of  which  must  be  closed 
when  the  atmosphere  is  damp ;  and  lastly  the  figs  are  pressed  down- 
wards on  a  table  to  give  them  a  round  shape ;  then  they  are  packed  in 
boxes  lined  with  paper.  The  boxes  must  be  kept  in  a  dry  and  ventilated 
room.  The  common  figs  are  packed  and  pressed  in  mats. 

FELIX  A.  MATHEWS, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Tangier,  April  2,  1884. 


CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 
MEXICO. 

LA  PAZ. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  VIOSOA. 

The  Spanish  or  Moorish  black  fig  is  the  best  for  preservation  and  for 
palate  taste,  and  are  very  juicy  once  dry.  The  best  varieties  for  eating 
when  ripe  are  the  Bordeaux  and  Smyrna  white  fig,  but  the  early  black 
Moorish  (breva)  is  superior.  Dry  figs  are  an  important  export  industry 
in  this  country,  and  their  growth  is  found  in  every  watering  place  or 
valley  in  this  country.  Trees  are  generally  planted  in  limish  and  sandy 
soil,  and  whenever  the  soil  is  too  rich  ashes  of  any  kind  mixed  in  the 
soil  is  its  best  fertilizer.  Never  use  manure  or  guano ;  it  is  the  worst 
enemy  of  the  fig-tree :  the  fruit  becomes  tasteless  and  besides  attracts 
the  insect  pest  called  concMta.  (turtle  shell). 

As  to  watering  fig-trees :  While  young  or  the  first  and  second  year 
after  planting  are  watered  every  third  day ;  during  the  rainy  season 
don't  require  any  irrigation. 

In  pruning  time,  which  is  in  October,  the  tree  is  simply  cleaned  out 
of  dry  branches  or  young  ground-root  shoots. 

Picking  and  drying  takes  place  in  May  and  June,  before  the  first  rain 
falls.  Early  figs  in  April  and  part  of  May. 

In  this  country  the  fruit  is  simply  spread  on  the  top  of  the  house's 
roof  or  on  mats,  with  full  sun  exposure  all  day,  and  at  midnight  it  is 
taken  in  the  houses. 

JAMES  VIOSCA, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

La  Paz,  December  26,  1889. 

I 

ECUADOR. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BEAOH,  OF  GUAYAQUIL. 
[Republisbed  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41^.] 

The  only  kind  of  fig  grown  in  Ecuador  is  the  purple. 

Though  the  fruit  does  well  it  is  grown  only  in  a  small  way.  The 
trees  should  be  subjected  to  treatment  similar  to  that  of  the  orange 
and  lemon,  in  which  respect  the  requirement  is  lived  up  to  in  Ecuador, 

734 


FIGS    IN   VENEZUELA    AND    BERMUDA.  735 

all  being  neglected.     A  tree  in  full  bearing  will  yield  about  100  pounds 
of  fruit. 

None  of  tbe  fruit  is  dried  in  Ecuador.     All  that  is  grown  is  consumed 
fresh  or  made  into  sweetmeats. 

HORATIO  N.  BEACH, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Guayaquil,  February  26,  1884. 


VENEZUELA. 

LAGUAYRA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BIRD,  OF  LAGUAYRA. 

The  fig  is  rarely  met  with  here,  although  the  soil  and  climate  seem 
well  adapted  to  its  culture.  One  may  occasionally  see  a  fig  tree, 
planted,  it  would  seem,  more  for  ornament  or  shade  than  for  its  fruit, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  tree  yields  two  or  three  crops  per 
year. 

WINFIELD  S.  BIRD, 

,  Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Layuayra,)  November  29,  1889. 


WEST  INDIES. 

BERMUDA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BECKWITH,  OF  HAMILTON. 

Figs  are  grown  on  the  island,  but  the  same  insect  which  has  destroyed 
all  the  peaches  has  attacked  the  figs,  also  the  guavas,  so  in  a  short 
time  these  fruits,  like  the  peach,  will  be  a  dead  letter,  for  scarcely  any- 
thing is  done  to  destroy  the  insect,  and  as  we  have  no  winter  they  in- 
crease the  whole  year,  the  fruit  falling  on  the  ground  and  being  allowed 
to  rot  there.  At  one  time  olive  plants  were  imported  here  by  the  coun- 
try, but  no  care  was  given  thein.  They  have  since  dwindled  away, 
only  a  few  trees  here  and  there  remaining,  but  the  fruit  is  put  to  no 
use.  A  little  more  energy  and  enterprise  are  needed  in  the  island  to 
advance  various  branches  of  agriculture  and  fruit-culture  which  at 
present  bring  no  profit. 

HENRY  W.  BECKWITH, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Hamilton,  November  29,  1889. 


736  FRUIT    CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

TRINIDAD. 

J.  H.  Hart,  Government  botanist,  to  Consul  Sawyer. 

Only  here  and  there  a  plant  exists  which  ripens  fruit  fairly,  but  the 
produce  is  carried  off  when  nearly  mature  by  the  frugiverous  bats. 

CUBA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  WILLIAMS,  OF  HAVANA. 

Figs  grow  here,  but  their  cultivation  is  limited  to  private  gardens, 
The  trees  do  not  obtain  the  size  observed  in  the  gardens  of  Norfolk, 
Ya.,  Charleston,  S.  0.,  Savannah,  Ga.,  or  New  Orleans,  La.  Neither 
does  the  fruit  seem  to  be  equal  in  flavor  to  that  grown  in  those  places. 
It  is  rarely  ever  seen  for  sale  in  the  market  houses,  fresh  from  the 
trees.  Dried  figs  in  considerable  quantities  are  imported  from  Malaga, 
Spain,  where  great  attention  is  given  to  their  cultivation. 

EAMON  O.  WILLIAMS, 

Consul- General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Havana,  November  24,  1889. 


GUADELUPE. 

The  few  fig-trees  found  in  the  island  are  always  sickly  and  covered 
with  aphis  or  lice  and  ants. 

ST.  .FELIX  ELARDEAN, 
Director  of  Botanical  Garden  at  Basse-terre,  to  Consul  Bartlett. 


CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 

ASIA  MINOR. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  EMMETT,  OF  SMYRNA. 
INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS. 

There  are  several  climatic  influences  which  can  not  be  foreseen  or 
guarded  against  and  yet  have  great  effect  upon  the  success  of  the  crop, 
as,  for  instance,  a  greater  rain-fall  than  the  average  tends  to  darken 
the  fruit  when  ripe.  A  high  wind  blowing  for  several  days  from  the 
north  while  the  fruit  is  maturing  has  the  tendency  to  make  the  stems 
wither  and  fruit  fall  prematurely,  etc. 

There  are  as  many  uncertainties  and  surmises  about  the  fig  crop  of 
Smyrna  before  gathering  as  there  are  in  reference  to  the  peach  crop  in 
the  United  States. 

As  regards  the  cuttings  which  the  honorable  Secretary  suggests 
m^  obtaining,  I  beg  to  say  that  I  am  informed  that  it  is  too  late  this 
season  to  take  the  same  with  any  chance  of  their  growing  when  they 
arrive  in  the  United  States. 

Some  provision  for  defraying  the  expenses  and  further  directions  as 
to  quantity  and  to  whom  to  be  sent  would  be  requisite  before  making 
a  shipment  of  cuttings. 

In  1886  a  party  from  California,  apparently  well  posted,  came  here 
in  the  summer,  went  to  the  fig  district,  and  inspected  the  different  varie- 
ties ;  he  made  his  selection  and  marked  the  trees  from  which  he  desired 
cuttings.  When  the  crop  was  gathered  he  obtained  30,000  female  and 
3,000  cuttings  from  male  trees,  packed  and  shipped  the  same  about  the 
end  of  October.  I  have  been  informed  that  great  success  rewarded  his 
enterprise. 

A  box  of  figs  grown  and  packed  in  California  reached  here  this  autumn 
and  was  inspected  and  universally  praised  by  many  dealers.  In  some 
instances  it  was  impossible  to  persuade  the  parties  that  said  figs  were 
grown  outside  of  the  Aidin  district ;  in  fact  some  went  so  far  as  to  desig- 
nate the  orchard.  Those  who  grasped  the  full  importance  of  this  Ameri- 
can enterprise  predicted  that  Turkey's  supremacy  in  the  fig  trade  was 
waning.  Some  console  themselves  with  the  opinion  that  the  American 
fig  will  not  continue  to  be  good ;  as  the  trees  (grown  from  Smyrna  cut- 
tings) grow  older  the  fruit  will  have  thick  skins  and  become  tough  ;  in 
fact  become  native  American  figs. 

737 


738        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

This  deterioration  of  the  fruit  is  very  common  here  and  has  been 
well  known  for  a  long  time.  The  transplanting  of  trees  from  their  own 
orchard,  even  for  a  short  distance,  makes  them  give  fruit  of  entirely  a 
different  flavor  and  nature. 

It  has  been  suggested  to  me  that  if  some  grower  will  grow  seedlings 
from  the  fruit  of  young  trees  grown  from  Smyrna  cuttings,  the  chances 
of  American  fig-growers  will  be  greatly  enhanced,  and,  perhaps,  in 
time  eclipse  one  of  the  staple  articles  of  this  country. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  for  drying  and  packing  is  known  under 
the  name  of  Lop.  There  are  two  kinds  of  figs  for  table  use  when  ripe, 
but  which  will  not  bear  drying  and  packing,  viz,  Zardajik  and  Cheker 
Inzir. 

Situation. — The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  above  named  are 
grown  in  the  Aidin  district. 

Distance  from  sea,  30  to  100  miles;  elevation  above  sea-level,  250  to 
500  feet.  Much  exposure  to  sun  is  required. 

The  trees  thrive  in  all  descriptions  of  land,  provided  they  should  be 
protected  against  the  north  wind. 

Soil. — Rich  black  vegetable  mold  is  best. 

Climatic  influences. — A  temperate  climate  is  the  main  thing;  the  ther- 
mometer should  never  fall  below  the  freezing  point  during  winter ;  frost 
during  spring  kills  the  trees. 

Temperature. — Minimum,  40°  ;  maximum,  110° ;  average,  80°  Fahren- 
heit. 

Rain-fall. — Yearly  average,  24  inches.  Kain  during  winter  strength- 
ens the  trees  ;  during  summer  it  injures  the  crop. 

Irrigation. — Good  fig  orchards  are  never  irrigated;  newly-planted 
young  trees  need  watering  during  the  first  two  years  of  their  growth. 

Cultivation. — Fig  orchards  are  ploughed  four  or  five  times  a  year,  be- 
ginning from  November. 

Fertilizers. — Manure  is  made  use  of  when  the  soil  is  poor. 

Pruning. — When  the  trees  grow  old  they  need  pruning  during  winter. 

Picking  and  curing. — When  perfectly  ripe  the  fruit  falls  by  itself.    If 
not  quite  dry  it  is  spread  in  the  sun.      There  is  no  fixed  time  for  pick 
ing,  as  the  fruit  when  ripe  falls. 

The  fruit  is  gathered  from  the  ground  and  put  in  black  hair%)ags ;  it 
is  then  loaded  on  camels  and  carried  to  tha nearest  railroad  station,  put 
in  the  freight-cars,  and  conveyed  to  Smyrna ;  loaded  again  on  camels, 
it  finds  its  way  to  the  fig  market,  whence  it  is  sent  to  the  packing 
houses  to  undergo  the  final  process  of  sorting,  shaping  (flattening  out 
or  squaring),  and  putting  in  boxes  or  bags,  and  is  then  fit  for  shipment 
abroad. 

No  chemical  solution  is  employed ;  the  packers  wet  their  hands  with 
plain  sea- water, which  hastens  considerably  the  sugaring  of  the  figs. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Distance  planted  apart,  25  feet.  The  trees 
propagated  by  cuttings.  There  are  small  and  large  orchards. 


FIGS    IN    PALESTINE.  739 

Maturity. — The  trees  remain  fruitful  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  years 
and  even  longer. 

Insect  pests. — A  kind  of  bug,  known  under  the  name  "  Basra,"  is  very 
injurious  to  the  fruit,  which  it  covers  with  dark  yellow  and  black  spots. 
No  one  knows  how  to  free  the  trees  and  fruit  of  this  pest. 

The  only  beneficial  insect  is  the  one  which  comes  out  of  the  male  fruit 
and  impregnates  the  female  figs,  and  the  ants  which  feed  on  the  bug 
called  "Basra." 

Securing  cuttings. — Unovassi  cuttings  are  the  best  and  should  be  gath- 
ered by  some  one  having  a  good  knowledge  of  the  trees. 

W.  O.  EMMETT, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

January  15,  1890. 


PALESTINE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GILLMAN.  OF  JERUSALEM. 

Varieties. — There  is  no  exportation  of  the  figs  grown  in  Palestine, 
and  scarcely  any  care  is  given  to  the  cultivation  of  the  trees.  There 
are  said  to  be  as  many  as  twelve  varieties  of  the  fig  in  this  country,  and, 
with  few  exceptions,  they  are  all  good  for  eating.  .The  best  known  and 
more  easily  distinguished  varieties  are  as  follows  :  (1)  The  large  green 
fig,  early  in  fruiting,  known  as  dafouri.  (2)  Small  green,  later  fig, 
called  ghoudri  (greenish).  (3)  Large  purple  fig  named  gharroubi  (carob, 
from  its  resemblance  to  the  color  of  the  pod  of  the  carob).  (4)  Small 
purple  fig,  named  also  gharroubi.  (5)  Yellow  fig,  white  inside,  known 
as  biadi  (white).  (6)  Yellow  fig,  crimson  inside,  called  karawi  (crimson), 
resembling  the  Smyrna  fig  of  commerce.  (7)  Black  fig,  named  swadi 
(black). 

While,  as  already  mentioned,  all  these  are  good  for  eating  in  the 
fresh  state,  Nos.  1,  2, 3, 5,  and  6  are  the  best  for  this  purpose.  Equally, 
though,  all  the  varieties  are  used  for  drying.  Nos.  5,  6,  and  7  are  the 
most  suitable  for  the  purpose. 

Situation. — The  trees  flourish  all  over  Palestine,  from  the  sea-coast, 
up  into  the  hill  country,  at  an  elevation  of  3,000  feet  or  more.  They 
generally  have  a  full  exposure  to  the  sun,  but  seem  to  do  well  in  all 
situations.  They  frequently  attain  an  enormous  size,  even  on  the  most 
rocky  hill-sides ;  and  whether  the  land  is  hilly,  rolling,  or  level,  appears 
to  make  no  great  difference  to  them.  The  soil  is  generally  clay,  or  sand 
and  clay  mixed,  with  clay  subsoil. 

Climate. — At  Jaffa  and  on  the  plains  the  minimum  temperature  is  32° 
Fahr.,  the  maximum  reaching  107°  Fahr. ;  the  average  temperature  in 
the  day-time  being  about  70J°,  and  at  night,  55J°  Fahr.  In  the  mount- 


740  FRUIT   CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

ains  It  is  considerably  colder ;  though,  in  general,  there  are  only  a  few 
days  in  January  in  which  it  freezes.  The  rain-fall  at  Jaffa  has  already 
been  given.  At  Jerusalem  the  average  annual  fall  amounts  to  25 
inches.  The  growth  of  the  trees  and  fruit  is  favorably  affected  by 
abundant  rains. 

Irrigation. — The  trees  do  not  require  irrigation,  and,  except  when 
growing  in  orange  groves,  are  never  watered.  With  systematic  irri- 
gation and  cultivation,  such  as  received  in  the  orange  groves  at  Jaffa, 
the  fruit  is  improved. 

Cultivation. — As  already  mentioned,  but  little  cultivation  is  bestowed 
on  the  trees.  At  most  they  receive  a  spring  and  autumn  plowing. 

Fertilizers. — Fertilizers  are  seldom  used  except  when  in  connection 
with  the  orange  or  lemon  trees ;  and  the  kind  preferred  is  generally 
horse  manure,  or  the  dung  of  the  mule  or  camel. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  not  practiced  with  any  system,  or  to  any  ap- 
preciable extent.  It  is  considered  best  to  spare  the  lower  branches,  and 
when  cuttings  for  propagation  are  made  they  are  taken  from  above. 

Picking  and  curing. — The  fruit  is  picked  when  fully  ripe.  For  eating, 
the  morning  is  deemed  the  best  time  of  day  for  picking  ;  but  there  is 
little  choice  observed  in  the  matter.  In  general,  the  fig  of  this  country 
is  of  inferior  size,  doubtless  in  consequence  of  being  given  such  little 
attention,  and  being  only  used  for  home  consumption.  The  fruit  is  dried 
by  being  spread  in  the  sun,  usually  on  the  roofs  of  houses,  or  sometimes 
on  the  ground.  When  partially  dry  the  fig  is  pressed  flat  in  the  hands. 
Subsequently  the  nearly  dried  fruit  is  strung  on  strings  ;  and  it  is  often 
sold  in  this  shape  or  when  placed  in  sacks. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  distance  at  which  the  trees  are  planted 
apart  varies  from  6  to  10,  or  even  20  feet. 

Though  the  fig  can  be  grown  from  seed,  the  usual  method  of  propa- 
gation is  by  cuttings,  or  rather  branches  slipped  off  the  parent  tree. 

The  size  of  the  orchards  is  in  general  riot  large,  though  sometimes 
consisting  of  several  acres.  There  are  only  a  few  hundred  fig-trees 
dispersed  over  the  vineyards  and  gardens  at  Jaffa ;  but  at  Bethlehem, 
Hebron,  and  around  Jerusalem  orchards  of  fair  size  devoted  to  the  fig 
may  be  found. 

Maturity. — The  tree  here  attains  to  the  age  of  one  hundred  years,  and 
with  proper  care  and  culture  continues  fruitful  to  the  last.  If  neglected 
too  much,  it  ceases  to  be  productive ;  though  on  attention  being  re- 
newed, it  again  responds  with  crops.  The  trees  begin  to  bear  at  the 
third  year,  and  are  in  full  bearing  when  five  years  of  age. 

Insect  pests. — But  little  has  been  observed  as  to  insect  pests,  bene- 
ficial insects,  or  the  parasites  of  the  injurious  ones.  The  fig  seems  to  be 
unusually  free  from  such.  A  fig  is  occasionally  found  containing  a 
worm,  which  appears  to  be  the  larva  of  one  of  the  smaller  moths ;  but 
the  species  has  not  been  determined. 

Cuttings. — The  rooted  cutting,  or  the  young  tree  would  be,  in  all 


FIGS    IN    SYRIA.  741 

probability,  the  best  method  of  procuring  desirable  varieties.  I  under- 
stand that  many  thousands  of  young  trees  have  been  successfully  trans- 
ported from  Smyrna  to  California,  giving  full  satisfaction. 

HENRY  GLLLMAN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Jerusalem,  February  11 ,  1890. 


SYRIA. 

BEIRUT  AND  VICINITY.* 
FIRST  REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BISSINQER. 

Varieties.— The  best  fig  for  drying  is  the  green  variety.  The  best  va- 
riety for  eating  when  ripe  is  the  red  variety  with  elongated  stem,  called 
44  Buckaraty."  Also  a  rounder  red  variety  called  "  Seedany."  Other 
varieties  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit  are  the  black  variety  and  one 
which  ripens  in  the  fall. 

Situation. — The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  above  named  are 
grown  in  plains  and  on  the  hills,  and  from  the  shore  to  a  distance  of  25 
miles  inland  to  an  elevation  of  2,500  feet.  Constant  exposure  to  the 
sun  is  needed.  Hilly  and  rolling  land  with  white  clayey  soil  are  the 
best. 

Irrigation. — No  irrigation  needed. 

Cultivation. — Plow  the  land  in  the  spring. 

Fertilizing. — None  put  about  trees,  as  it  is  injurious. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  not  practiced. 

Picking  and  curing. — The  figs  are  picked  when  fully  ripe  in  the  early 
morning.  Little  curing  is  done  in  this  country ;  simply  dried  in  the 
sun.  Either  whole  or  split ;  no  solution  used. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Distance  planted  apart,  about  20  to  25 
feet ;  propagated  by  slips.  The  orchards  are  small. 

Trees  attain  an  age  of  from  fifty  to  sixty  years,  and  are  fruitful  from 
four  years  till  they  decay. 

Insects  and  worms  are  treated  simply  by  covering  the  trunk  of  the 
tree  with  a  coating  of  bitumen. 

Slips  can  be  put  into  earth  and  conveyed  from  place  to  place. 

BEIRUT. 

Rain. — Moderate  rain-fall ;  about  30  to  40  inches  on  an  average  yearly, 
The  abundance  of  rain  is  beneficial  to  old  trees  as  well  as  to  the  fruit. 
October  and  November  rains  benefit  the  trees,  and  March  and  April 
rains  benefit  the  fruit. 

*  The  several  reports  for  Syria  were  forwarded  by  Consul  Bissinger,  being  prepared 
from  statistics  supplied  to  him  by  parties  in  the  several  districts  reported. 


742  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  only  necessary  the  first  and  second  years 
after  planting.  In  light  soil  watering  is  necessary  twenty  days  after 
the  rains  are  over  and  in  heavy  soil  one  month  thereafter. 

Cultivation. — Flowing  is  necessary  once  or  twice  after  the  first  rains 
in  November  and  is  then  to  be  discontinued  until  the  1st  of  February, 
after  which  it  is  to  be  repeated  four  times  or  every  fortnight,  after  the 
rains.  As  soon  as  the  fruits  appear  no  more  plowing  is  necessary. 

Fertilizers. — The  fertilizing  substances  are :  A  donkey  load  of  sand 
around  each  tree  once  a  year,  about  the  early  part  of  December,  if  the 
soil  is  red,  and  a  small  quantity  of  cow's,  or  other  manure  if  the  soil  is 
white,  i.  e.  clayey.  This  treatment  increases  the  growth  of  the  trees 
and  the  quantity  of  the  fruit. 

,  Pruning. — Pruning  is  effected  at  the  end  of  January  by  removing  the 
weak  and  dead  branches.  To  prune  the  low  branches  of  fig-trees  in- 
creases their  growth  and  production. 

Picking. — Gathering  or  picking  takes  place  when  the  fruit  is  fully 
ripe ;  when  for  sale,  it  is  effected  either  in  the  evening  or  before  sun- 
rise, and  if  for  drying,  it  must  be  after  sunrise,  so  as  to  be  dry  from 
dew,  which  would  spoil  the  color  of  dried  figs. 

Curing. — After  the  figs  are  gathered  they  are  split  open  in  the  morn- 
ing and  placed  in  an  exposed  position  to  the  sun  for  three  days,  until 
they  contract  and  assume  a  red  or  yellowish  tint.  They  are  then  gath- 
ered from  the  drying-floor,  and  after  being  fully  flattened  out  are  spread 
in  equal  layers  in  a  basket  until  completely  filled  up.  A  heavy  weight 
is  then  placed  on  the  top  of  the  basket.  As  to  figs  dried  in  a  heap,  they 
should  be  gathered  when  perfectly  dry  (in  other  words  when  withered 
on  the  tree),  and  spread  as  they  are  on  the  drying-floor  for  four  or  five 
days,  at  the  expiration  of  which  they  are  picked  up  and  pressed  flat 
between  the  fingers.  This  species  of  dry  figs  may  also  be  placed  in  hot 
water  for  10  minutes,  then  left  to  dry  well  in  the  air  before  packing  up 
in  boxes.  This  bathing  process  imparts  a  good  color  to  the  figs  and 
preserves  them  from  worms.  Dry  figs  are  never  placed  in  any  solution. 

Planting. — The  distance  between  each  tree  should  be  at  least  9  feet. 
The  larger  the  distance  the  better  the  trees  grow. 

Fig-trees  are  propagated  either  by  suckers  or  shoots  (which  grow  at 
the  foot  of  the  mother  tree)  or  by  slips  from  the  trees.  % 

(1)  The  way  of  transplanting  by  suckers  is  to  dig  a  hole  in  the  ground 
about  15  to  20  inches  in  diameter  and  depth  in  which  to  place  the  same, 
after  which  the  soil  is  to  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  on  a  level  with  the  sur- 
rounding ground,  or  even  a  little  lower,  to  retain  the  water.    Watering 
is  necessary  just  after  planting.    Some  people  resort  to  the  practice  of 
putting  in  the  hole  of  the  newly  planted  sucker  a  handful  of  barley,  to 
serve  as  nourishment  for  the  roots.     A  sucker  planted  with  barley  never 
fails  to  take  root  and  to  thrive. ' 

(2)  To  propagate  by  slips  it  is  necessary  that  a  hole  be  dug  in  the 
ground  having  an  average  length  of  27  inches  by  13  in  depth.     In  this 


FIGS    IN    SYRIA.  743 

hole  the  slip,  which  should  be  about  27  inches  long,  is  placed  obliquely, 
so  as  to  leave  about  2  inches  of  it  above  the  ground.  The  planting  of 
suckers  must  take  place  between  the  1st  of  December  and  the  end  of 
January,  and  the  planting  of  slips  should  begin  with  February  and  end 
with  March.  Watering  is  needed,  as  stated  in  answer  6,  for  the  lands 
that  had  not  been  previously  tilled  and  sown.  As  to  the  rich  lands 
which  had  been  plowed,  they  should  be  irrigated  once  a  month  or  once 
every  forty-five  days. 

There  are  some  large  and  some  small  fig  orchards,  but  generally  their 
size  is  limited. 

Fig- trees  live  from  five  to  thirty  years,  some  even  longer,  and  produce 
fruit  until  they  die  off. 

The  insects  are  worms  produced  by  excess  of  water  and  manure  and 
want  of  proper  pruning.  The  way  to  treat  them  is  to  put  only  a  little 
manure  or  none  at  all,  to  prune  the  trees  well,  and  to  make  a  passage 
for  the  water,  so  as  not  to  allow  it  to  gather  around  the  trees.  Birds 
also  attack  fig-trees,  such  as  the  sparrow  and  the  becafico.  A  scare- 
crow is  most  always  successful  in  frightening  away  these  birds. 

No  insect  other  than  those  mentioned  above  are  known  to  exist. 

Cutting. — Either  by -taking  suckers  which  grow  at  the  foot  of  the  tree 
or  cuttings 'from  the  tree  itself. 

No  statistics  or  reports  are  published  by  the  Government  or  other- 
wise. 

ERHARD  BISSINGER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  February  12,  1890. 


SECOND  REPORT. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  for  drying  is  the  u  Abyad,"  white  inside 
green  outside,  and  for  eating  when  ripe,  the  "  Bokraty,"  red  inside, 
green  outside.  The  "Asfoory"  and  "Bokraty"  are  also  cultivated. 
The  Smyrna  district  is  the  principal  one,  Syria  coming  next,  in  which 
fig- trees  are  grown. 

Situation.— No  matter  where  fig-trees  are  planted,  moderate  altitude 
is  best.  Fig-trees  are  benefited  by  being  exposed  to  the  sun. 

Soil. — The  white  clayey  soil  is  preferable.  It  should  be  manured  once 
every  three  years. 

Climate.— Minimum,  40°  Fahr.;  maximum,  90°  Fahr.;  average,  650 
Fahr.  The  more  abundant  the  rains  the  better  the  trees  and  fruits 
prosper. 

Irrigation. — Fig  trees  need  no  irrigation. 

Cultivation.— After  the  soil  gets  dry  it  should  be  plowed  three  times 
during  spring-time. 
156A 23 


744  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

Fertilizers. — The  soil  should  be  manured  once  every  three  years  and 
plowed  as  stated  above. 

Pruning. — After  the  fruits  have  been  gathered  the  dead  branches  only 
are  cut  away. 

Picking  and  curing. — When  the  fruit  is  ripe  the  morning  is  the  best 
time  for  picking.  If  they  are  to  be  transported  from  place  to  place  figs 
must  be  gathered  before  they  are  fully  ripe  and  placed  in  boxes,  but 
can  not  be  sent  to  any  distant  place.  When  figs  are  to  be  dried  they 
must  be  gathered  when  fully  ripe,  then  spread  on  a  lofty  spot  for  from 
ten  to  fifteen  days  and  nights.  In  this  way  they  can  be  preserved  in 
boxes  during  the  whole  year. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  planted.about  13  feet  apart 
and  propagated  by  slips.  The  orchards  are  generally  small. 

Maturity. — Fig-trees  attain  thirty  to  forty  years  of  age  and  produce 
fruit  from  the  fourth  or  fifth  year. 

Insect  pests. — There  are  some  insects  which  infest  the  soil  and  invade 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  and  sometimes  cause  them  to  decay,  but  they  do 
not  injure  the  fruit.  Trees  so  attacked  are  treated  by  introducing  an 
iron  wire  into  the  affected  holes  until  the  insect  is  reached  and  de- 
stroyed. 

Slips. — Slips  are  to  be  secured  in  March. 

No  printed  matter,  reports,  or  statistics  exist  or  are  issued  by  the 
Government. 

ERHARD  BISSINGER, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  February  12, 1890. 


SIDON. 

Varieties. — The  "  green "  varieties  for  drying  are  the  "  Bookraty  " 
and  "Abyad"  for  eating  when  ripe.  Other  varieties  cultivated  are  the 
black  and  one  which  ripens  in  the  fall. 

Situation. — Both  in  plains  and  hills ;  best  kinds  within  30  miles  of 
coast;  best  growth  from  500  to  2,000  feet  above  sea-level;  constant 
exposure  to  the  sun;  hilly  lands  the  best;  clayey  and  chalky  soil  the 
best. 

Climate. — Thirty  degrees  Fahr.  to  90°  Fahr. ;  rain -fall  about  30  inches, 
on  an  average,  annually ;  an  abundance  of  rain  is  beneficial. 

Irrigation. — Never  irrigated  at  all. 

Cultivation. — Spring  ploughing. 

Fertilizers. — None  applied.    Figs  become  wormy  in  rich  earth. 

Pruning. — Dead  branches  only  are  removed. 

Picking. — When  ripe,  and  in  the  morning. 

Curing. — Dried  in  suix  only.    No  solution  of  any  kind  used. 


FIGS    IN    SYRIA.  745 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  trees  are  32  to  35  feet  apart ;  propa- 
gated by  slips ;  the  orchards  are  generally  small. 

Maturity. — The  trees  attain  to  about  fifty  years  and  bear  from  four 
years  till  they  die. 

Insect  pests. — Principally  worms.  The  remedy  is  to  cover  the  trunk 
of  the  tree  with  a  coating  of  bitumen. 

Cuttings. — Cuttings  are  secured  either  by  suckers  which  grow  at  the 
foot  of  tree  or  cuttings  from  the  tree  itself. 


TRIPOLI. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  for  drying  is  the  "Bayadi"  (white  inside); 
the  best  variety  for  eating  is  the  uBookraty ;"  the  other  varieties  known 
in  this  country  are  the  "Bookraty,"  the  "Bayadi,"  the  u  Asfoory,"  the 
"  As  wad,"  the  "  Haminary,"  and  the  u  Shataway." 

Situation. — Fig  trees  grow  in  the  plains  as  well  as  in  the  mountains ; 
the  more  they  are  exposed  to  the  sun  the  better  they  prosper ;  they  are 
found  in  rolling  and  level  land,  which  is  alike  adapted  for  their  growth. 
It  is  customary  in  this  country  to  plant  fig-trees  in  either  white  clayey 
soil  or  in  a  blackish  soil  (the  latter  not  being  good  for  other  kinds  of 
trees).  In  red  soil  the  fig-trees  grow  still  better,  but  the  taste  of  the 
fruit  is  less  delicious  than  if  grown  in  a  white  or  blackish  soil. 

Climate. — Temperature  varies  from  30°  Fahr.  to  90°  Fahr. ;  average, 
60°  Fahr.;  rain-fall  averages  26  to  40  inches  per  annum,  according  to 
locality. 

Irrigation. — Most  of  the  fig-trees  in  this  country  are  found  in  non-irri- 
gated lands.  The  fruit  of  irrigated  fig-trees  are  affected  by  worms  and 
liable  to  rot. 

0M&tttt$km.-~Landfi  upon  which  fig-trees  are  planted  should  be  plowed 
three  times  in  the  spring. 

Fertilizers. — Manure  is  the  fertilizer  known,  but  it  is  not  used  for  fig- 
trees,  although  it  increases  their  production,  for  the  reason  that  it 
causes  the  fruit  to  be  invaded  by  worms  and  to  rot. 

Pruning. — Dead  branches  only  need  to  be  removed. 

Picking. — Figs  for  drying  are  picked  when  fully  ripe  any  time  in  the 
course  of  a  sunny  day,  so  as  to  be  well  dried  by  the  rays  of  the  sun 
and  thus  prevent  their  contracting  a  sour  taste. 

Curing. — Figs,  after  being  gathered,  are  spread  in  the  sun  for  from 
ten  to  fifteen  days.  When  they  become  dry  they  are  placed  in  a 
basket  and  plunged  for  two  minutes  in  a  large  copper  kettle  full  of 
boiling  water,  in  which  a  small  quantity  of  the  fennel  plant  has  been 
deposited  to  impart  a  nice  aroma  to  the  figs.  After  this  process  of 
"  bathing,"  the  figs  are  dried  again  and  then  stored  away.  Figs  are 
gathered  and  dried  as  they  ripen,  during  August,  September,  and 
October. 


746         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Planting  and  propagating. --"Distance  planted  apart,  12  to  15  feet, 
according  to  the  quality  of  the  soil.  Fig-trees  are  propagated  by  cut- 
tings from  the  branch  of  a  large  tree  having  three  or  four  sprays, 
which  is  to  be  placed  in  a  hole  dug  for  the  purpose,  then  covered  with 
earth,  allowing  one  of  the  sprays  only  to  project,  at  a  height  of  about 
2  inches  above  ground.  This  should  take  place  in  the  spring,  i.  e.,  from 
the  beginning  of  March  to  the  end  of  April.  Orchards  are  generally 
small. 

Maturity. — The  age  of  fig-trees  depends  on  the  quality  of  the  soil  and 
the  care  bestowed  upon  them.  If  good  care  is  taken  of  a  fig-tree  it  lives 
up  to  one  hundred  years. 

Disease. — The  branches  of  fig-trees  are  sometimes  liable  to  a  disease 
that  manifests  itself  in  the  shape  of  slight  swellings  called  snails.  The 
remedy  adopted  is  to  make  small  cuts  in  the  tree,  which  causes  the  dis- 
ease to  subside. 

Cuttings. — No  plantations  of  young  fig-trees  exist  in  this  country. 
The  way  to  plant  fig-trees  is  to  secure  cuttings  from  large  trees  and 
plant  them  as  stated  above. 

ERHARD  BISSINGER, 

Consult, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Beirut,  February  12,  1890. 


INDIA. 

REPORT  PREPARED  FOR  VICE-CONSUL  BODE,  OF  BOMBAY,  BY  MR.  O.MARSHALL 
WORDROW,  LECTURER  ON  BOTANY  AND  AGRICULTURE  AT  THE  COLLEGE  OF 
SCIENCE,  POONAH. 

Varieties. — Figs  are  not  dried  in  India  to  any  considerable  extent,  as 
the  local  consumption  absorbs  the  supply.  The  retail  price  of  ripe  figs 
is  about  2  annas  per  pound  (say  6  cents)  at  Poonah,  within  14  miles  of 
extensive  gardens.  Varieties  of  figs  are  not  named  in  India  except  with 
the  name  of  the  village  they  are  grown  at,  and  such  a  name  is  not  dis- 
tinctive. The  variety  grown  in  the  Deccan  is  inverted  conical,  green 
at  the  stalk  and  gradually  deepening  to  brown  at  the  broad  en^.  Good 
examples  weigh  one-seventh  of  a  pound. 

Situation. — The  village  of  Khed  Shivapoor  is  an  important  center  of 
fig  culture.  It  stands  14  miles  south  of  Poonah,  which  city  lies  in  north 
latitude  18°  28'  east  longitude  74°  10'.  The  altitude  of  Khed  Shivapoor 
is  about  2,200  feet  above  mean  sea-level,  but  the  fig  thrives  at  Baroda  as 
low  as  100  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  orchards  are  fully  exposed  to 
the  sun. 

The  land  of  the  orchards  is  nearly  level,  but  they  are  situated  on  the 
slope  of  a  range  of  hills  3,500  feet  in  altitude,  at  a  height  of  2,200  feet, 
and  about  50  miles  from  the  sea. 


FIGS    IN   INDIA.  747 

Soil  and  subsoil— The  soil  is  calcareous  loam,  the  subsoil,  at  a  depth 
of  about  2  feet  marl  (a  mixture  of  lime  and  clay),  overlying  disinte- 
grated trap. 

Temperature. — Average,  about  75°  ;  minimum,  48° ;  maximum,  95°. 
The  village  is  shut  in  on  the  northeast  and  west  by  hills,  which  keep 
out  hot  winds. 

Rain-fall  is  about  50  inches  annually,  falling  chiefly  from  June  till 
October.  The  setting  in  of  rain  makes  the  trees  ripen  the  young 
growth  that  was  made  during  April  and  May  in  the  hottest  and  driest 
season,  and  determines  the  ripening  of  fruit. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  effected  from  wells,  about  25  feet  in  depth, 
by  a  leathern  bucket  drawn  up  by  oxen  at  a  cost  of  10  pies  (say  2.5 
cents)  per  1,000  gallons.  Two  inches  of  water  on  the  surface  of  the 
orchard,  per  month,  from  the  end  of  October  till  the  fruit  is  ripe ;  the 
low  quantity  of  water  given  keeps  the  fruit  sweet.  One  inch  of  water 
is  given  twice  monthly. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  consists  of  plowing  or  hoeing  once  yearly 
after  the  fruit  is  gathered. 

Fertilizers. — Fifty  pounds  per  tree  of  well  decayed  village  sweepings 
is  applied  at  the  end  of  the  dry  season,  in  May,  after  the  crop  is  gathered. 

Pruning. — After  the  young  tree  has  been  made  to  send  up  five  to 
seven  shoots  from  near  the  base  by  stopping  the  first  strong  shoots 
sent  out  by  the  cutting,  little,  if  any,  real  pruning  is  given.  Weakly 
decayed  or  broken  branches  are  cut  out  to  the  base,  and  such  as  have 
gone  too  high  for  a  man's  hand  to  reach  are  stopped,  and  if  branches 
are  plentiful,  cut  out  when  all  the  fruit  is  gathered  from  them;  but  the 
less  pruning  that  is  necessary  the  better.  In  a  few  instances  the  trees 
are  grown  as  standards ;  a  straight  stem  is  led  up  about  6  feet,  and  from 
the  top  of  this  branches  are  encouraged  to  spread  horizontally. 

Picking. — The  picking  is  done  when  the  fruit  is  full  grown  and  shows 
a  slight  yellowing  at  the  stalk.  Early  in  the  morning  is  preferred  be- 
cause fruit  picked  at  that  time  and  kept  in  shade  retains  a  delicious 
coolness.  For  local  use  each  fig  is  wrapped  in  a  leaf  when  it  has 
attained  this  stage  to  protect  it  from  birds  and  left  on  the  tree  a  week 
longer.  This  improves  the  quality  greatly  but  prohibits  carriage  to  a 
distance.  No  boxing  or  curing  is  done  in  India.  The  skin  of  the  variety 
grown  is  much  too  delicate  and  I  have  not  been  successful  with  Euro- 
pean varieties. 

Planting  and  propagation. — Propagation  is  effected  by  cuttings  of  one 
year  old  wood  planted  in  a  moist,  shady  place  during  February.  The 
trees  are  set  out  10  to  12  feet  apart. 

Size  of  orchards. — The  orchards  are  2  to  3  acres  in  extent  only,  because 
the  position  on  the  slope  of  a  hill  does  not  afford  larger  spaces  suf- 
licu'iitly  level,  and  a  well  rarely  waters  more. 

Maturity. — The  trees  attain  fifteen  years  and  are  fruitful  about  twelve 
years. 


748        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Insect  pests. — Red  spider,  Tetranichus  telarius,  or  some  nearly  allied 
insect,  is  a  serious  enemy.  Ko  futile  attempts  are  made  against  it  by 
the  cultivators.  They  think  sacrifices  to  idols  effectual.  Much  yet  re- 
mains to  be  done  in  the  entomology  of  the  fig. 

Cuttings. — I  have  never  sent  cuttings  as  far  as  America,  but  I  think 
that  if  cut  in  February,  packed  in  moist  sand  in  a  tin  box  and  sent  by 
post,  a  few  would  survive  the  journey.  Whether  it  would  be  profitable 
is  doubtful,  as  I  am  of  opinion  the  fig  of  the  Deccan  is  synonymous 
with  brown  Turkey,  which  you  probably  have  in  cultivation.  I  will  be 
glad,  to  send  you  cuttings  if  wanted. 

Publications. — The  Government  of  India  does  not  issue  statistics 
regarding  figs.  The  latest  edition  of  my  book  on  gardening  in  India, 
published  at  the  end  of  1889,  has  the  fullest  account  I  know  of,  but  it 
is  not  as  full  as  this  report. 

Olives  are  not  grown  in  India ;  the  tree  lives  but  does  not  fruit. 

G.  MARSHALL  WOODROW. 

POONAH,  March  14, 1890. 


AUSTRALASIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GRIFFIN,  OF  SYDNEY. 

The  fig  is  not  cultivated  to  any  great  extent  in  the  Australian  colo- 
nies. The  tree  will  grow  and  bear  excellent  fruit  all  over  the  country, 
but  its  cultivation  can  not  be  called  an  industry  in  any  part  of  Austral- 
asia. Figs  are  not  dried  or  prepared  in  any  way  for  export.  There  are 
growers  who  have  experimented  with  drying  figs,  but  I  have  never  heard 
of  locally  dried  figs  being  offered  for  sale.  The  figs  that  find  their  way 
to  the  Sydney  market  are  in  a  green  state.  Baron  Fred,  von  Mueller, 
government  botanist  for  Victoria,  in  his  work  entitled  "  Select  Extra- 
Tropical  Plants,"  strongly  urges  the  extensive  planting  of  the  fig  through 
favorable  portions  of  desert  waste  for  shade  and  fruit  and  in  warm  dis- 
tricts where  the  fruit  could  be  dried  with  particular  ease.  He  directs 
attention  to  the  ease  with  which  small  cuttings  of  the  fig  tree  were  sent 
by  horse  post  in  the  early  history  of  these  colonies  from  Port  Phillip 
(Melbourne)  to  the  Central  Australian  Mission  stations,  a  distance  as  far 
as  from  St.  Petersburg  to  the  Black  Sea,  or  from  San  Francisco  to  the 
Upper  Missouri.  Baron  von  Mueller  mentions  two  main  varieties  which 
have  been  successfully  introduced  into  Australia.  One  includes  the 
purple,  white,  and  golden  fig-trees,  producing  two  crops  a  year,  but  are 
not  suitable  for  drying.  The  other  main  variety  embraces  the  Marseil- 
laise, Bellonne,  Barnisote,  and  the  Aubique.  These  produce  but  one 
crop  a  year  and  supply  the  greatest  quantity  of  figs  for  drying.  The 
Marseillaise  and  Bellonne  are  usually  regarded  as  the  best  varieties.  The 
Barnisote  and  Aubique  are  dried  with  fire  heat  and  are  usually  consumed 
fresh.  The  ordinary  drying  is  effected  usually  by  the  sun.  Mr.  Angus 


PIGS    IN   AUSTRALASIA    AND    FIJI.  749 

McKay  gives  the  black  Province  and  black  Italian  as  the  best  varieties 
for  drying  in  Australia,  but  says  very  little  drying  is  done  here. 

The  white  and  yellow  Ischia  are  favorite  varieties.  Then  there  are 
the  Morocco  and  the  white  and  brown  Turkey.  Different  names  are 
given  to  the  same  variety  of  figs  and,  as  no  systematic  attempt  has  been 
made  to  classify  them,  there  is  some  confusion  in  the  nomenclature  and 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  say  which  is  the  best.  The  fig  grows  on  the 
sea-coast  and  also  many  miles  inland.  It  has  been  found  to  do  fairly 
well  at  an  elevation  of  2,500  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Excellent 
figs  are,  I  am  informed,  grown  in  the  Forbes  and  Parkes  districts  of 
New  South  Wales,  but  the  finest  tigs  I  have  seen  were  grown  at  Tumut, 
also  in  this  colony,  where  the  soil  is  of  a  dark  rich  loam  to  a  depth  of 
about  10  feet.  Figs  also  grow  at  Port  Stephen,  where  the  average  an- 
nual rain-fall  is  about  62  inches.  Mr.  Angus  McKay  says  the  fig  thrives 
best  in  hilly  country,  and  as  to  soil,  it  seems  that  they  do  very  well  in 
poor  sandy  soil ;  where  the  temperature  is  100°  figs  are  produced  and 
where  it  is  not  less  than  20°  above  zero.  When  the  rain-fall  is  not  less 
than  12  inches  or  more  than  30  inches  they  appear  to  succeed  best. 
When  the  rain  fall  is  heavy  the  trees  run  to  wood.  When  cultivated 
here  both  plowing  and  digging  are  practiced ;  the  trees  are  usually 
20  feet  apart  each  way  and  are  propagated  principally  from  cuttings. 
The  only  insects  yet  observed  consist  of  a  small  beetle.  The  tree  fruits 
in  the  third  year.  Caprification  is  said  to  be  practiced  in  New  Zealand, 
but  it  is  not  done,  so  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  learn,  in  Australia,  and 
Baron  von  Mueller  says  it  is  unnecessary  and  in  some  instances  injuri- 
ous and  objectionable. 

G.  W.  GRIFFIN, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Sydney,  January  21,  1890. 


FIJI. 

Figs  are  not  cultivated.  The  very  few  experimental  trees  that  have 
been  planted  have  proved  a  decided  failure.  The  fruit  has  not  been 
grown  in  these  islands.  A  blight,  black  in  appearance,  strikes  the  tree 
before  it  comes  into  bearing,  which,  if  it  does  not  kill  the  tree,  so  retards 
its  growth  that  it  never  bears  any  fruit. 

ANDREWS  A.  ST.  JOHN, 

Commercial  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  COMMERCIAL  AGENCY, 

Levuka,  January  11,  1890. 


CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 
FRANCE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  TRAIL,    OF  MARSEILLES. 

The  tig- tree  (Fieus  carica)  that  is  cultivated  iu  France  was  brought 
from  Greece  many  centuries  ago  and  is  now,  like  the  Olive,  common  to 
the  whole  of  the  south  of  France  and  of  the  adjoining  countries,  more 
especially  eastward. 

It  grows  in  a  wild  state  in  almost  any  place  and  position.  On  many 
an  old  wall  small  fig-trees  are  to  be  seen  and  on  many  a  road-side  bank 
they  are  the  tree  most  frequently  to  be  found.  In  country  farm-yards, 
inn-keepers'  gardens,  stable-yards,  the  fig-tree  is  in  variably  present  and 
very  often  as  a  solitary  specimen.  It  would  be  difficult  to  find  a  garden 
of  any  description  in  southern  France  without  a  fig-tree. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  are  innumerable,  and  it  would  be  hard  to  give 
a  list  of  all  the  different  ones,  as  they  vary  according  to  soil  exposure, 
treatment,  and  climate. 

The  chief  varieties  cultivated  in  this  district  are  the  following  : 

The  "  Marseillaise,"  or  Athens  fig,  a  white  fig  of  very  nice,  delicate 
taste,  both  when  eaten  fresh  from  the  tree  and  when  dried.  This  variety 
is  considered  the  best  in  the  south  of  France,  and  many  people  prefer  it 
even  to  the  Smyrna  fig. 

The  "  Mouissonne,"  a  dark  fig  with  a  fine  skin,  very  good  when  eaten 
ripe  and  fresh,  and  good  for  drying. 

The  "  Barnissotte,"  one  that  is  almost  only  eaten  fresh. 

There  are  several  other  varieties  that  could  be  mentioned,  but  they 
are  all  more  or  less  similar  to  the  above  three  kinds. 

Soil. — The  fig-tree  grows  in  almost  any  soil  common  to  its  climate, 
but  dry  ground  suits  it  best.  Along  certain  dry  and  even  arid  Strips  of 
land  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  fig-trees  flourish  and  produce 
fruit  in  abundance. 

Climate. — The  same  climate  that  suits  the  olive  tree  is  favorable  to  the 
fig,  i.  e.j  a  warm  climate,  where  excess  of  heat  and  cold  is  scarce.  With 
special  reference  to  this  district  it  is  worthy  of  note  that  on  the  right 
side  of  the  Rhone  figs  do  not  develop  very  well ;  the  fruit  remains  small 
and  is  not  good  for  drying.  Whereas  on  the  left  side,  and  from  the 
Khone  to  the  Italian  frontier,  figs  attain  a  far  higher  degree  of  quality; 
they  are  larger,  sweeter,  more  delicate,  and  are  excellent  for  drying- 

750 


FIGS    IX    FRANCE.  751 

The  explanation  of  this  fact  is  that  the  plains  and  districts  on  the 
right  side  of  the  Rhone  are  not  sheltered  by  hills  as  on  the  other  side. 

Situation. — Sheltered  hillsides  are  very  favorable  to  fig  culture  5 
exposure  to  cold  winds  is  not  conducive  to  good  results. 

Rain-fall. — The  winter  rains  generally  give  sufficient  moisture  to  the 
soil  for  tho  whole  year ;  fig-trees  that  are  intended  to  produce  fruit  for 
drying  ought  not  to  be  watered  artificially.  Too  much  moisture  lessens 
the  quality  and  the  richness  of  the  fruit,  and  frequently  renders  drying 
difficult. 

Tree  planting. — When  planting  fig  trees  care  should  be  taken  to  select 
a  deep  soil,  or  in  any  case  to  dig  as  deep  as  possible  and  mix  some  fer- 
tilizer (manure,  old  leaves,  etc.)  well  into  the  earth,  on  which  the  roots 
will  rest.  During  the  first  two  years  it  is  always  advisable,  in  districts 
that  are  subject  to  frosts,  to  cover  or  bind  the  trees  with  straw  for  the 
winter.  After  the  second  year  the  young  trees  are  generally  strong 
enough  to  stand  the  winter  uncovered.  The  ground  should  be  well  dug 
up  at  least  once  in  winter  and  once  in  spring. 

Fertilizers. — Fertilizers  should  be  dug  into  the  ground  once  a  year, 
during  spring,  for  young  trees,  and  once  every  two  years  for  older  trees. 
Fig-trees,  once  well  rooted  and  well  established  in  a  place,  require  very 
little  fertilizing,  and  this  can  even  be  dispensed  with  if  the  soil  be  well 
dug  occasionally. 

Pruning. — Pruning  should  be  done  once  a  year,  but  only  lightly,  i.  e., 
one  should  only  thin  out  dead  and  useless  branches  in  the  body  and 
crown  of  the  tree,  and  cut  away  all  young  shoots  that  spring  up  at  the  foot 
of  the  stem.  The  latter  point  is  important,  as  the  fig-tree  being  very  vora- 
cious young  ungrafted  shoots  would  only  uselessly  exhaust  the  soil  and 
weaken  the  original  tree.  For  this  reason,  too,  it  is  well  to  keep  fig- 
trees  apart  from  other  trees,  for  not  only  does  the  fig-tree  weaken  its 
neighbors,  but  its  neighbors  weaken  it  as  well. 

Maturity. — The  fig-tree  produces  fruit  pretty  regularly  every  year. 
Some  varieties  give  two  crops,  the  first  of  which  begins  about  the  20th 
of  June  and  lasts  till  about  the  20th  of  July,  the  figs  of  which,  called 
"Flower"  figs,  are  not  good  for  drying,  and  the  second  at  the  end  of 
September.  Several  black  and  gray  figs  come  under  this  variety. 

The  other  kinds,  of  one  crop  only,  begin  to  ripen  about  the  middle  of 
August  and  continue  ripening  successively  throughout  August  and 
September ;  these  are  the  best  for  drying,  and  to  this  class  the  "  Mar- 
seillaise" belongs. 

With  reference  to  those  that  give  two  crops,  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  the  figs  of  the  first  are  borne  by  the  branches  of  the  previous  year 
only,  and  that  those  of  the  second  crop  are  borne  by  the  young  branches 
of  the  same  year.  This  accounts  for  the  latter  ripening  successively, 
as  each  fresh  leaf  that  opens  out  bears  a  fig  in  its  axil. 

Picking  and  ctirhif/. —  Figs,  either  for  immediate  consumption  or  for 
drying',  ought  not  to  b«»  g.irlioivd  ix-forr  iln-y  are  quite  ripe.  The  signs 


752         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

of  ripeness  are  complete  softening  of  the  fig,  slight  bursting  of  the  skin, 
a  tear  or  drop  of  gum  oozing  out  of  the  center. 

Figs  must  be  gathered  by  hand,  and  in  plucking  them  off  the  branches 
care  should  be  taken  to  pick  them  with  the  short  stalk  that  attaches 
them  to  the  branch. 

The  state  of  the  weather  and  the  time  of  day  are  points  to  be  taken 
into  consideration  when  gathering  figs  for  drying.  It  is  true  that  in 
this  district  it  is  seldom  that  the  weather  is  not  fine  during  August  and 
September.  However,  fine  days  should  always  be  selected,  and  pick- 
ing should  not  commence  until  the  morning  dew  has  disappeared  from 
off  the  fruit.  As  soon  as  the  figs  are  picked  they  must  be  laid  in  rows 
on  wicker  or  basket-work  hurdles  or  boards  and  well  exposed,  but  in  a 
sheltered  position  and  raised  from  the  ground,  to  the  full  force  of  the 
sun.  The  figs  should  not  be  placed  too  close  together,  and  they  must 
be  turned  round  every  day  about  midday,  when  the  sun  is  hottest,  so 
that  every  day  a  fresh  surface  is  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the 
sun.  The  hurdles  or  boards,  without  touching  or  disturbing  the  figs, 
must  be  taken  indoors  every  evening  and  placed  in  dry,  airy  rooms  till 
the  morning,  when  they  are  brought  out  again  in  the  same  way.  No 
dampness  nor  moisture  must  be  allowed  to  get  to  the  figs  whilst  dry- 
ing, and  if  the  weather  be  uncertain  one  should  be  near  at  hand  and 
take  them  in  at  the  first  sign  of  rain. 

In  fine  weather  six  days  suffice  to  dry  figs,  and  this  is  generally  the 
case  with  the  first  batches  in  August  and  beginning  of  September.  But 
as  the  days  grow  shorter  and  the  sun  becomes  less  powerful  more  time 
is  required  and  the  process  of  drying  lasts  from  ten  to  fifteen  days. 
Wet  weather  is  exceedingly  detrimental  to  drying,  as  it  is  a  very  diffi- 
cult and  uncertain  operation  to  dry  figs  indoors  by  artificial  heat.  Arti- 
ficially dried  figs  are  never  as  good  as  sun-dried  ones. 

The  quicker  the  drying  takes  place  the  better  the  figs  are,  and  the 
exact  stage  of  complete  dryness  can  generally  be  ascertained  by  the 
firmness  of  a  fig  taken  between  two  fingers  and  rolled.  The  interior 
seeds  lose  their  red  color  when  the  fig  is  quite  dry,  and  this  is  one  of 
the  signs  that  the  process  is  completed. 

They  can  then  be  classified  according  to  size,  appearance,  and  quality, 
and  packed  in  baskets  of  flat  wicker,  or  boxes,  ready  for  storing  or  for 
shipment.  They  are  usually  packed  in  rows  and  layers,  pressed  down 
one  by  one  with  the  thumb,  in  such  a  way  that  the  stalk  is  in  the  center 
underneath,  and  then  each  layer  should  be  pressed  down  with  the  aid 
of  a  small  board,  slightly,  until  thev basket  or  box  is  full. 

Prices, — Fresh  ripe  figs  sell  very  readily  at  the  time  of  the  crops,  es- 
pecially the  early  ones,  for  a  few  cents  a  pound.  No  exact  price  can  be 
given,  as  the  value  varies  from  3  to  7  or  8  cents  a  pound  according  to 
time,  quantity,  and  quality  of  crop,  also  place  where  they  are  sold.  In 
unfavorable  seasons  for  drying  and  in  late  crops,  quantities  are  made 
into  jam  and  are  sometimes  even  boiled  into  other  fruit  jams,  such  as 


FIGS    IN    CORSICA.  753 

raspberry  and  strawberry,  to  which  the  fig,  when  boiled,  assimilates 
itself  iii  appearance. 

But  the  chief  trade  is  done  in  dried  figs  and  the  prices  of  these  vary 
according  to  quality,  quantity,  and  time  of  year.  The  grower  dries  his 
own  figs  and  usually  sells  them  in  bulk  to  the  dealer,  who  then  sorts 
them  and  sells  them  again  separately  as  per  their  respective  qualities. 

The  "  Marseillaise  "  fig  fetches  from  75  centimes  to  1.50  francs  per 
kilogram  (from  8  to  16  cents  per  pound)  and  frequently  even  more  in 
retail.  Other  varieties  sell  cheaper ;  ordinary  dark  and  blue  figs  gen- 
erally fetch  from  30  to  40  centimes  per  kilogram  (from  3  to  4  cents  per 
pound).  Very  common  small  figs,  dried,  are  sold  in  some  districts  in 
large  quantities,  packed  in  sacks,  for  distilling  purposes,  but  this 
applies  more  generally  to  Italy  and  Spain.  This  kind  of  fig  is  also  some- 
times used,  baked  or  roasted  and  ground  into  coarse  powder,  to  adulter- 
ate coffee  with. 

Insect  pests.— The  fig-tree,  well  cared  for,  is  very  rarely  attacked  by 
either  disease  or  injurious  insects;  in  some  regions  these  are  unknown. 
In  some  cases  a  kind  of  a  louse  attaches  itself  to  the  branches  and 
spreads  over  the  whole  tree,  if  not  detected  in  time  and  rubbed  off  care- 
fully by  means  of  a  coarse  piece  of  cloth.  If,  however,  it  has  not  been 
detected  in  time  and  the  parasite  has  already  covered  and  killed  certain 
branches,  these  branches  must  simply  be  sawn  off. 

Reproduction. — Like  the  olive,  the  fig- tree  grows  to  a  good  old  age. 
Reproduction  takes  place,  naturally,  by  seedlings,  but  as  this  process  is 
slow  and  uncertain,  it  is  generally  done  by  cuttings,  which  are  selected 
from  good  healthy  trees  and  planted  in  deep  soil.  They  must  be  grafted 
in  about  the  second  year  and  bear  fruit  in  their  third  year  already  after 
transplantation  to  their  definite  ground.  If  the  grafting  takes  well, 
fruit  is  even  produced  before  the  third  year. 

CHAS.  B.  TRAIL, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Marseilles,  April  30,  1890. 


CORSICA.* 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  DAMIANI,  OF  BASTIA. 

Varieties. — (Common  fig-tree,  Ficus  carica.)  The  varieties  cultivated 
in  this  locality  are,  for  drying,  the  White  (Bourgassotte  Blanche] ;  Na- 
politaine,  very  good  quality,  very  good  to  dry,  yields  small  number  of 
flowers;  for  eating  when  ripe  the  Yerdale;  the  Marseillaise;  Athens 
fig,  the  kind  best  adapted ;  Dunmine,  very  good  for  drying ;  Francis- 
caua,  for  drying  and  for  eating. 

*  Translated  at  the  Marseilles  consulate. 


754        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Black  (Bourgassotte  noir),  very  good  fresh  figs ;  Niello  noir,  the  ear- 
liest eatiug  figs. 

Colored  (Figue  latte),  excellent  fresh  and  dry;  Observantine,  very 
numerous  flowers ;  Bellone,  excellent  fresh  or  dry. 

Situation. — The  fig  tree  is  abundant  in  Corsica,  particularly  on  the 
littoral,  especially  on  well-exposed  hill-sides,  on  the  rocks  at  the  foot 
of  the  mountains  close  to  the  sea,  on  dry  ground.  The  roots  being 
very  long,  it  is  cultivated  in  deep,  calcareous  soil.  It  grows  from  the 
sea-level  to  800  meters  of  altitude.  The  trees  grown  in  the  plains  and 
shoals  produce  figs  which  dry  and  have  not  the  requisite  flavor  and 
whiteness.  Although  the  fig-tree  grows  on  dry  soil,  often  in  the  fissures 
of  rocks  and  walls,  it  yields  the  most  abundant  and  best  flavored  fruit 
when  cultivated  on  good  light  soil.  It  is  affected  by  dampness,  but  yet 
requires  watering  in  very  hot  weather. 

Cultivation. — The  fig-tree  does  not  require  much  attention  ;  the  ground 
has  only  to  be  dug  once  or  twice  a  year  and  the  fig-tree  thrives.  If 
planted  in  a  warm  locality  it  assumes  a  goodly  shape. 

Climate. — It  prefers  a  warm  climate,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  olive- 
trees.  Where  the  thermometer  does  not  fall  below  12°  Centigrade  it 
produces  leaves  and  fruit  continuously.  It  does  not  prosper  without 
manure  from  farm-houses.  It  is  multiplied  by  cuttings.  Small  branches 
of  2  centimeters  broad  by  20  centimeters  long  are  the  best. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  slips  are  put  entirely  under  ground, 
except  the  terminal  bud.  The  ground  should  be  dug  to  a  depth  of  at 
least  45  centimeters,  and  the  trees  should  be  about  6  meters  distant 
from  each  other.  Figs  ripen  at  two  seasons,  at  the  end  of  spring  and 
beginning  of  summer,  and  in  the  autumn  for  the  second  figs.  The 
second  is  the  most  important. 

Picking  and  curing. — The  gathering  is  long,  because  they  ripen  suc- 
cessively. They  wait  till  the  figs  are  perfectly  ripe,  and  even  over- 
ripe. Those  gathered  unripe  mature  by  keeping,  but  have  not  the 
flavor  of  those  matured  on  the  tree.  Perfect  ripeness  is  indicated  by 
their  being  soft,  the  cracking  and  falling  away  of  the  rind,  and  by  a 
liquid  in  the  center.  The  day  and  hour  are  important  if  the  figs  are  to 
be  dried.  The  dew  must  have  disappeared  and  the  weather  must  be  dry. 
After  being  gathered  they  are  taken  into  the  house  and  placed  on 
planks  or  on  hurdles,  exposed  to  the  greatest  heat  of  the  sun,  and  in  a 
sheltered  place,  and  at  night  in  a  well-aired  place.  The  form  and  pres- 
ervation of  the  fig  depends  on  the  promptitude  of  the  operation  of 
drying.  The  figs  have  to  be  turned  over  and  flattened  frequently. 

Sometimes  during  the  operation  of  drying  rain  comes  on.  The  dry- 
ing then  becomes  difficult  and  almost  impossible  except  by  means  of 
the  artificial  heat  of  furnaces,  which,  however  managed,  injures  the 
quality  of  the  figs  and  lessens  the  market  value  by  a  third. 

Yield. — A  fig  ground  of  a  hectare,  containing  2G7  fig-trees,  twenty- 
years  old,  will  yield  (at  the  rate  of  12.5  kilograms  each,  3,214 


FIGS    IN    SOUTHERN    FRANCE.  755 

kilograms  of  dry  figs,  of  the  average  value  of  37  francs  the  100  kilo- 
grams and  .'50  francs,  reckoning  losses)  about  963  francs.  On  account 
of  the  difficulties  in  drying  nearly  one  crop  in  three  is  lost,  which 
reduces  the  average  profit  to  640  francs. 

SIMON  DAMIANI, 

Consular  Agent. 
BASTIA,  CORSICA. 


SOUTHERN  FRANCE.    . 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  MA.RTIN,    OF  MARSEILLES. 
[RepuLlished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41£.] 

The  fig  tree  is  common  in  Southern  France,  and  specimens  of  the  sev- 
eral varieties  known  in  the  country  are  to  be  found  in  almost  every 
ground  lot,  but  it  is  not  the  object  of  special  culture.  The  preparation 
of  tigs  requires  too  much  time  and  care,  and  the  price  could  not  repay 
hired  labor.  The  figs  must  be  culled  one  by  one,  when  perfectly  ripe; 
great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bruise  the  fruit  or  sever  the  peduncle* 
The  tigs  are  then  laid  on  cane  hurdles,  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  turned 
over  every  now  and  then  until  perfectly  dry,  that  is,  for  a  period  often 
or  fifteen  days.  As  the  least  exposure  to  moisture  would  turn  the  figs 
black  and  reduce  the  value  by  one-half,  these  hurdles  have  to  be  taken 
in  every  evening,  to  be  again  taken  out  every  morning.  The  difficulties 
of  the  operation  deter  most  farmers  from  undertaking  it,  except  those 
that  own  small  farms  where  everything  must  be  turned  to  account,  and 
that  cultivate  them  themselves  with  no  other  help  than  that  of  their  fam- 
ily.  The  small  quantities  thus  prepared  are  gathered  at  the  end  of  the 
season  by  commercial  travelers,  who  pay  from  1.50  to  2  francs  per  kilo- 
gram for  "Marseillaises"  figs  (which  are  the  most  esteemed  variety), 
and  generally  mix  them  with  figs  imported  from  Italy,  Spain,  Algeria, 
and  the  East.  It  is  in  consequence  impossible  to  form  any  idea  of  the 
importance  of  the  production,  or  of  the  proceeds.  In  1882  the  impor- 
tation of  figs  from  the  above-named  countries  amounted  to  9,964,743 
kilograms,  whereas  the  exportation  was  not  even  given  separately,  for 
it  was  included  in  the  official  returns  with  that  of  other  dried  fruit  not 
elsewhere  specified,  amounting  in  all  to  397,269  kilograms. 

The  climate  of  this  consular  district  does  not  agree  with  orange  and 
lemon  trees,  which  are  not  seen  in  the  open  field  except  at  a  short  dis- 
tance from  Nice. 

J.  S.  MARTIN,  JR., 
Vice  and  Deputy  Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Marseilles,  March  11,  1884. 


756  FBU1T   CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

ITALY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  RICHMOND,    OF  ROME. 
(Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41^.) 

In  Italy  many  varieties  of  the  Ficus  carica  are  cultivated.  The  widest 
spread  of  these  varieties  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  as  follows : 
The^co  gentile  and  the  fico portogliese,  which  are  the  earliest;  the  ver- 
dini  and  brogiotti  neri,  the  brogiotti  bianchi,  the  brianzosi,  the  datteri  or 
dottati  (which  are  thick  skinned).  All  these  varieties  bear  fruit  only 
once  a  year.  The  fico  albo  and  the  fico  San  Pietro  bear  fruit  twice  a 
year.  A  fig  tree  of  medium  size  will  yield  generally  from  44  to  60  kilo- 
grams of  fruit.  Usually  the  fig  is  planted  in  company  with  other  fruit 
trees  (olive,  almond,  and  others);  but  fig  orchards,  where  figs  alone 
are  grown,  may  be  found  (at  Lecce,  for  instance),  and  in  such  cases  the 
trees  must  be  planted  at  such  a  distance  apart  that  when  they  reach  their 
fullest  development  they  may  not  come  in  contact  one  with  the  other; 
(1)  because  the  fig  needs  a  great  deal  of  sun;  and  (2)  because,  otherwise, 
if  the  partial  and  easily  located  infection  called  rizoctonia  should  show 
itself  it  would  spread  rapidly  through  all  the  orchard.  In  many  places 
it  is  the  custom  to  alternate  the  fig,  almond,  and  olive,  so  that  each  fig 
tree  may  be  isolated. 

In  Tuscany  the  figs  called  dottati  are  preferred  for  drying.  They  are 
peeled  and  dried  in  the  sun,  and  then,  with  a  slight  sprinkling  of  anise- 
seed,  are  rolled  into  disks  or  small  loaves.  In  other  cases  the  rind  is 
not  removed,  but  the  fig  is  split  in  two,  flavored  with  anise  or  fennel  seed, 
dried  in  the  sun,  and  so  sent  to  market. 

The  common  purple  or  black  figs  are  dried  in  the  oven  or  in  the  sun, 
just  as  they  come  from  the  tree.  At  Lecce,  Keggio,  Calabria,  Cosenza, 
and  Cotanzaro  this  system  is  adopted.  They  also  make  a  fig  paste  with 
walnuts,  almonds,  cinnamon,  etc.  It  is  customary  to  drop  a  little  honey 
on  them  while  drying. 

There  are  coming  into  use  stoves  with  hot-air  chambers,  especially 
adapted  for  drying  figs  as  well  as  other  fruits. 

LEWIS  KICHMOND, 

Consul-  Gen$raL 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Rome,  April  1,  1884. 


CATANIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL   WOODCOCK,   OF  CATANIA. 
(Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41£).  , 

Of  the  fig  tree  there  are  several  varieties ;  some  yield  a  large  fruit, 
others  small.  The  fruit  also  varies  in  its  degree  of  sweetness ;  also  in 
color  from  white  to  black.  The  fruit  of  some  varaities  ripen  sooner 


FIGS   IN    CATANIA.  757 

than  that  of  others.  The  trees  grow  well  in  poor  or  rich  soil,  and 
bear  abundantly  in  our  mild  climate  (mountain  side,  if  not  too  high), 
or  hot  climate  (of  the  valleys).  The  soil  for  the  fig  must  be  dry.  It 
will  not  flourish  in  wet  ground. 

The  favorite  varieties  here  are  the  Sangiovannaro,  the  Sottuno,  the 
MelinciaiiOj  and  the  Ottato.  The  Ottato  has  smooth  leaves ;  the  pe- 
duncle of  the  flower  and  fruit  is  longer,  and  the  fruit  is  sweeter  than 
of  other  varieties.  The  fruit  of  the  Ottato  is  best  for  drying. 

The  fig  is  here  propagated  from  the  suckers  that  spring  up  from  the 
roots ;  cuttings  from  the  tree  also  are  used  in  propagation.  Cuttings 
in  this  climate  should  be  set  in  the  months  of  February  and  March. 
In  orchards  the  distance  to  be  maintained  between  the  trees  is  8  meters 
(26  feet).  The  fig  is  long-lived,  because  it  is  constantly  being  renewed 
by  shoots  that  put  up  from  the  roots  taking  the  place  of  the  main  trunk 
when  it  becomes  old  and  decayed.  The  soil  must  be  worked  in  the 
spring,  also  in  November  following.  The  best  varieties  are  grafted, 
also  budded  upon  the  stock  of  the  wild  fig.  Grafting  and  budding  are  also 
done  upon  healthy  trees  of  the  best  varieties.  The  time  for  pruning  is 
in  March,  or  when  in  blossom  in  June.  All  dead  and  diseased  branches 
should  be  cut  away.  But  little  pruning  is  necessary.  Too  much  is  ii> 
jurious. 

Figs  here  are  dried  in  the  following  manner :  The  fruit  must  be  gath 
ered  when  partially  ripe.  It  must  not  be  what  is  termed  "  dead  ripe ;" 
in  other  words,  it  must  be  more  green  than  ripe.  When  gathered  give 
the  fruit  a  plunge  bath  in  boiling  water,  removing  them  from  the  water 
quickly.  Then  place  the  fruit  in  a  shady  place.  The  next  morning  at 
sunrise  spread  the  same  upon  a  platform  (not  upon  the  ground,  because 
of  its  dampness),  that  it  may  be  flooded  with  sunlight.  Here  shallow 
willow- work  baskets  are  used  for  holding  the  fruit  while  drying.  These 
are  never  placed  upon  the  ground,  but  in  an  elevated  position.  At 
going  down  of  the  sun  the  fruit  must  be  covered  to  protect  it  from  the 
night  dews  or  unexpected  showers  of  rain.  Continue  thus  for  several 
days  until  the  fruit  becomes  dry. 

When  dry  place  the  fruit  in  layers  in  small  boxes  or  baskets,  artisti- 
cally and  neatly  arranging  the  same.  Press  the  fruit  down  firmly  by 
hand,  and  continue  the  layers  of  fruit  until  the  vessel  is  full.  The  boxes 
(or  baskets)  must  be  securely  covered  and  kept  in  a  dry  place. 

The  culture  of  the  fig  is  not  a  specialty  in  this  part  of  Sicily ;  but  lit- 
tle of  the  fruit  is  exported  from  this  district  and  none  from  Catania  to 
the  United  States. 

The  raisin  grape  is  not  cultivated  here.  The  grapes  grown  in  this 
part  are  manufactured  into  wine. 

For  the  information  given  on  the  culture  of  the  olive  and  fig,  I  am 
indebted  to  our  respected  consular  agent,  Mr.  N.  Stella,  of  Syracuse. 
The  foregoing  statements  about  the  olive  and  fig  are  almost  a  literal 


758         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

rendering  of  his  excellent  Italian  letter  addressed  to  me  on  this  subject. 
Mr.  Stella  has  represented  the  United  States  at  Syracuse  for  thirty-nine 
years  past.  He  is  certainly  a  veteran. 

ALBERT  WOODCOCK, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Catania,  May  21,  1884. 


MESSINA. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  JONES. 

Varieties. — The  best  variety  for  drying  are  the  fico  albo,  white  fig 
(round),  and  the  fico  petrociano,  purple  fig  (oblong).  The  best  variety 
for  eating  when  ripe  are  the  brogiotto,  the  adottato,  the  graziano,  the 
catalano,  the  palermitano,  the  verunio  (winter  fig),  and  the  lardaio. 

Tree  planting. — The  above-named  varieties  are  grown  throughout  this 
province.  They  are  not  planted  by  themselves  but  are  scattered 
through  the  vineyards,  groves,  orchards,  and  pasture-lands. 

Distance  from  sea. — The  fig  thrives  10  miles  from  the  sea-shore.  The 
brogiotto  and  the  petrociano  do  better  near  the  sea  than  any  other 
varieties.  The  graziano  is  ill  adapted  to  low  levels  and  sea-breezes. 

Elevation. — The  fig  does  well  at  an  elevation  of  2,000  feet  above  the 
sea-level. 

Exposure  to  sun.— All  exposures  suit  the  fig.  A  northern  exposure 
is  the  least  desirable. 

Position. — Hill-sides  suit  the  fig  best.  At  but  a  slight  elevation  above 
the  sea  the  fruit  is  insipid  and  soon  spoils.  The  finest  trees  are  to  be 
met  with  at  an  elevation  of  from  900  to  1,200  feet  above  the  sea.  Up- 
land fruit  has  the  highest  flavor  and  the  best  keeping  qualities. 

Soil,  etc. — The  fig  delights  in  a  friable,  dry,  and  somewhat  cold  soil, 
composed  in  special  of  the  detritus  of  calcareous  rocks.  It  shuns  wet 
and  marshy  soils.  The  best  soils  for  figs  for  drying  are  hill-sides  of  dis- 
integrated calcareous  rocks  of  the  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  periods. 
Soils  in  which  sulphur  abound  are  excellent  for  the  fig. 

Climatic  influences. — Spring  frosts  and  autumnal  fogs  are  disastrous 
to  the  fig ;  the  former  kill  the  young  buds  and  the  latter  cause  the 
leaves  to  fall  off,  which  prevents  the  fruit  from  ripening. 
(   Temperature. — The  fig  requires  a  temperature  of  from  28°  to  95° 
Fahr.,  average  temperature,  66°  Fahr. 

Rain-fall. — The  fig  requires  from  22  to  28  inches  of  rain  annually.  It 
suffers  greatly  during  protracted  droughts.  Spring  and  summer  rains 
are  always  of  benefit  to  the  fig.  September  rains  are  most  injurious  ; 
they  are  heavy  and  so  charged  with  nitrogenous  salts  that  they  cause 
the  nearly  ripe  fruit  to  split. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  not  required  by  the  fig.    When  grown  iu 


FIGS    IN   MESSINA.  759 

orange  and  lemon  groves  which  are  subject  to  irrigation  the  fig  pro- 
duces a  large  crop  but  its  fruit  is  inferior  in  quality  and  is  lacking  in 
keeping  qualities. 

Cultivation. — The  fig  might  well  be  called  the  pariah  amongst  plants. 
It  is  rarely  worked — occasionally  the  soil  is  stirred  around  the  base  of 
the  tree  (in  November).  When  grown  with  orange  and  lemon  trees, 
vines,  etc.,  being  worked  when  they  are  worked,  it  comes  into  bearing 
early  and  dies  early. 

Fertilizers. — In  this  district  the  fig  is  not  even  fertilized  with  its  own 
leaves,  which  are  gathered  and  fed  green  to  cattle.  Stable  manure 
does  not  suit  the  fig ;  ashes  and  rags  are  better  adapted  to  it. 

Pruning.— The  fig  is  never  pruned,  as  pruning  causes  the  wood  to 
rot;  dead  branches  only  are  removed. 

Picking  and  curing. — Figs  for  drying  are  left  on  the  trees  until  they 
are  overripe  and  soft.  The  season  for  gathering  depends  upon  the  time 
of  flowering.  The  varieties  that  produce  two  crops  a  year,  such  as  the 
fico  albo  and  the  fico  petrociano,  bear  their  first  crop  in  June  and  July 
and  their  second  crop  in  September  and  October.  The  fruit  of  the  one 
crop  varieties,  the  brogriotto,  graziano,  catalano,  ripen  in  September 
and  October. 

Figs  for  market  are  gathered  at  sunrise  or  at  sunset.  Figs  for  drying 
are  gathered  at  noon. 

A  small  plot  of  land,  near  the  farmer's  house,  is  carefully  swept  and 
inclosed  by  a  temporary  brush  fence.  In  this  space  large  flat  trays, 
made  of  reed  cane,  are  laid  on  the  ground,  an<J  the  figs  to  be  dried  are 
spread  out  upon  them.  The  figs  are  turned  over  daily  at  noon  until 
they  are  thoroughly  dried.  They  are  left  out  at  night  unless  it  rains. 
Some  figs  are  dried  whole,  others  are  cut  in  two.  When  dried  the  figs 
are  strung  on  pieces  of  split  cane  24  inches  in  length.  If  a  tig  does 
not  split  open  when  pressed  between  the  first  finger  and  thumb,  it  is 
thoroughly  dried  and  ready  for  exportation. 

Should  it  rain  on  figs  put  out  to  dry,  they  are  put  in  an  oven  and 
dried.  Figs  dried  in  an  oven  are  inferior  to  those  dried  in  the  sun. 
These  figs  are  never  dipped  in  any  kind  of  solution  whatever.  They  are 
cured  simply  as  above  stated.  The  exporter,  not  the  grower,  boxes  this 
fruit. 

Planting  and  propagating. —Properly  speaking  there  are  no  fig  planta- 
tions. Figs  should  be  planted  from  24  to  36  feet  apart — dwarf  varieties 
from  15  to  24  feet. 

The  best  varieties  are  propagated  by  budding.  The  fig  is  also  propa- 
gated by  cuttings — the  cuttings  are  set  out  in  winter ;  no  manure  is 
used.  Old  fig-trees  are  cut  down  and  the  most  vigorous  shoot  sent  up 
by  their  roots  takes  their  place. 

Maturity. — Very  few  trees  live  forty  years.    The  fig  begins  to  bear 
the  year  it  is  set  out  and  goes  on  bearing  as  long  as  it  lives.    At  twenty 
it  produces  its  maximum  crop. 
156A 24 


760         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Insect  pests. — The  Cossus  ligniperda,  a  large  night  moth,  destroys 
nearly  every  tree  that  it  attacks.  The  homopter,  the  Golumnea  testu- 
dinata,  covers  the  trees  with  little  pustules  (fig-tree  scale  or  mange)  as 
it  feeds  on  the  tender  twigs,  leaves,  and  fruit.  Eemedies :  Bleed  the 
tree  or  sprinkle  it  with  a  mixture  of  kerosene  and  water — nine-tenths 
water  to  one- tenth  kerosene. 

The  Halterophora  Mspanica  eats  into  the  pulp.  Eemedy:  Smoke 
the  tree  during  July  and  August  with  sulphur  fumes. 

There  are  no  parasites  of  the  injurious  insects  of  sufficient  importance 
to  mention. 

WALLACE  S.  JONES, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Messina,  January  27,  1890. 


NAPLES. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  GAMPHAU8EN. 

Varieties. — The  name  of  the  best  variety  for  drying  is  the  Dottato, 
and  for  eating  when  ripe,  the  Troiano.  The  other  varieties  worthy  of 
culture  and  for  profit  are,  the  Samese,  the  Nerolello  and  the  Paradiso. 

Situation. — The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  above  mentioned  are 
grown  in  the  province  of  Naples.  The  Troiano  is  largely  cultivated  on 
the  plains  of  Sorrento,  where  it  attains  a  height  of  from  30  to  40  feet 
and  18  inches  in  diameter.  Some  trees  reach  a  height  of  50  feet  and 
yield  about  900  pounds  of  green  fruit  per  year,  which  matures  between 
August  and  the  first  half  of  October.  Some  of  these  trees  grow  about 
2,200  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea  in  Mojano  near  Sorrento ;  but  fig- 
trees  grow  generally  on  land,  varying  from  300  to  600  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Fies  are  also  largely  cultivated  in  Basilicata  and 
Calabria. 

Climatic  influences. — Rain  is  very  beneficial  to  the  trees  and  also  to 
the  fruit.  What  was  said  regarding  the  climatic  influences  regarding 
lemons  and  oranges,  applies  also  to  figs.  During  the  months  of  June, 
July,  August,  and  part  of  September,  there  is  generally  no  rai*  at  all, 
but  the  atmosphere  is  moist  and  vegetation  hardly  ever  suffers  from 
drought. 

Irrigation. — Fig  trees  do  not  require  any  irrigation ;  neither  are  the 
orchards  cultivated  nor  fertilized. 

Pruning. — Every  two  years  in  the  month  of  January,  in  the  usual 
manner. 

Picking  and  curing. — They  are  picked  from  July  to  September,  when 
they  begin  to  soften  and  the  skins  burst.  After  they  are  picked  they 
are  cut  in  two  and  dried  in  the  sun  and  finally  put  in  boxes.  They  are 
not  dipped  in  any  solution.  The  treatment  is  very  simple,  about  like 
the  drying  of  apples  in  the  United  States. 


FIGS   IN -NAPLES   AND    PALERMO.  761 

Planting  and  propagation. — The  trees  are  planted  about  30  feet  apart, 
and  propagated  from  sprouts,  slips,  or  graftings.  (All  trees  in  this  dis- 
trict are  propagated  by  sprouts.) 

The  orchards  are  of  all  sizes.  They  (fig  trees)  are  usually  planted 
among  other  trees. 

Maturity. — Sometimes  one  hundred  years,  bearing  all  the  time. 
Insect  pests. — The  cocciniglia,  which  must  be  looked  for  and  destroyed 
by  hand.    There  are  no  beneficial  insects. 

Cuttings.— Cuttings  may  be  secured  by  writing  to  Dammann  &  Co., 
at  San  Giovanni  a  Teduccio,  near  Naples. 

EDWARD  CAMPHAUSEN, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Naples,  January  31, 1890. 


PALERMO. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  CARROLL. 

The  introduction  of  the  fig-tree  into  Italy  is  so  remote  that  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  even  approximate  the  period  thereof.  Pliny  refers  to  a  tree 
which  existed  long  anterior  to  the  founding  of  Eome,  under  which  the 
citizens  of  that  city  were  wont  to  assemble  to  discuss  the  topics  of  the 
day,  years  thereafter.  Tradition  ascribes  this  tree  to  have  been  that 
under  which  Remus  and  Eomulus  were  found,  and  in  commemoration 
thereof  it  was  preserved. 

The  fig-tree  grows  spontaneously  in  the  arid  wastes  of  Greece,  Asia, 
and  Northern  Africa.  In  countries  where  the  thermometer  does  not 
fall  below  59°  Fahrenheit,  the  growth  and  maturing  of  the  fig  proceed 
without  any  appreciable  interruption,  but  in  colder  countries  upon  the 
advent  of  the  first  frost  the  fig-tree  loses  its  leaves  and  those  seed 
receptacles  which,  under  favorable  circumstances,  would  have  continued 
to  develop,  harden,  and  remain  inert  until  the  following  spring,  when, 
with  the  return  of  warm  weather,  they  resume  their  growth,  being  the 
first  to  mature  in  the  summer.  The  figs  thus  resulting  are  denom- 
inated u  fig  flowers"  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from  those  which 
first  appear  in  spring  and  mature  later. 

In  hot  countries  the  fig-tree  grows  to  large  proportions,  and  in  isolated 
and  favorable  localities  it  assumes  a  beautiful  form,  without  need  of 
modification  or  pruning.  Its  branches  project  themselves  regularly 
toward  the  earth  from  year  to  year,  and  finally  reaching  and  entering 
it  they  throw  out  new  roots,  thus  forming  additional  sources  of  propa- 
gation. 

The  tree  prospers  best  in  a  deep,  rich,  moist,  calcareous  soil,  but  in  a 
warm  climate  it  will  grow  in  almost  any  soil. 

The  fig  tree  is  propagated  from  the  seed,  slips,  and  roots,  as -well  as 


762        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

by  grafting,  but  the  former  method  is  rarely  resorted  to  on  account  of 
the  slowness  thereof  and  only  under  peculiar  circumstances. 

A  good  method  to  propagate  the  fig  on  a  large  scale  is  to  amputate  a 
young  tree  at  a  point  of  about  two  inches  from  the  ground  and  as  a  re- 
sult, and  soon  thereafter,  a  myriad  of  sprouts  or  branches  present 
themselves  which  in  due  time  may  be  bent  and  the  ends  thereof  buried 
in  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  a  few  inches. 

After  the  branches  in  question  take  root  they  should  be  amputated 
close  to  a  joint,  thus  detatching  them  from  the  parent  tree,  each  of 
which  then  being  a  separate  tree,  may  be  planted  at  pleasure. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  figs,  differing  in  size  and  color,  the  white 
growing  larger,  and,  in  a  fresh  state,  not  standing  transportation. 

The  fig  in  most  favor  here  is  that  known  as  the  "  Indian  fig."  It  is  a 
native  of  South  America  and  is  the  dried  fig  of  Italian  commerce.  It 
only  prospers,  however  in  southern  countries,  and  in  calcareous  ground 
without  too  much  moisture,  etc. 

PHILIP  CARROLL, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Palermo,  March  7, 1890. 


SICILY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  LAMANTIA,   OF  CATANIA. 

Varieties. — The  name  of  the  best  variety  for  drying  is  the  Dottato,  an 
excellent  quality  of  fig  largely  cultivated.  Figs  with  fine  peel  and 
small  seeds  are  also  worthy  of  culture  and  best  for  drying. 

The  names  of  best  varieties  for  eating,  when  ripe,  are  the  Sangiovan* 
tiaro ;  the  Datternolo  (an  early  fruit),  and  the  Natalino  (a  late  fruit). 

The  other  varieties,  worthy  of  culture  and  for  profit,  are  the  Melan- 
zana  ;  the  Olivuzza  (a  small  fruit),  and  the  Ficazzana  (a  very  large  fig). 

In  reference  to  the  latter,  I  desire  to  mention  it,  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  an  extraordinary  large  black  fruit,  bearing  twice  a  year,  viz,  about 
the  end  of  June ;  and  the  second  crop,  larger  than  the  first  oae,  com- 
mences in  August  and  lasts  till  the  end  of  October.  This  fig,  how- 
ever, is  not  for  drying  purposes,  but  simply  for  eating  when  fresh.  The 
fig  is  so  large  that  six  generally  weigh  about  2  pounds. 

Situation. — The  trees  producing  said  varieties  grow  around  Mount 
Etna,  as  well  as  in  the  low  lauds  of  this  province,  from  300  to  6,000 
meters  from  the  sea-shore,  and  from  500  to  600  meters  above  sea-level. 
When  exposed  to  sun,  on  level  ground,  they  yield  more  fruit,  but  those 
on  hilly,  rolling  land  produce  them  sweeter.  The  same  grow  also  by 
the  sea-coast,  and  either  in  poor  or  rich  soils.  The  soil  must  be 
«*ather  dry,  for  in  wet  ground  the  fig-tree  does  not  flourish  well. 


PIGS   IN   SICILY.  763 

Climate. — The  minim  am  temperature  is  5  centigrades  in  January ;  the 
maximum  35  in  August,  and  17  average  in  May. 

The  sweetest  drying  figs  are  grown  in  mild  climate  laud,  while  those 
in  warm  regions  are  fit  for  eating  when  fresh.  Rain-fall  in  this  prov- 
ince is  known  to  be  at  an  average  of  25  to  30  inches  per  year.  Rain 
favors  these  fruits  greatly  when  they  are  small,  before  maturity ;  but 
when  full  ripe  it  hurts  them  badly,  making  them  lose  their  natural, 
sweet  flavor. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  never  resorted  to,  the  rain-fall  being  suf- 
ficient. 

Cultivation. — Cultivation  is  very  simple,  and  it  does  not  require  much 
labor  to  be  done.  A  good  digging  in  summer  and  winter  time  is  more 
than  sufficient.  The  planting  is  seldom  done  by  rows  and  the  trees 
are  generally  spread  out  through  vineyards  and  olive  groves,  where 
they  grow  and  bear  well. 

Fertilizers. — This  plant,  as  a  rule,  is  never  manured  in  Sicily  5  but  in 
arid  lands  it  is  always  better  to  remove  from  time  to  time  the  ground, 
in  order  to  give  its  base  some  fresh  air. 

Pruning. — Pruning  is  done  by  cutting  off  all  the  dead  branches,  and 
the  best  time  to  do  so  is  in  the  months  of  March  and  June,  or  when  the 
pitch  is  dry.  In  hot  climates,  however,  pruning  is  not  necessary,  for 
the  reason  that  the  plant  is  one  of  those  which,  left  to  itself,  yields 
always  many  fruits. 

Picking. — Picking  is  done  when  the  fruit  is  fully  ripe,  and  generally 
not  before  the  sun  is  up,  so  that  the  fruit  is  dried  from  the  night  dew. 
The  process  of  drying  is  very  simple,  and  is  as  follows : 

Curing. — When  the  figs  are  thus  gathered  they  are  cut  in  two,  and  so 
set  on  planks  and  exposed  to  the  hot  'sun's  rays  for  drying.  Every 
once  in  awhile  they  are  turned  to  be  dried  on  both  sides.  In  the  even- 
ing, however,  they  are  taken  into  houses,  or  are  well  covered,  to  pro- 
tect them  from  the  night  dew,  dampness,  or  rain.  After  four  or  five  days, 
when  they  are  sticky  dry,  they  are  pressed  by  hand,  facing  one  another 
together  on  the  pulp  sides,  and  then  they  are  strung  together  with  a 
big  needle  and  twine  and  formed  in  reste  (traces)  of  about  2  feet  long. 
Others,  dried  in  the  same  way,  are  passed  through  small  sticks  and 
formed  in  chiappe  (square  tables)  of  about  1J  feet  each  way.  After  this 
has  been  done  the  figs  so  dried  and  prepared  are  dipped  for  a  few  min- 
utes in  hot  water,  to  prevent  them  from  fermentation,  and  exposed  to 
sun  again  for  drying. 

The  small  figs,  however,  are  picked,  dried,  and  cured  in  the  same 
way,  but  not  cut  open,  and  pressed  and  packed  with  some  laurel  leaves 
in  boxes,  containing  25  pounds,  and  in  round  or  square  baskets  for 
shipping,  many  of  which  are  exported  to  the  United  States. 

Planting  and  propagating. — The  distance  planted  apart  is  from  20  to 
30  feet.  They  are  not  planted  in  rows,  but  are  generally  scattered  in 
vineyards  and  olive  groves,  where  they  grow  and  produce  well.  Prop- 


764        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

agation  is  generally  done  by  succhioni  (suckers)  springing  from  the 
roots,  or  by  talee  (cuttings).  Seeding  propagation  is  seldom  used,  as  it 
is  difficult,  and  trees  so  obtained  take  a  long  time  to  bear.  The  orchards 
are  small  ones  in  some  localities,  while  in  others  are  pretty  large  and 
give  favorable  production. 

Maturity. — The  fig-tree  lives  very  long  and  almost  perennial,  for  the 
reason  that  shoots  springing  from  the  roots  take  place  of  the  old  trunks 
on  decaying. 

Insect  pests. — The  insects  injuring  the  fruit  and  tree  are :  The  Bostrico 
(Bostricus  fid) ;  the  Cocciniglia  (Ceroplastes  caricae),  and  the  Psilla 
(Psyllafici). 

The  Bostrico  is  a  very  small  insect,  which  digs  a  gallery  in  the  trunk 
under  the  bark,  causing  the  tree  to  rot,  and  dies.  Said  insects  during 
the  fall  and  winter  abide  in  lethargy  under  the  bark  of  the  tree,  and 
in  summer,  after  they  have  joined  together  with  the  females,  go  on  the 
branches  to  deposit  their  eggs. 

The  u  cochineal"  is  known  from  the  remotest  times.  At  first  blush 
it  appears  like  a  small  piece  of  whitish  wax,  and,  in  fact,  this  insect, 
from  its  chemical  composition,  is  of  a  wax  nature,  and,  like  the  other 
cochineals,  the  females  protect  under  them  their  eggs,  and  when  dead 
their  corpses  act  as  a  covering. 

The  fig  tree,  badly  attacked  by  the  said  insect,  follows  the  same  phe- 
nomenon as  the  olive  tree  and  acid  fruit  trees,  in  similar  conditions. 
The  leaves  become  covered  with  a  sort  of  black  smoke,  owing  to  a  very 
small  microbus  (fumago)  generating  from  the  sticky  substance  which 
forms  the  so-called  melata  (sugar  and  gum)  exuded  from  the  leaves, 
on  account  of  the  cochineal's  presence,  although  they  stay  on  the 
branches  and  not  on  the  leaves.  The  damages  brought  the  fig  tree  by 
the  cochineals  it  is  useless  to  speak  of,  as  they  are  identical  to  those 
caused  by  other  cochineal  and  aphis.  The  former  insect  is  a  very 
singular  parasite,  belonging  to  the  ealcididei's  family.  To  destroy  the 
same,  it  is  necessary  to  cut  all  the  branches  off,  when  badly  attacked, 
and  burn  them. 

The  psylla  is  quite  different  from  the  olive  psylla.  It  generally  lives 
on  the  leaves,  sucking  their  humors  and  causing  the  tree  to  become 
quite  a  skeleton.  Besides  destroying  them,  the  branches  thrive  ill,  the 
fruits  fail,  and  the  tree  remains  damaged.  The  insect  is  a  little  larger 
than  the  olive's  psylla,  with  greenish  body  and  large  transparent  wings. 
The  larva  seems  to  have  no  waxen  secretion,  for  the  fact  that  no  such 
substance  is  seen  on  the  leaves  like  soft  cotton. 

VINCENT  LAMANTIA, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

January  22, 1890, 


FIGS   IN    PORTUGAL   AND    SPAIN.  765 

PORTUGAL. 
THE  AZORES. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  figs  is  produced,  but  they  are  consumed 
in  a  fresh  state,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  proportion  converted  into 
an  ordinary  brandy  for  home  consumption.  Scarcely  any  are  dried,  the 
climate  being  unfavorable  to  the  operation. 

S.  W.  DABNEY, 

Consul. 
FATAL,  1884. 


SPAIN. 
MALAGA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MARSTON. 

Varieties. — The  names  of  the  best  varieties  for  drying  and  eating  when 
green  are  the  Hijo  Verdijo,  thin  skin,  white,  and  very  sweet  when  green 
and  ripe ;  the  Hijos  Blanco,  a  white  fig  with  harder  skin,  and  the  Hijo 
Panetijo,  brown  in  color,  inclined  to  purple.  All  the  above  are  good  to 
eat  either  fresh  or  as  they  say  here  "  green,"  or  can  be  dried  as  figs. 
The  quality  is  in  accordance  with  the  order  in  which  they  are  given. 

The  trees  that  produce  the  varieties  of  above-named  figs  are  grown 
throughout  all  the  province  of  Pralaja,  Granada,  Almeria,  Sevilla,  and 
all  other  provinces  of  Southern  Spain. 

Situation. — Distance  from  sea,  2  kilometers  j  elevation  above  sea-level, 
100  feet.  The  more  sun  the  better.  Hilly  land  is  the  best.  Sandy  sub- 
soil is  best. 

Climatic  influences. — Temperature,  45°,  90°,  and  78°  Fahrenheit. 

No  record  of  rain -fall  to  be  had  here. 

The  trees  require  no  more  water  than  falls  naturally  in  rain. 

Irrigation. — No  irrigation  for  figs. 

Cultivation. — Dig  around  the  roots  in  the  latter  part  of  November  or 
December,  to  the  depth  of  18  inches,  and  use  stable  manure. 

Fertilizers. — None  used  here. 

Pruning. — In  the  month  of  December,  by  cutting  the  ends  of  all  pro- 
jecting branches. 

Picking. — In  month  of  August,  when  full  ripe  and  when  the  sun  is 
shining  brightest. 

Curing  and  packing. — When  the  figs  are^quite  ripe  they  are  picked  only 
on  fine  days,  during  sunshine,  and  arecured  in  the  same  way  that  raisins 
are  dried.  The  sun  furnishes  all  the  heat  required.  It  is  enough  to  con- 
struct simple  divisions  made  of  either  brick  or  stone,  exposed  to  its 
rays,  in  an  inclined  position,  say  10  yards  long  and  2  yards  wide.  The 


766         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

divisions  or  apartments  are  built  up  at  one  end  with  a  sort  of  trian- 
gular masonry,  which,  from  afar,  gives  them  the  appearance  of  a  range 
of  uniform  tombs.  The  triangle  is  so  constructed  that  the  sun,  during 
clear  days,  never  fails'to  shine  upon  the  contents,  the  interior  of  these 
divisions  or  compartments  being  filled  with  fine  gravel  which  attracts 
the  heat. 

Immediately  after  picking,  the  figs  are  placed  in  these  divisions,  and 
are  exposed  to  the  heat  of  the  burning  Andalusian  sun  of  August. 
Never,  it  appears,  have  they  dreamed  of  ascertaining  the  degree  of  heat 
thus  obtained,  but  the  experienced  cultivator  affirms  that  they  do,  during 
the  heat  of  August,  attain  a  temperature  of  145°  Fahrenheit. 

At  night-fall  a  very  simple  method  of  covering  is  applied  to  guard  the 
figs  from  the  heavy  dews  or  rain,  either  of  sail-cloth  or  heavy  canvas,  so 
arranged  that  it  covers  entirely  the  figs  that  are  drying  within,  and 
being  supplied  with  rings  on  the  two  sides,  slide  up  and  down  as  a 
curtain  at  a  moment's  notice,  in  many  places  planks  or  boards  are  used 
for  covering,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  sort  of  roof.  The  tigs  during 
the  process  of  drying,  which  occupies  from  ten  to  fifteen  days,  are  turned 
over  and  over,  in  order  that  they  may  dry  and  color  uniformly.  When 
completely  dried  they  are  then  packed  in  boxes,  or  frails,  the  latter 
made  of  the  palm  leaf  dried,  nailed  or  sewed  up,  and  are  then  ready  for 
shipment.  They  are  not  dipped  in  any  solution. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Planted  apart  about  5  yards,  and  propa- 
gated by  planting  a  branch  when  the  tree  is  beginning  to  bud. 

The  orchards  are  mostly  large. 

Maturity. — The  tree  begins  to  yield  in  six  years  and  lives  seventy- 
five  to  one  hundred  years. 

Insect  pests. — There  are  no  insect  pests  or  parasites. 

Cuttings. — Cuttings  can  be  secured  by  arranging  with  some  grower 
of  figs  to  give  or  sell  the  cuttings  about  the  time  of  sprouting. 

H.  C.  MARSTON, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Malaga,  December  6,  1889. 


TURKEY. 

REPORT  ST  CONSUL-GENERAL  HEAP,  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41|.] 

Production. — The  fruit  of  the  fig  tree  may  be  reckoned  among  the 
staple  foods  of  man  for  ages  before  cereals  were  cultivated  by  any 
settled  agricultural  population.  In  the  temperate  regions,  where  it 
thrives  best,  it  fills  the  place  of  the  banana  of  tropical  climates,  and 
yields  fruit  during  several  months  of  the  year.  In  Asia  Minor,  where 


FIGS    IN    TURKEY.  767 

tbe  tree  is  found  wild  and  where  the  best  figs  of  commerce  are  grown, 
it  is  extremely  fruitful. 

The  best  figs  for  drying  come  from  the  valleys  of  the  Meander  and 
the  Kaistros,  to  the  south  of  Smyrna,  where  the  trees  are  planted  with 
great  regularity  and  care,  and  the  ground  is  dug  and  hoed  from  four  to 
six  times  during  the  summer.  When  the  figs  reach  Smyrna  they  are 
sorted  by  women  and  packed  in  boxes  by  men.  They  are  best  when 
newly  packed,  and  as  months  go  by  get  drier  and  harder  in  the  ware- 
house. Xo  one  who  has  not  eaten  them  in  the  Levant,  packed  in  the 
ornamental  drums  in  which  they  are  sold  for  local  consumption,  knows 
what  the  best  figs  are  like.  The  cardboards  of  the  fig  boxes  are  sup- 
plied chiefly  by  Belgium  and  Austria. 

Two  seasons  ago  54,000  camel-loads  of  4  hundredweight  each  had 
reached  Smyrna  by  the  22d  of  October  of  that  year;  and  the  production 
increases  annually.  Fifteen  years  before  that  time  not  more  than  half 
that  amount  was  recorded  for  the  whole  season. 

England,  Germany,  and  the  United  States  take  the  greatest  part  of 
the  figs  exported.  France,  where  the  smaller  and  much  inferior  figs  of 
the  Mediterranean  are  consumed,  takes  little  of  the  finer  kind  of  the 
figs  of  Smyrna. 

The  improved  facilities  of  transport  which  have  so  much  increased 
the  stock  brought  to  market  have  also  brought  down  prices.  Taking 
averages,  prices  ranged  about  ten  years  ago  from  $4.08  the  kintal  (112 
pounds)  for  Aidin  figs,  to  $8.75  for  Blame's,  while  the  very  best,  the 
Bkinis,  sometimes  brought  $19.22  the  kintal,  or  nearly  16J  cents  per 
pound.  Now  small  parcels  of  excellent  quality  bring  about  $6.60  the 
kintal. 

Although  throughout  the  world  there  are  to  be  found  about  one  hun- 
dred different  species  of  figs,  only  some  five  or  six  kinds  are  cultivated 
in  this  country.  Of  these,  the  best  description  are  called  Ele"me",  and  are 
grown  most  largely  and  in  the  greatest  perfection  in  the  districts  around 
Smyrna ;  but  considerable  quantities  are  also  grown  in  other  parts  of 
Asia  Minor.  The  fruit  is  of  various  colors,  from  deep  purple  to  yellow 
or  nearly  white.  The  tree  usually  bears  two  crops,  one  in  the  early 
summer  from  the  buds  of  the  previous  year  and  the  other  in  the  autumn 
from  those  of  the  spring  growth.  The  last  forms  the  chief  harvest. 

Yield. — The  trees  are  propagated  by  seeds  and  suckers,  and  frequently 
by  layers  and  cuttings.  When  young  they  require  care  in  pruning,  and 
the  immature  fruit  formed  late  in  the  summer  should  be  removed  to 
strengthen  the  shoots. 

The  Ficus  carica,  which  yields  the  well-known  figs  of  commerce,  is  a 
bush  or  small  tree,  rarely  more  than  18  or  20  feet  in  height,  with  broad, 
rough,  deciduous  leaves,  very  deeply  lobed  in  the  cultivated  variety,  but 
in  the  wild  plant  nearly  entire.  After  the  young  tree  attains  maturity 
it  receives  but  little  care  beyond  being  occasionally  lopped  in  places  and 
being  well  manured  in  the  fall  of  the  year.  The  fruit  begins  to  ripen  at 


768        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

* 

the  end  of  June,  and  the  summer  yield,  which  gives  employment  to  a 
large  population,  comes  to  market  in  immense  quantities  in  September 
and  October,  The  trees  sometimes  give  a  third  crop,  which  ripens  after 
the  leaves  have  fallen. 

Curing. — When  ripe  the  figs  are  picked  and  spread  out  to  dry  in  the 
sun,  the  sugar  which  they  contain  in  abundance  being  thus  rendered 
available  for  their  preservation,  those  of  better  quality  being  much 
pulled  and  extended  by  hand  during  the  process.  Thus  prepared,  the 
fruit  is  packed  closely  in  barrels,  rush  baskets,  or  wooden  boxes  for 
commerce.  Recently  the  practice  of  preserving  fresh  undried  figs  has 
been  adopted,  but  the  amount  used  in  that  form  is  as  yet  insignificant 
compared  with  the  quantities  that  are  preserved  by  drying. 

OBSERVATIONS. 

Figs,  especially  when  fresh,  are  largely  used  by  the  local  population 
as  an  article  of  food.  The  trade  in  this  fruit  is  of  long  standing  and  of 
very  considerable  importance  in  this  country.  During  the  year  1880-'81 
Smyrna  district  exported  6,991J  tons,  worth  at  the  port  of  shipment 
$1,646,998.89.  The  exportations  were  principally  to  England,  Ger- 
many, the  United  States,  and  France.  In  one  fortnight  no  fewer  than 
195,000  barrels,  cases,  bags,  boxes,  drums,  and  baskets  of  figs  and  ra- 
sins  were  shipped  from  Smyrna  alone.  The  export  trade  of  figs  at  the 
other  Turkish  ports  is  unimportant  in  comparison  with  Smyrna.  Figs 
are  grown  largely  in  the  other  provinces  of  Turkey,  but  .the  quantity 
exported  is  small  compared  with  Smyrna.  They  produce  but  little  more 
than  is  sufficient  to  meet  the  local  demand,  but  if  railroads  existed  in 
the  interior  the  production  would  be  immensely  increased. 

It  is  probably  not  generally  known  that  a  considerable  quantity  of 
the  inferior  kinds  of  figs  find  their  way  to  the  Austrian  "  chicory  coffee 
makers"  and  the  French  brandy  distillers.  Much  liquor  labeled  "fine 
champagne,"  u  cognac,"  et  c.,  owes  its  origin  to  the  refuse  of  the  Smyrna 
fig  market. 

G.  H.  HEAP, 
Consul- General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Constantinople,  April  10,  1884.  * 


DARDANELLES. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  OALVERT 

Varieties. — Figs  are  not  dried  here.  The  best  variety  for  eating  when 
ripe  is  the  Syah  Ingir  (Black  fig). 

Trees. — Very  few  trees  of  other  kinds  are  cultivated.  The  trees  pro- 
ducing these  figs  are  grown  in  Thracian  Chersonese,  Dardanelles  coast, 
and  elsewhere.  They  are  planted  from  the  sea  inland,  but  not  above 
1,500  feet,  and  open  to  all  exposures. 


FIGS    IN   DARDANELLES.  769 

Soils,  etc. — All  soils  and  position,  rocky  ground  with  sunny  exposure, 
produce  the  best  flavored  fruit. 

Alluvial,  light,  and  stony  soil  in  general ;  hard  subsoil  is  best  suited 
to  the  fig. 

Climatic  influences.-* Rarely  above  90°  or  below  5°  Fahr. 

Rain-fall. — Thirty  inches  per  annum.  Much  rain  is  apt  to  cause  the 
fruit  when  ripening  to  split  and  decay. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  not  practiced. 

Cultivation. — No  method  of  cultivation  practiced. 

Fertilizers. — No  fertilizers  are  applied. 

Pruning. — No  pruning.     Suckers  are  removed. 

Picking. — When  the  fruit  matures  the  early  morning  is  the  best  time 
for  picking. 

Planting  and  propagating. — Trees  are  planted  from  15  to  30  feet.  The 
ordinary  method  of  propagation  is  to  take  a  cutting  (or  branch  torn  off 
preferred)  3  to  4  feet  in  length,  with  terminal  bud.  A  trench  about 
20  inches  deep  is  made,  the  branch  is  layered  with  the  end  projecting  4  to 
8  inches  above  ground.  If  the  summer  be  dry,  a  little  water  is  given 
the  first  year.  Suckers  and  spray- wood  are  not  generally  planted  (un- 
less to  be  grafted  like  the  wild  fig)  as  they  produce  fruit  inferior  to  that 
of  the  parent  tree. 

Orchards. — All  sizes. 

Maturity. — Fifty  to  a  hundred  years.  Fruitful  till  decay.  The  stem, 
when  it  decays,  is  almost  always  replaced  by  its  offshoots. 

Caprification. — A  contested  question  is  that  of  caprification.  The 
prevailing  idea  is,  the  parasite  of  the  Ficus  carica,  or  wild  fig  (called  by 
the  natives  the  male  fig),  fertilizes  the  cultivated  tree.  The  Blastophaga 
grossorum  and  Cynips  sycomori  are  now  recognized  to  be  the  apterous 
male  and  winged  female  of  the  same  insect.  So  rooted  is  the  idea  that 
in  a  year  of  scarcity  the  puff  figs  are  sold  at  $2  and  $3  per  pound  to 
suspend  on  tho  cultivated  fig-tree.  A  series  of  observations  have  been 
made  to  test  the  theory  in  different  countries.  I  was  requested  by  Sir 
S.  Saunders,  of  the  Entomological  Society  of  London,  to  contribute  by 
the  examination  of  the  fig-trees  in  these  parts.  Like  all  the  other  ob- 
servers, I  found  the  parasites  and  their  ichneumonidse  in  abundance  in 
the  wild  fruit,  but  failed  to  discover  any  trace  of  these  insects  in  the 
cultivated  fruit  at  any  stage  of  its  development. 

Insect  pests. — A  kind  of  blow-fly  attacks  the  fruit  sometimes  when 
mature,  especially  when  damaged  by  rain. 

Cuttings  of  best  varieties  can  easily  be  secured. 

The  matter  relating  to  the  parasites  was  published  in  the  Entomo- 
logical Monthly  Journal  (London).  No  Government  statistics  exist. 

FRANK  CALVEBT, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Dardanelles,  February  11,  1890. 


rv. 


THE  VINE. 


771 


CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 
MOROCCO. 

I 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MATHEWS,  OF  TANGIER. 

(Eepublished  from  Consular  Eeports,  No.  41$.) 

The  grape-vine  is  truly  a  cosmopolitan  plant ;  is  a  gross  feeder ;  it  will 
flourish  in  the  richest  soil  as  well  as  in  the  poorest,  on  hills  and  in 
valleys  and  amongst  rocks ;  in  fact  it  will  grow  and  its  roots  will  find 
their  way  in  the  smallest  crevices  of  rocks,  where  no  other  plant  will 
grow  ;  the  vine  will  stand  repeated  droughts  as  well  as  the  most  severe 
winters.  The  preferable  soil  is  that  which  contains  alkali  and  lime. 
Manure  will  increase  the  yield  of  fruit  and  assist  in  resisting  diseases 
and  insects. 

The  vine  will  live  in,  bat  is  impatient  of,  continued  or  stagnant  wet 
soil. 

The  vine  raised  from  cuttings  is  capable  of  producing  a  given  quantity 
of  wood  and  fruit  to  perfection,  and  if  allowed  to  exceed  that  propor- 
tionate quantity,  a  small,  unripe  fruit,  and  rusting,  shriveling,  or  other 
evils  will  be  certain  consequences. 

When  a  little  less  proportion  of  wood  and  fruit  than  the  vine  can 
mature  is  left  on  it  no  evil  can  be  derived,  but  certain  advantages. 

The  vine  bears  on  shoots  of  the  present  year  out  of  the  wood  of  last 
year ;  hence  the  practice  of  leaving  a  sufficient  quantity  of  last  year's 
wood. 

There  are  numerous  ways  of  pruning  vines ;  every  country,  in  fact 
every  province,  has  its  favorite  way ;  but  always  bearing  in  mind  that 
so  long  as  a  proper  quantity  of  last  year's  wood  be  preserved,  and  not 
too  much  be  left  to  push  fruit  and  wood,  a  vine  will  bear,  the  actual 
style  of  pruning  and  training  may  be  suited  to  the  place  in  which  it  has 
to  grow.  In  Jerez  and  other  places  they  cut  the  first  roots  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil,  to  allow  the  lower  roots  all  the  force  to  penetrate  deeper 
in  the  soil ;  in  other  places  they  condemn  this  practice.  Still,  the  Jerez 
vineyards,  treated  as  stated,  leave  nothing  to  be  desired. 

The  length  of  barren  stem  before  the  branches  are  allowed  to  start  is 
immaterial ;  therefore  a  vine  with  its  bearing  wood  30  feet  high  on  the 
roof  of  a  house  and  a  bare  stem  all  up  the  front  will  give  as  much  and 
as  fine  fruit  as  a  fellow- vine  with  its  bearing  wood  within  a  foot  of  the 
ground. 

77S 


774  FRUIT   CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  vine  is  propagated  from  cuttings,  by  grafting,  by  layering,  from 
eyes,  and  by  seed. 

The  vines  propagated  from  cuttings,  graftings,  layering,  and  from  eyes, 
being  the  direct  issue  of  wood  centuries  old  without  intermixture,  are 
sooner  or  later  liable  to  run  out  by  impoverishment  and  produce  numer 
ous  diseases  and  evils,  and  lastly  the  phylloxera,  although  it  is  said 
that  a  well-manured  and  well-kept  vine  will  not  be  troubled  by  the  lat- 
ter pest. 

Propagation  from  seed  is  the  most  natural,  and  more  important  and 
certain  of  success  than  all  others.  It  is  from  seeds  that  the  innumer- 
able varieties  are  obtained.  A  vineyard  reared  from  seed  will  not  be 
troubled  by  the  phylloxera,  even  if  the  surrounding  vineyards  are  all 
infested  with  the  pest.  The  strong  phosphor  and  youth  in  the  vine 
raised  from  seeds  will  not  permit  the  phylloxera  to  live ;  whereas  the 
exhausted  vine  raised  from  cuttings,  the  origin  of  which  is  perhaps 
centuries  old,  and  which  have  lost  those  peculiar  defensive  fluids  of 
phosphor  and  potash,  will  breed  the  phylloxera,  in  the  same  manner  as 
parasites  and  other  miseries  are  created  on  old,  wasted,  careless  men 
or  poor  animals. 

Propagation  from  seed  is  a  very  simple  operation.  Obtain  seeds  from 
all  the  finest  varieties  of  grapes  and  raisins;  sow  the  seeds  in  compost  of 
loam,  sandy  soil,  and  dung  manure,  equal  quantities,  in  the  month  of  Janu- 
ary or  February  if  in  Upper  California,  or  in  November  or  December  in 
Lower  California.  They  will  grow  rapidly,  and  as  soon  as  they  can  be 
handled  well  plant  out  the  desired  distance  5  or  6  feet  each  way,  and  water 
well  with  manure  water,  and  they  will  make  a  good  growth  the  first  sea- 
son. They  should  be  fastened  as  they  advance  to  prevent  the  wind  from 
breaking  them,  and  they  may  be  then  treated  and  trained  like  plants 
from  cuttings  or  eyes  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough.  On  the  sixth 
year  they  will  bear  fruit,  which  will  improve  in  size  and  quality  as  they 
advance  in  age.  On  the  seventh  year  the  selection  is  made,  leaving  the 
finest  varieties,  and  grafting  those  varieties  which  may  not  be  found 
acceptable ;  they  can  be  grafted  from  the  others  or  from  any  other  old 
plants,  as  the  young  roots  will  stand  the  attacks  of  all  pests.  When  no 
selection  of  new  varieties  is  desired,  seedlings  can  be  grafted  when  two 
years  old  of  cuttings  imported  from  foreign  countries  of  the^  finest, 
choicest  varieties.  When  planted  the  results  are  uncertain,  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  new  soil  when  they  are  set,  while  choice  seeds  on  new 
soil  are  certain  of  producing  some  of  the  most  excellent  varieties,  par- 
ticularly if  the  young  plants  are  encouraged  by  attentive  cultivation. 

Manures. — Eeturn  to  the  vine  all  that  which  it  has  given  with  frhe 
exception  of  the  wine.  Here  is  the  great  reform,  of  easy  execution  and 
fecund  results.  The  lees  and  drosses  of  the  wine-press  and  of  the  casks 
where  the  wines  have  fermented,  the  skins  of  the  grapes,  the  ashes  of  the 
cuttings,  and  the  residue  of  the  distillery  after  evaporation  has  taken 
place  until  dry  in  the  open  air — these  are  the  most  precious  manures 
for  the  vine,  owing  to  their  richness  in  alkaline  salts. 


THE    VINE    IN   MOROCCO.  775 

Phylloxeric  Congress. — The  members  of  the  Internationa  I  Phylloxeric 
Congress,  which  had  its  session  at  Bordeaux,  affirmed  that  they  obtained 
satisfactory  results  in  their  vineyards  by  submersion. 

The  submersion,  according  to  their  opinion,  gives  luxuriance  to  the 
wines,  because  water  supplies  phosphor  and  potash,  both  of  which  ele- 
ments are  indispensable  to  those  plants,  and  of  which  elements  much 
is  used  up  in  the  shoots,  leaves,  and  fruits  yielded  annually,  and  sub- 
mersion restitutes  them  in  the  proportion  which  is  mixed  with  water. 

The  submersion  should  be  made  by  leaving  the  water  standing  in  the 
vineyard,  as  in  this  manner  the  phylloxera  dies  quicker  by  drowning  for 
want  of  air,  because  if  the  submersion  is  made  through  running  water, 
the  current  of  which  carries  air  with  it,  the  insect  is  not  destroyed. 

Phylloxera  takes  a  longer  time  to  die  by  submersion  in  winter,  on 
account  of  the  slower  evaporation  of  the  water. 

Finally,  submersion  will  always  give  good  results  if  it  brings  to  the 
vine  the  necessary  quantity  of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid. 

These  are  the  conclusions  arrived  at  in  the  discussion  sustained  by 
the  vine-growers,  who  agreed  on  this  point  with  scientific  men,  each  side 
of  which  brought  forward  their  arguments. 

FELIX  A.  MATHEWS, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Tangier  April  2, 1884. 
156A 25 


CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 
ECUADOR. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  BEACH,  OF  GUAYAQUIL,. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  4LJ.] 

Until  very  recently  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  grow  grapes  in  Ec- 
uador, except  here  and  there  vines  about  dwelling-houses.  These  have 
been  grown  on  frames  or  poles,  and  with  little  or  no  attention  to  prun- 
ing or  cultivation.  Nearly  all  classes  of  grapes  can  be  grown  to  per- 
fection. Of  late  some  attention  has  been  given  to  the  subject  in  the 
interior;  and  on  mountain  sides,  between  ranges  of  the  Andes,  at  an 
altitude  of  from  6,000  to  8,000  feet  (the  soil  decomposed  lava),  small 
•vineyards  have  been  started  with  very  favorable  results,  indifferent  cui- 
tiva  ion  considered.  The  vines  are  set  by  digging  a  hole  with  a  hoe, 
and  are  cultivated  only  by  the  use  of  a  machete — a  long,  broad-bladed 
knife—with  which  all  other  vegetation  is  cut  down.  The  land  costs 
little  or  nothing,  and  the  laborer  is  paid  20  cents  a  day  and  kept. 
The  vines  are  grown  to  stakes.  As  considerable  wine  is  consumed  in 
the  country,  the  National  Congress,  now  in  session,  to  promote  grape 
culture,  has  passed  a  law  that  all  persons  engaged  in  their  cultivation 
shall  be  exempt  from  military  service — a  great  inducement  to  engage  in 
the  pursuit,  as  the  numerous  revolutions  have  made  frequent  calls  for 
soldiers,  retarding  all  industries.  The  value  of  the  grape  crop  per  acre 
can  be  approximated  by  the  value  oi  wine,  the  most  common  bringing 
$1.25  per  gallon.  The  yield  of  grapes  would  doubtless  be  as  large  as 
elsewhere  under  similar  cultivation.  It  is  not  known  that  grapes  may 
not  be  grown  in  any  section  of  the  country.  The  general  conditions 
appear  to  be  favorable  for  the  growth  of  raisin-grapes,  but  I  can  not 
ascertain  that  the  experiment  of  growing  them  has  ever  been  tested 
here. 

HORATIO  M.  BEACH, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Guayaquil,  February  26, 1884. 
776 


CONTINENT  OP  ASIA. 
ASIA  MINOR. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  STEVENS.  OF  SMYRNA. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41J.] 

Aidin. — The  vilayet  of  Aidin  contains  about  35,500  square  miles,  and 
has  a  population  of  nearly  1,000,000.  It  is  the  most  productive  and  in 
all  respects  the  most  important  section  of  Asia  Minor.  It  lies  in  lati- 
tude north  38°  28'  7",  west  1°  50'  44"  longitude  of  Constantinople,  com- 
pared with  the  meridan  of  St.  Sophia.  Two  considerable  rivers  flow 
through  it.  The  arable  surface  is  made  up  of  valley,  table-land,  and  hill- 
side. The  soil,  except  in  the  more  mountainous  districts,  is  extremely 
fertile  and  easily  tilled.  The  climate  is  mild  and  admits  of  field  labor 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Climatic  effects. — The  cultivation  of  fruits,  tigs,  and  raisin-grapes,  es- 
pecially, is  extensively  earned  on.  Smyrna  figs  have  a  world- wide  rep- 
utation for  excellence.  The  raisins  produced  are  also  of  superior  qual- 
tiy.  The  natural  conditions  are  favorable,  and  to  this  fact  more  than  to 
the  methods  pursued  in  cultivation  must  be  ascribed  the  success  at- 
tained. To  reach  the  fullest  development  of  which  these  fruits  are  capa- 
ple  a  semi-tropical  sun,  unobscured  by  clouds  during  the  summer  months 
and  early  autumn,  is  needful.  A  wet  winter  and  early  spring  with  a  dry 
summer  and  autumn  are  conditions  most  desired  by  the  cultivators  of 
these  fruits,  and  indeed  for  nearly  all  the  other  crops  of  this  region.  The 
accompanying  table,  marked  A,  showing  the  amount  of  the  rain-fall  in 
Smyrna  for  each  month,  beginning  with  the  year  1864  and  ending  with 
1882,  will  be  found  useful  in  this  connection.  To  enable  American  fruit 
growers  to  estimate  the  influence  of  climate  upon  the  raisin  product 
here  it  should  be  stated  that,  even  in  mid-winter,  frosts  are  very  infre- 
quent, and  the  freezing  point  is  rarely  reached.  The  spring  is  very  short, 
the  transition  from  the  cold  rains  of  winter  to  the  balmy  breezes  of  sum- 
mer often  being  almost  immediate,  but  the  hot  season  does  not  set  in  un- 
til the  middle  of  May.  From  that  time  until  the  middle  of  September 
the  thermometer  ranges  from  78°  to  90°  in  the  shade.  For  weeks  suc- 
cessively there  is  very  little  variance  in  the  temperature.  Both  in  winter 
and  summer  the  wind  for  long  intervals  blows  from  one  quarter.  On 
the  sea-board  the  heat  of  summer  is  tempered  by  a  breeze  from  the  sea, 
called  "  iinbat, "  which  blows  fresh  and  strong  nearly  every  afternoon. 

777 


778         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Coming  now  to  the  specific  interrogatories,  I  submit  the  fullest  infor- 
mation obtainable  upon  the  subject. 

Situation. — The  vineyards  are  located  on  table-lands  and  hill-sides,  the 
latter  always  facing  the  south.  The  soil  of  the  former  is  sandy  and  of  a 
light  red  color,  the  alluvion  of  torrents ;  that  of  the  latter,  calcareous  and 
clayey.  Vines  planted  on  the  plains  are  more  productive  than  those 
planted  on  the  hillsides,  but  do  not  last  so  long,  the  latter  continuing 
in  good  bearing  condition  for  well  nigh  a  century,  while  the  former  be- 
came barren  at  the  age  of  thirty  years,  sometimes  sooner.  The  quality 
of  the  hillside  product  is  far  superior. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Smyrna  vines  are  planted  near  the  sea-shore,  but 
there  are  flourishing  vineyards  in  localities  from  7  to  20  miles  inland. 
Vineyards  planted  near  the  sea-shore  are  often  injured  by  mists  and 
fogs. 

Varieties. — Four  kinds  of  raisins  are  cultivated,  viz,  Sultanas,  Bed, 
Black,  and  Muscadine.  The  Sultanas  are  not  palatable  while  fresh, 
and  are  marketable  only  when  cured.  The  black  and  red  are  excellent 
while  fresh,  and  are  put  in  that  condition  on  the  local  markets  in  large 
quantities.  There  is  also  another  variety  of  black  grape  which  is  cured 
and  shipped  to  France,  where  it  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wines.  The 
wines  made  in  Smyrna  are  the  product  of  the  same  variety  of  grape. 

The  vines  on  the  coast  run  the  greatest  danger  during  the  months  of 
March,  April,  and  May,  from  the  cool,  damp  mists  blown  in  from  the 
sea.  The  losses  sustained  from  this  cause  are  frequently  from  20  to  30 
per  cent,  of  the  total  yield. 

Pruning. — Pruningis  done  in  December  and  January  with  small,  sharp 
saws,  carved  at  the  end.  The  branches  are  cut  about  1  foot  6  inches 
from  the  ground.  Care  is  taken  to  do  this  work  during  the  first  and 
second  quarters  of  the  moon. 

Planting. — Vines  are  planted  from  the  beginning  of  March  to  the 
middle  of  April,  according  to  nature  of  soil  and  atmospherical  condition, 
the  ground  having  been  dug  the  previous  summer  to  a  depth  of  3J  feet. 
This  manner  of  planting  was  introduced  here  some  twenty  years  ago  by 
emigrants  from  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  and  gives  the  best  results. 
Another  and  older  method  is  to  plant  fields  which  have  been  plowed 
over  three  or  four  times  by  the  plow  of  the  country,  which  dates  ^ack  to 
the  infancy  of  ancient  Greece. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  vines  in  vogue  here  is  as  follows :  In 
November  trenches  are  dug  round  the  vines  and  filled  with  manure. 
Six  weeks  later,  as  above  stated,  the  process  of  pruning  begins.  Dur- 
ing January,  February,  March,  and  April  the  vineyards  are  dug  twice 
only,  the  first  time  at  a  depth  of  1  foot  6  inches,  taking  care,  of  course, 
not  to  injure  the  roots,  and  the  second  time  very  lightly,  in  order  to  de- 
stroy the  weeds  which  absorb  the  moisture  necessary  to  the  plants.  The 
process  of  watering  vineyards  is  not  in  favor  with  the  growers  of  this 
province. 


THE   VINE    IN    SMYRNA   AND   MITYLENE.  779 

Maturity. — The  Black,  Red,  and  Muscadine  vines  begin  to  yield  in 
their  third,  bnt  do  not  reach  their  fall  strength  nntil  their  fifth  or  sixth 
year.  The  Sultana  vines  begin  to  bear  in  their  fifth  and  attain  the 
maximum  of  production  in  their  seventh  or  eighth  year.  A  good, 
healthy  plant  will  produce  about  25  cwt.  per  acre,  but  the  average  yield 
is  from  10  to  15  cwt.  per  acre. 

Vintage. — The  grapes  begin  to  ripen  about  the  1st  of  July,  the  Sul- 
tanas being  the  earliest.  Their  vintage  begins  towards  the  end  of  July 
and  lasts  till  the  middle  of  August.  The  vintage  of  the  Red  grape  be- 
gins by  the  end  of  August  and  lasts  till  the  20th  of  September ;  that  of 
the  Black  in  the  early  days  of  September,  ending  with  October.  The 
Muscadine  is  gathered  during  the  second  half  of  August.  An  excellent 
wine  is  made  with  this  variety,  but  in  small  quantity.  Less  than 
5,000,000  gallons  of  wine  are  manufactured  annually  in  this  province, 
although  the  best  materials  are  at  hand  and  in  great  abundance. 

Rain-fall. — It  happens  occasionally  that  rain  falls  during  the  vintage 
time,  causing  heavy  losses  to  growers  through  the  inevitable  deteriora- 
tion of  quality.  This  was  the  case  last  season,  and  large  quantities 
were  in  consequence  shipped  to  France  to  be  made  into  spirits. 

Cultivation. — The  work  required  in  the  cultivation,  gathering,  and 
curing  of  the  grapes  is  performed  by  hand,  and,  notwithstanding  labor 
is  cheap,  is  rather  costly.  The  average  yield  per  acre  per  annum  is  val- 
ued at  about  $88.  The  value  of  vineyards  per  acre  is  about  $440,  and 
the  cost  of  a  crop  per  acre,  tithes  to  Government  included,  is  nearly  or 
quite  $50. 

Exports.— The  exports  of  black  raisins  amount  yearly  to  from  800,000 
to  900,000  cwt. ;  70  per  cent,  of  this  quantity  is  shipped  to  France ;  the 
remainder  finds  its  way  to  Austria,  Germany,  Russia,  and  Roumania. 
The  best  quality  of  black  raisins  is  exported  to  Roumania,  to  the  extent 
of  45,000  cwt.  per  year.  In  general,  the  crop  of  raisins  of  all  qualities 
and  kinds,  in  the  province  of  Smyrna,  amounts  to  about  1,900,000  cwt. 
It  is  yearly  increasing.  Out  of  this  quantity  650,000  cwt  consist  of 
Sultanas,  80  per  cent,  of  which  is  exported  to  England,  10  per  cent,  to 
Russia,  and  10  per  cent,  to  Germany,  Austria,  and  the  United  States. 

W.  E.  STEVENS, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Smyrna,  February  28, 1884. 


MITYLENE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  FOTTION. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41$.] 

Vineyards  are  cultivated  at  Mitylene  in  valley,  table-land,  and  hill- 
side, inland  and  on  the  sea-coast.  They  are  cultivated  very  near  the 
sea-coast  because  here  there  are  no  sea-fo^s.  The  custom  of  pruning 


780        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

in  the  best  conducted  vineyards  is  at  the  end  of  January  or  during  the 
first  half  of  February.  All  the  large  vines  are  pruned  on  two  stems, 
but  middle  sized  and  small  ones  on  a  single  stem,  preserving  one  eye 
more.  In  March  the  first  work  is  done  on  the  vine,  when  the  first  dig- 
ging is  done.  In  April  they  sulphate  the  vine,  and  in  May  give  the  first 
nipping  to  all  branches  which  grow  very  rapidly.  In  June  they  repeat 
the  sulphur.  In  July  and  August  the  heat  does  not  permit  any  work 
on  the  vines.  The  harvest  begins  about  the  first  half  of  September, 
and  usually  about  the  end  of  October  the  second  digging  is  finished. 
At  the  close  of  autumn  and  in  the  winter,  manure  is  used  for  old  vines, 
but  in  very  moderate  quantities,  about  4  pounds  per  vine  in  best  soils 
and  7  pounds  per  vine  in  medium,  and  10  to  12  pounds  per  vine  in  poor 
soils.  They  are  manured  every  three  years.  The  character  of  soil 
where  best  results  are  obtained  is  on  a  shallow  dry  soil,  receiving  the 
sun's  rays,  on  hill-side,  valley,  or  table-land.  The  vines  here  come  into 
full  bearing  the  fourth  year  and  they  remain  fruitful  until  the  fifteenth 
year. 

]$"o  system  of  artificial  irrigation  for  raisin  culture  exists  here. 

The  yield  value  per  acre  per  annum  is  about  $68,  and  the  cost  of  crop 
per  acre  is  about  $1.  The  different  kinds  of  vines  grown  are :  In  dis- 
tricts of  Kallonie  red  grapes  and  white  grapes,  from  which  are  made 
the  celebrated  Kallonie  wines,  anciently  Anthosmias.  In  the  districts 
of  Ploumari  black  grapes,  from  which  are  made  the  celebrated  Koun- 
toura  wines,  very  much  better  than  the  Bordeaux.  All  the  wines  made 
at  Mitylene  are  for  home  cosumption  ;  the  export  is  insignificant. 

M.  M.  FOTTION, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Mitylene,  March  12,  1884. 


SYRIA. 

BEIRUT. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ROBESON. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41^.] 

In  the  district  of  Beirut,  vineyards  are  mostly  planted  on  high  table- 
lands or  hill-sides  (where  the  best  results  are  obtained),  at  an  elevation 
of  from  1,000  to  4,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Some  years  ago 
a  disease  something  like  mildew  spread  in  Syria,  and  destroyed  most  of 
tbe  vineyards.  Asphalt  was  used  to  counteract  the  same ;  but  little,  if 
any,  benefit  was  gained  by  its  use.  The  only  remedy  was  to  destroy  the 
affected  vines,  and  plant  in  their  place  plants  taken  from  healthy  vines. 
In  January  and  February  vines  are  pruned;  two  or  three  strong  shoots 
are  left  on  each  vine. 

The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  is  reddish-black 
in  color;  however,  grapes  are  raised  in  all  kinds  of  soil,  but  when  the 


THE   VINE    IN   SYRIA.  781 

vines  have  not  the  advantage  of  rich  soil,  they  require  to  be  carefully 
cultivated.  Hill-side  and  table-lands  are  preferred  for  the  planting  of 
vines  for  raisins.  Vineyards  are  plowed  three  times  a  year :  1st,  in  De- 
cember ;  2d,  after  the  pruning  of  the  vine  stocks ;  and  3d,  a  short  time 
after  the  appearance  of  the  leaves. 

The  vines  come  into  full  bearing  in  six  or  seven  years;  they  remain 
fruitful  fifty  or  sixty  years  if  properly  cared  for.  In  regard  to  the  irri- 
gation there  is  no  system  of  artificial  irrigation  in  practice  for  raisin 
culture  throughout  this  country.  It  is  considered  that  the  watering  of 
vines,  by  increasing  the  juice,  diminishes  the  sweetness  of  grapes,  and 
they  become,  in  consequence,  unfit  for  raisins.  The  yield  per  acre  per 
annum  is  estimated  at  from  2,000  to  3,000  pounds,  the  average  value  of 
which  is  from  $15  to  $25 ;  the  cost  of  cultivation  amounts  to  about  $5.50. 

JOHN  T.  KOBESON, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul. 

Beirut,  May  3,  1884. 


ALEPPO. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  POOHE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41^.] 

In  the  vicinity  of  Aleppo  very  few  vines  recently  planted  are  found. 
As  a  large  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  this  country  are  Mohammedans, 
they  are  prohibited  by  their  religion  from  using  any  alcoholic  drinks, 
and  the  manufacturing  of  wines  being  constantly  forbidden  to  them,  the 
vine  is  only  planted  for  its  fruit,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  same  is  very 
poor.  The  care  taken  of  the  vine  consists  of  pruning  and  the  frequent 
plowing  of  the  soil.  Vines  are  indifferently  planted  on  the  declivity  of 
the  hills  or  table-lands,  in  reddish  soil,  both  near  to  and  far  from  the 
sea.  The  slopes  exposed  to  the  wind  are  preferable.  No  consideration 
has  been  given  to  the  disease  of  the  vine,  for  want  of  competent  persons 
to  examine  the  same,  although  the  vine  disease  has  raged  in  some  parts 
of  this  country.  The  vine  begins  to  produce  in  the  third  year ;  in  the 
sixth  it  comes  into  full  bearing,  at  which  time  it  yields  about  20  to  30 
pounds  of  grapes.  It  lasts  for  a  great  number  of  years.  When  the 
stem  is  opened  up  it  is  cut  and  the  root  shoots  anew,  and  the  vine  pro- 
duces again  after  three  years.  No  system  of  artificial  irrigation  is 
adopted.  The  fruit  is  either  used  fresh  or  dried.  The  planting  is  made 
at  the  same  distance  as  the  olives ;  t.  c.,  about  20  feet  between  each  plant. 
Kaisins  are  cured,  just  like  figs,  by  being  dried  in  the  shade  and  then 
steamed. 

F.  POCHE, 
Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 
Aleppo,  April  16,  1884. 


782  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

HAIFA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  SCHUMACHER. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  41$.] 

Kaisius  are  not  produced  in  my  consular  district ;  but  as  we  have  been 
engaged  in  the  culture  of  grapes  for  the  past  ten  years,  and  this  ques- 
tion being  closely  related  to  the  question  upon  raisins,  I  want  to  answer 
it  at  the  same  time. 

Experience  has  shown  that  southern  hill-slopes  and  table-land  are 
equally  well  adapted  for  grape  culture,  whilst  in  valleys  and  on  plains 
no  very  good  results  have  been  obtained.  Directly  on  the  sea-coast 
grape  vines  do  not  prosper  near  as  well  as  in  the  interior. 

The  vineyards  of  the  American-German  colony  here  are  situated 
about  a  half  mile  from  the  sea-shore ;  the  close  proximity  of  the  sea  (we 
never  have  fogs),  however,  appears  to  act  injuriously  to  the  vines,  as 
we  have  but  very  little  dew,  which  further  inland  falls  abundantly,  and 
which  causes  the  vines  to  remain  fresher  during  the  rather  hot  and 
rainless  summer  months.  In  the  mountainous  district  of  "  Bel  ad  Bish- 
ara » (Galilee),  at  an  altitude  of  1,500,  to  3,000,  feet  above  sea,  the  saccha- 
rine contents  of  grapes  is  greater  both  in  quality  and  quantity,  so  that 
wine  made  from  them  has  a  finer  flavor ;  the  acidity  contained  in  the 
grapes  cultivated  in  the  vineyards  near  the  sea-shore,  and  which  makes 
wine  made  from  them  unfit  for  exportation,  is  almost  entirely  absent  in 
the  grapes  from  Galilee.  Besides  this,  our  vines  suffer  from  mildew. 
This  is  a  flour-like  substance  which  surrounds  the  berries  of  the  grape 
when  they  are  about  half  grown,  preventing  them  from  developing  and 
ripening.  Every  locality  of  our  vineyards,  whether  in  a  valley  or  on  a 
hill-side,  has  suffered  with  this  mildew,  but  the  higher  elevated  the 
vineyards  are  the  less  they  suffer. 

As  a  remedy  we  were  advised  to  strew  the  grapes,  shortly  after  blos- 
soming, with  powdered  sulphur,  but  it  did  not  prove  to  be  very  efficient 
with  any  of  the  foreign  or  native  varieties.  The  Isabella  (a  blue  grape 
originally  imported  from  the  United  States)  was  the  least  affected  of 
all,  and  in  some  spots  did  not  suffer  at  all.  Experiments  will  have  to 
be  made  yet  whether  we  can  not  find  a  variety  which  is  not  subjected  to 
this  malady. 

According  to  information  from  natives,  thei  r  vineyards  in  the  interior 
have  at  times  also  been  affected  with  mildew,  b  ut  it  disappeared  after  it 
had  lasted  seven  years,  whilst  we  on  the  sea-coast  have  had  to  contend 
with  it  for  nearly  ten  years.  But  we  find  on  the  slope  of  Mount  Oar- 
mel,  where  our  vineyards  are  located,  ancient  wine-presses  and  cisterns 
cut  in  the  solid  rock,  which  shows  that  grape  culture  must  have 
flourished  here  formerly.  Prom  experience  thus  far,  I  can  make  the 
assertion  that  for  this  region  grape  culture  does  better  in  the  interior 
than  on  the  sea-coast, 


THE    VINE   IN   SYRIA.  783 

Pruning. —The  vines  are  pruned  in  the  months  of  December,  January, 
and  February.  The  first-grown  shoots  are  cut  off,  so  that  only  four  or 
five  buds  remain  on  them.  A  reddish  humus  soil  with  limestone  beneath 
appears  to  be  especially  well  adapted  for  vines.  The  ground  is  worked 
twice  with  the  hoe,  the  first  time  after  pruning,  and  then  again  when  the 
first  leaves  come  out.  The  vines  come  into  full  bearing  after  four  or  five 
years,  and  remain  fruitful  until  they  are  at  least  fifty  years  old.  No 
vineyards  are  irrigated  here,  and  if  practiced  would  tend  to  diminish 
the  saccharine  qualities  of  the  grapes.  The  yield  is  from  400  to  800  gal- 
lons per  acre  per  annum. 

JACOB  SCHUMACHER, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Haifa,  February  20, 1884. 


SIDON. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  ABSLA. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41|.] 

Position. — Vineyards  are  placed  in  this  section  of  the  country  mostly 
on  the  high  mountains  or  on  high  lands  from  2,000  feet  in  elevation  to 
5,000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  A  southern  exposure  is  preferable  to 
any  other.  Vineyards  on  the  mountains  away  from  the  sea  give  some- 
what better  crops  than  those  near.  The  vines  are  not  injured  by  clouds 
or  mists ;  fogs  are  very  rare  in  this  climate,  and  seem  to  do  no  harm. 
Vines  grow  within  two  miles  of  the  shore,  but  do  not  give  the  best 
results.  About  thirty  years  ago  all  the  vineyards  of  this  land  were 
blasted  by  mildew,  and  the  only  effectual  remedy  was  to  dig  up  the  old 
vines  and  plant  new  ones  from  stock  untouched  by  the  mildew. 

Pruning. — Before  the  vines  put  forth  leaves  they  are  very  closely 
pruned,  all  shoots  being  cut  off,  with  the  exception  of  two  or  three  left 
quite  short. 

Soil. — The  nature  of  the  soil  makes  little  difference.  Eed,  loose  soil 
is  preferred.  Stony,  rocky  soil  produces  the  best  grapes. 

Cultivation. — In  the  best  vineyards  nothing  else  is  planted  in  the  soil, 
nor  is  manure  usually  applied.  The  ground  is  plowed  three  times  a  year, 
which  in  this  land  is  merely  scratching  the  surface,  the  object  being  to 
pulverize  the  soil. 

Bearing. — Vines  begin  to  bear  fruit  about  the  fourth  year.  Good 
crops  are  raised  by  the  seventh,  but  the  frnitfulness  increases  to  the 
fifteenth  year. 

Irrigation. — No  system  of  irrigation  is  practiced  anywhere,  but  is  con- 
sidered very  injurious  to  the  crop. 


784  FRUIT   CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Yield. — This,  of  course,  varies  from  year  to  year,  and  according  to 
the  soil,  etc. ;  but  on  the  average  may  be  estimated  at  about  1,500  pounds 
to  2,000  pounds  the  acre. 

SHIBLY  ABELA, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Sidon,  February  21,  1884. 


TARSUS. 

REPORT  BY  ACTING  CONSULAR  AGENT  AVANIA. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No*  41^.] 

The  best  sites  for  the  culture  of  vineyards  are  the  hill-side  lands,  the 
table-lands,  and  in  general  all  light  soils.  The  interior  of  the  country 
is  better  suited  than  the  coast.  In  this  province  there  are  but  very 
few  vineyards  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea.  The  largest  part  is  at  a  dis- 
tance of  from  9  to  12  miles  and  upward.  At  Mersine  there  are  some 
vineyards  at  a  distance  of  from  one-half  to  3  miles,  the  produce  of 
which  is  middling.  Mildew  and  fogs  not  being  very  frequent  all  along 
the  province,  vineyards  never  suffer  from  the  same;  consequently  no 
specific  is  used.  Sulphur,  however,  is  the  only  remedy  used,  as  in  Ana- 
tolia. In  this  country,  and  I  think  in  all  the  Levant,  vineyards  are 
never  irrigated  j  the  winter  and  spring  rains  are  sufficient.  The  best 
results  are  obtained  where  the  soil  is  a  light  reddish  and  more  or  less 
sandy.  Vineyards  are  cultivated  twice  a  year,  because  if  they  are  kept 
free  from  parasites,  and  in  condition  to  absorb  the  necessary  water,  they 
yield  better  and  last  longer.  In  Adana,  a  vineyard  country,  people 
sow  even  cotton  and  sesame  in  the  vines  without  prejudice  to  the  same. 
After  the  third  year  of  their  plantation  the  vines  come  into  full  bearing 
and  begin  to  give  fruit,  which  increases  gradually.  They  remain  fruit- 
ful till  their  fortieth  year.  However,  vines  last  fifty  or  sixty  years,  and 
give  relative  fruit  if  they  are  regularly  cultivated  and  pruned  annually. 
The  pruning  of  vineyards  commences  about  the  end  of  January.  The 
pruned  branches,  when  sound,  are  used  for  the  plantation  of  new  vine- 
yards. 

There  is  not  any  system  of  artificial  irrigation  in  this  province.  The 
rains  that  fall  are  sufficient  to  revive  the  plants. 

The  yield,  value,  and  cost  of  vineyards  per  acre  (of  49  square  acres) 
are  in  this  country  as  follows :  In  every  acre  from  150  to  160  vine- 
stocks  are  planted,  which  yield  on  an  average  from  13  to  17  pounds  of 
grapes  each;  value  from  $50  or  $60  per  acre.  In  this  country,  where 
the  wages  of  workmen  are  rather  low,  the  keeping  of  vineyards  costs 
but  little. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  grapes  produced  are  absorbed  by  the  local 


THE    VINE   IN   SYRIA.  785 

consumption  either  in  their  fresh  condition  or  for  distillation.  Never- 
theless since  France  began  to  ask  for  foreign  grapes  a  quantity  of 
about  3,300,000  pounds  of  raisins  at  a  value  of  $66,000  is  annually 
exported  from  this  province.  The  raisins  destined  for  exportation  are 
dried  up  in  the  sun,  placed  in  bags,  and  sent  to  the  sea-ports  to  be 
shipped  in  steamers. 

ELIE  AVANIA, 
Acting  Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Tarsus,  March  3,  1884. 


TRIPOLI. 

REPORT  BY  ACTING  CONSULAR  AGENT  TANNI. 

[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  414.J 

RAISINS. 

Vineyards  are  found  in  all  parts  of  this  district,  but  especially  in 
the  hedges  surrounding  the  orchards  of  the  large  village  Elininyeh, 
about  6  miles  northeast  of  Tripoli,  on  the  hill-sides  of  the  Dunniyeh 
district,  in  the  elevated  valleys  of  the  Lebanon,  and  on  the  table-lands 
of  Elkoura  and  El-Zawiyeh  districts. 

The  above-mentioned  village,  Elminyeh,  is  very  close  to  the  sea. 

Nothing  is  known  concerning  injury  caused  by  sea  fogs  or  mist. 
The  only  injury  to  the  vines  occurred  in  the  District  of  Dunniyeh,  about 
thirty  years  ago.  This  district  is  some  9  miles  from  the  sea,  and  before 
the  time  mentioned  was  famous  for  its  excellent  grapes.  Some  disease 
of  an  unknown  character  reduced  these  grapes  to  a  very  poor  condition, 
so  that  the  vines  were  almost  destroyed.  It  is  only  within  the  last  ten 
years  that  the  vines  of  Dunniyeh  have  begun  to  revive. 

In  February  and  March,  after  the  heavy  rains  are  over  and  the 
sun's  rays  begin  to  animate  vegetation,  people  begin  pruning  the  vines 
by  cutting  off  all  the  branches  of  the  last  year,  so  as  to  give  place  for 
others.  All  kinds  of  vines  are  not  pruned,  for  there  are  some  sorts 
which  need  no  such  treatment  except  in  case  of  dead  branches  only, 
which  are  cut  off. 

Vineyards  are  planted  in  all  soils,  but  the  best  results  are  obtained 
from  those  of  siliceous  character. 

The  lands  planted  to  vines  are  cultivated  four  or  five  times  a  year, 
and  if  neglected  the  product  is  correspondingly  small. 

Vines  begin  to  bear  in  their  third  year,  but  do  not  come  to  maturity 
before  the  fifth  year.  They  remain  fruitful  as  long  as  they  are  prop- 
erly attended,  except  when  they  are  planted  among  olive  trees,  which, 
when  grown,  kill  not  only  vines  but  other  trees.  Vines  in  such  situation 
rarely  live  more  than  fifteen  years. 


786        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

There  is  no  Deed  of  irrigation  for  the  vineyards  of  this  region ;  and 
in  consequence  vines  are  planted  where  no  irrigation  takes  place. 

The  estimated  average  yield  from  each  vine  is  5  to  10  pounds  of 
grapes,  worth  from  4  to  8  cents  for  the  whole  product.  The  expenses 
are  about  7  per  cent,  of  the  income. 

G.  TANNI, 

Acting  Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  COSULAR  AGENCY, 

Tripoli,  March  18,  1884. 


CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  WEAVER. 

[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41$.] 

INTRODUCTION. 

Although  the  raisin  industry,  strictly  speaking,  does  not  exist  in  this 
empire,  and  the  production  of  figs,  olives,  oranges,  and  lemons  is  very 
unimportant,  yet  it  is  thought  that  the  grape  and  wine  industry  and  the 
commerce  in  tropical  fruits  may  be  of  sufficient  interest  to  the  fruit- 
growers of  the  United  States  to  warrant  the  transmission  of  the  follow- 
ing items  in  regard  thereto. 

The  Austro-Hungarian  Empire  is  situated  between  42°  10'  and  51°  5' 
north  latitude,  and  9°  10'  and  26°  15'  longitude  east  from  Greenwich. 
Omitting,  however,  its  irregularities,  the  empire  lies  mainly  between  the 
forty-fifth  and  fiftieth  degrees  of  north  latitude  and  the  twelfth  and 
twenty-sixth  degrees  of  east  longitude,  having,  therefore,  a  rectangu- 
lar form  of  about  350  miles  in  breadth  by  750  miles  in  length,  compris- 
ing an  area  of  261,272  square  miles,  with  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  in- 
cluded. The  mean  latitude,  therefore,  of  Austria-Hungary  corresponds 
very  closely  to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  United  States. 

The  climate  of  this  country,  however,  is  much  less  rigorous,  as  is  well 
known,  than  that  of  the  United  States.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold 
at  Vienna,  which  is  located  at  about  the  center  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Empire,  were  during  the  past  thirty  years  98°  and  4°  Fahrenheit,  while 
the  average  yearly  temperature  during  the  same  period  was  10°  centi- 
grade or  50°  Fahrenheit. 

It  may,  consequently,  be  very  confidently  affirmed  that  in  Austria- 
Hungary  the  winters  are  not  as  cold  nor  are  the  summers  as  warm  as  in 
the  United  States  by  probably  from  8°  to  10°,  notwithstanding  its  higher 
latitude.  The  rain-fall  during  the  last  thirty  years  varied  at  the  186 
stations  for  meteorological  observations  in  Austria-Hungary  from  43  to 
242  centimeters  per  year,  equivalent  to  17  and  95  inches. 

These  stations  are  grouped  as  follows :  41  in  Hungary,  80  in  the  Al- 
pine region  and  on  the  Adriatic  coast,  and  65  in  Bohemia,  Galicia,  Mo- 
ravia, and  other  interior  provinces  removed  from  the  sea.  The  rain-fall 

787 


788  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

in  these  regions  was  respectively  28,  49,  and  28  inches,  making  for  the 
entire  empire  an  average  of  36  inches  per  year. 

The  average  cloudiness  of  Vienna,  estimating  complete  obscuration 
at  10,  during  the  years  1853-'72  was  5.7,  the  months  of  July,  August, 
and  September  giving  a  minimum  of  4  and  November  a  maximum  of 
7.4.  Consequently  the  degree  of  moisture  in  the  air  is  very  large,  averag- 
ing for  Vienna  during  the  last  thirty  years  a  humidity  of  72,  when  reck- 
oning complete  saturation  at  100. 

The  foregoing  data  will  aid  those  interested  to  estimate  the  general 
influences  of  climate  upon  the  production  of  fruit  in  this  empire  whose 
territory  in  general  is  usually  far  removed  from  the  sea  and  other  large 
bodies  of  water  which  might  injuriously  affect  the  grape  crops  by  exces- 
sive moisture. 

The  same  influences,  however,  arise  from  the  large  river  system  of 
this  country,  particularly  in  Hungary,  to  the  end  that  the  best  vine- 
yards are  found  upon  the  highlands  and  slopes  of  hills  and  mountains, 
of  which  Austria  possesses  a  great  number  and  variety. 

GRAPE  AND  WINE  INDUSTRY. 

The  methods  of  grape  culture,  as  practiced  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Vienna,  will  be  seen  from  the  following  reply  of  Eobert  Schlumberger, 
proprietor  of  valuable  vineyards  in  the  Voslan  region,  given  in  response 
to  certain  inquiries  as  to  soil,  vines,  crops,  and  the  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion practiced  in  his  district.  He  says  : 

The  methods  of  pruning  the  vine  in  the  various  wine-growing  districts  of  Austria 
differ  somewhat,  and  vary  also  in  regard  to  the  kind  of  grapes  in  the  same  part  of  the 
country. 

In  most  districts,  especially  those  to  the  south  of  Vienna,  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Voslan,  where  the  best  red  wines  of  Austria  are  produced,  the  branches  are  cut  down 
to  one  or  two  eyes,  and  ou  each  vigorous  vine  five  to  six  branches  are  left.  At  a 
longer  cut,  the  vines  usually  grown  in  the  country,  the  Portuguese  and  Blue  French, 
bear  grapes  superabundantly,  producing  an  inferior  quality  and  resulting  in  the  ex- 
haustion of  the  vines  in  a  few  years.  A  longer  cut  is  only  customary  in  regard  to  the 
Blue  Burgundy  and  the  St.  Laurent  vines,  which,  however,  are  not  very  extensively 
cultivated,  at  which  operation  either  four  eyes  are  left  on  each  of  twelve  branches,  or 
on  a  longer  grape-bearing  branch  five  to  seven  eyes,  whilst  the  remaining  branches 
are  cut  down  to  one  or  two  eyes.  During  the  subsequent  year,  the  old  grape-bearing 
branch  is  cut  off  and  the  strongest  of  the  branches  produced  from  the  ej^es  of  those 
cut  down  the  preceding  year  will  be  employed  as  the  grape-bearing  one. 

The  soil  in  the  vicinity  of  Voslan  and  Gumpoldskirchen,  where  the  most  excellent 
white  wines  are  produced,  consists  of  a  light,  flat,  and  loamy  ground,  the  subsoil  of 
which  near  the  mountains  consists  of  calcareous  rock  and  on  the  plain  of  alluvial 
gravel. 

The  fine  wines  grow  on  the  slopes  only.  The  valleys  are  left  to  the  cultivation  of 
other  products. 

In  the  plains  wines  of  inferior  quality  are  produced,  but  in  larger  quantities  than 
on  the  hills.  The  produce,  however,  is  very  uncertain  on  account  of  the  night  frosts 
in  spring,  which  do  great  damage  on  the  plains,  while  the  slopes  are  spared. 

The  soil  in  nearly  almost  all  the  vineyards  of  Austria  is  worked  three  times  a  year 
with  the  hoe :  First  in  spring  after  the  April  cutting ;  second  after  the  binding  up  and 
weeding  at  the  end  of  June  ;  and  third,  at  the  end  of  July  or  early  part  of  August. 


THE    VINE    IN    AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.  789 

In  Voslan  and  vicinity  for  the  last  fifteen  years  the  soil  has  also  been  worked  a  fourth 
time,  at  the  end  of  the  vintage  in  October  or  November,  by  digging  the  soil  as  deep  as 
possible,  in  order  to  keep  it  loose  during  the  winter,  which  has  an  extraordinarily 
favorable  influence  on  the  growth  of  the  vine  and  renders  the  working  in  spring  much 
more  easy. 

This  example  has  often  been  folio  wed,  and  in  coarse  of  time  no  doubt  this  fourth 
working  will  be  generally  adopted. 

In  some  districts,  especially  in  Voslan,  in  the  plains  and  on  some  hills  lately,  the 
vines  were  trained  on  wire  frames  after  the  French  style,  in  order  to  be  able  to  work 
the  soil  with  the  plow.  The  number  of  workings  is  the  same  as  with  hand  work. 
The  plows  employed  were  mostly  imported  from  France. 

The  full  fruit-bearing  period  of  a  vineyard  occurs  at  different  periods,  according  to 
the  situation,  nature  of  the  soil,  etc.  Most  vines  will  fully  produce  the  fifth  year 
after  the  planting,  but  with  some  kinds,  like  Burgundy,  this  will  happen  the  seventh 
or  eighth  year.  The  time  during  which  the  capacity  of  producing  will  last  depends 
upon  the  situation,  nature  of  the  soil,  and  especially  upon  a  careful  working. 

Some  well-cultivated  vineyards  will  give  a  good  return  even  after  thirty  years, 
whilst  neglected  ones  will  lose  their  fertility  much  sooner.  Vineyards  on  the  plains 
which  have  often  suffered  from  spring  frosts  also  soon  lose  their  fertility,  whereas 
there  are  vineyards  on  the  slopes  which  are  more  than  fifty  years  old  and  still  give  a 
sufficient  return. 

Artificial  irrigation  is  nowhere  employed  in  Lower  Austria  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine. 

The  yield  of  one  hectare,*  without  regard  to  the  various  ages,  varies  according  to 
the  situation,  the  nature  of  the  growth,  and  the  kind  of  grape. 

On  an  average  a  return  of  40  hectoliters!  per  hectare  may  be  obtained  in  Lower 
Austria. 

The  value  of  a  hectare  of  vineyard  property  in  Lower  Austria  depends  upon  the 
district,  and  there  again  upon  its  particular  situation,  and  varies  from  400  florinbj  to 
5,000  florins. 

The  working  expenses  naturally  are  unequal  in  the  various  districts.  In  V5slan 
the  same  amount  to  550  florins  to  600  florins  per  hectare  per  year/includiug  fertilizers, 
whereas  they  are  much  less  in  most  of  the  other  districts. 

The  vineyards  of  Austria-Hungary,  in  1881,  covered  1,192,446  acres ; 
of  which  440,722  acres  belonged  to  Austria  and  742,724  acres  to  Hun- 
gary. The  area  cultivated  varies  very  slightly  from  year  to  year. 

The  fruit  gathered  is  almost  entirely  consumed  for  the  manufacture 
of  wine,  as  only  4,338  tons  of  grapes  are  reported  as  being  sold  for  table 
consumption  in  Austria-Hungary  in  1881. 

Furthermore,  the  quality  of  grapes  cultivated  for  wine  are,  as  a  rule, 
not  suited  for  table  use,  being  much  less  palatable  than  the  well-known 
varieties  in  the  United  States,  nor  are  they  suitable  for  the  raisin  indus- 
try, as  they  possess  neither  size  nor  pulp  sufficient  for  the  drying  pro- 
cess. 

The  average  wine  production  of  Austria- Hungary  during  the  last  five 
years,  1879-'83,  amounted  to  6,954,934  hectoliters,  of  which  2.603,956 
hectoliters  were  produced  in  Austria  and  4,350,978  hectoliters  were 
produced  in  Hungary. 

*  1  hectare =2.471  acres. 

1 1  hectoliter=26.43  wine  gallons. 

1 1  florin  =40.1  cents  United  States  currency. 


790         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  average  value  was  estimated  by  the  departments  of  agriculture 
at  Vienna  and  Budapesth  at  about  10  florins  per  hectoliter,  being  only 
40  kreuzers,  or  16  cents,  per  gallon,  which  is  manifestly  quite  below  the 
commercial  value  of  even  the  most  ordinary  wines. 

In  Austria  the  chief  producing  districts  are  Dalmatia,  Lower  Austria, 
the  Northern  Tyrol,  Styria,  and  Istria.  The  character  of  the  Austrian 
red  wines  is  lighter  and  cruder  than  those  of  France,  while  the  white 
wines,  in  respect  to  quality,  are  inferior  to  those  of  the  Ehine,  but  pos- 
sess a  larger  quantity  of  alcohol  than  either  those  of  the  Rhine  or  the 
Moselle. 

Among  the  finest  and  most  celebrated  Austrian  wines  stands  the 
Voslaner,  while  of  the  Hungarian  the  Tokay  and  Paluggay  are  the 
most  noted. 

The  phylloxera  app  eared  in  Austria  in  1872  in  the  gardens  of  Kloster- 
neuberg,  near  Vienna,  from  some  vines  imported  from  Germany  for  ex- 
perimentation. Chemicals  were  first  employed ;  sulphuret  of  carbon 
placed  about  the  roots  of  the  infected  vines,  but  without  avail.  Flood- 
ing was  then  tried  with  like  results,  and  finally  the  total  destruction  of 
the  vines  growing  in  the  infected  district  was  enforced  bylaw,  but  with- 
out satisfactory  results,  as  the  phylloxera  was  found  several  years  after 
the  destruction  in  a  living  condition  upon  the  roots  of  the  vines.  So 
that  the  plague  is  extending  from  year  to  year,  until  in  Austria  in  1883 
there  were  4,000  vineyards,  aggregating  612  hectares,  infected. 

In  Hungary  during  the  past  several  years  experiments  have  been 
made  with  imported  American  vines,  with  great  success  it  is  affirmed, 
but  the  Austrian  Government  until  now  has  refused  all  applications  for 
permission  to  import  American  vines,  on  the  ground  that  insects  equally 
dangerous  to  agriculture  might  be  imported  with  them ;  consequently 
only  the  seeds  of  the  proper  varieties  of  grapes  have  as  yet  been  im- 
ported and  planted  in  Austria  proper,  but  the  growth  is  so  slow  that 
the  result  can  not  yet  be  declared. 

Unfortunately  there  seems  to  be  a  difference  of  opinion,  and  probably 
of  interest,  among  the  experts  of  this  country  in  regard  to  the  importa- 
tion of  American  vines,  for  while  one  party  cry  out  loudly  against  the 
arbitrary  action  of  the  Government  in  refusing  the  introduction  of  the 
American  vines,  which  they  claim  to  be  the  only  salvation  for  the  de- 
caying wine  industry  of  this  country,  the  other  party  as  violently  attack 
the  projected  move,  and  deny  that  success  has  attended  the  same  either 
in  Hungary  or  in  France. 

COMMERCE   OF  WINE  AND  ARGOLS. 

The  importation  of  wine  into  Austria- Hungary  in  1883  v  as  4,167  tons, 
valued  at  1,492,552  florins,  against  an  export  of  40,818  tons,  valued  at 
7,555,938  florins. 

The  prices  of  the  imports  were  taken  at  26  florins  per  hectoliter  in 
barrels,  50  florins  per  hectoliter  in  bottles,  and  100  florins  per  hectoliter 


THE    VINE    IN    AUSTRIA    HUNGARY. 


791 


for  champagne,  while  the  prices  for  the  exports  of  the,se  classes  were, 
respectively,  18,  50,  and  70  florins. 

The  imports  and  exports  of  wines  during  the  last  five  years,  1878->82, 
were  as  follows : 


Years. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Quantities 
in  metrical 
centners.* 

Value  in  sil- 
ver florins. 

Quantities 
in  metrical 
centners. 

Valne  in  sil- 
rer  florins. 

1882                                                .     .     . 

39,409 
30,  271 
32,912 
106,580 
91,268 

1,  509,  883 
1,  311,  270 
1,  236,  816 
1,  888,  980 
1,  898,  735 

410,  427 
438,  213 
905,841 
434,  674 
222,  140 

»,  150,  777 
8,  852,  684 
15,  539,  957 
7,  105,  «)68 
5,  125,  267 

1881                            

1880 

1879                                       

1878         

*One  metrical  centner=100  kilograms=220.46  pounds  avoirdupois. 

The  origin  of  the  wines  imported  to  this  country  can  not  be  definitely 
given,  except  for  the  champagne  which  came  from  France,  via  Germany, 
to  the  amount  of  5,346  hectoliters  in  1882  and  4,284  in  1883. 

Of  the  total  importations  of  wine  in  1882,  21,388  metrical  centners 
crossed  the  German  frontier,  8,867  the  Roumanian,  4,933  the  Servian, 
2,103  the  Italian,  1,846  via  Trieste,  and  185  via  Fiume  and  other  ports. 

Of  the  exports  182,477  metrical  centners  crossed*  the  German  fron- 
tier, 85,938  passed  out  by  Finme  and  other  ports,  62,708  by  Trieste, 
37,625  passed  over  the  Italian  frontier,  13,690  the  Swiss,  13,297  the 
Eoumanian,  9,477  the  Russian,  and  4,994  the  Servian. 

Wines  to  the  value  of  about  $50,000  are  shipped  annually  from  this 
country  to  the  United  States.  It  is  affirmed  also  that  large  quantities 
of  red  wines  are  sent  from  Hungary  to  France  to  be  manufactured  into 
claret,  etc.,  and  the  large  quantities  shipped  from  Fiume  and  Trieste 
would 'seem  to  give  credit  to  the  charge. 

The  quantity  of  raisins  and  dried  currants  imported  into  this  em- 
pire is  very  considerable,  amounting  in  1882  to  6,991  tons,  valued  at 
2,473,682  florins,  on  which  a  duty  of  711,744  florins  gold  was  paid,  be- 
ing at  the  rate  of  almost  30  per  cent.  They  entered  almost  entirely  by 
the  port  of  Trieste. 

The  duties  on  wines  imported  into  Austria- Hungary  at  present,  ac- 
cording to  the  general  tariff  law  May  25,  1882,  are  as  follows:  In  casks 
or  bottles,  20  florins  per  100  kilograms.  Italy  and  Roumania,  however, 
enjoy  special  privileges  by  virtue  of  conventional  tariffs  for  the  frontier 
traffic,  by  which  they  pay  respectively  3.20  florins  and  5.26  florins  per 
100  kilograms  in  place  of  the  20  florins  of  the  general  tariff. 

Champagne  pays  by  the  general  tariff  50  florins  per  100  kilograms, 
but  the  recent  commercial  convention  with  France  reduced  the  duty  on 
French  champagnes  to  40  florins  per  100  kilograms. 

The  total  amount  of  duties  collected  on  wines  in  Austria-Hungary 
156A 26 


792 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


during  1882  was  552,144,  against  362,316  florins  in  1881,  and  305,881 
florins  in  1880. 

The  commerce  in  crude  tartar  or  argols  has  become  very  important  of 
late  years ;  the  exports  amount  annually  to  over  1,000,000  florins.  The 
following  table  gives  the  quantities  and  values  of  the  imports  and  ex- 
ports during  the  last  five  years,  1878-?82 : 


Years. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1882  

Met.  cent. 
3,651 
4,745 
4,352 
3,157 
4,069 

Florins. 
310,  3?5 
403,  325 
348,160 
220,  990 
264,  485 

Met.  cent. 
11,  505 
12,  362 
•  15,  572 
8,826 
4,849 

Florins. 
1,  035,  450 
1,112,580 
1,  323,  620 
661,  950 
339,  430 

1881                                                                    

1880        

1879 

1878                      .               .  .                   

The  shipments  of  argols  were  made  almost  entirely  to  or  through  Ger- 
many, amounting  in  1882  to  not  less  than  11,188  metrical  centners.  Con- 
siderable quantities  of  these,  however,  were  in  transit  to  the  United 
States,  as  the  value  of  the  invoices  of  argols  authenticated  by  the  con- 
sular officers  in  Austria-Hungary  during  the  last  three  years  shows  large 
increase,  being  as  follows :  In  1881,  $174,537 ;  in  1882,  $254,041  ;  and  in 
1883,  $342,445. 

PRICES  AND  CONSUMPTION. 

The  average  import  and  export  prices  of  wines,  as  estimated  by  the 
Central  Commission,  are  respectively  about  40  florins  and  20  florins  per 
hectoliter,  being  equal  to  $1.60  and  80  cents  per  gallon. 

The  prices  at  the  vineyard  cellars  generally  run  from  12  to  15  florins 
per  hectoliter  for  the  ordinary  red  and  white  wines,  and  from  25  to  40 
florins  for  the  finer  qualities. 

The  prices  at  which  the  various  wines  are  retailed  for  consumption 
are  so  varied  as  almost  to  defy  any  approximate  average  price ;  but  it 
must  range  somewhere  between  75  kreutzers  and  1  florin  per  bottle,  con- 
taining about  four- fifths  of  a  quart,  to  the  end  that  the  average  price 
of  a  gallon  of  wine  in  Austria-Hungary  may  be  set  down  at  $  1  *50. 

The  average  annual  production  of  wine  during  the  last  five  years  is 
given  at  6,954,934  hectoliters,  the  importation  at  60,088  hectoliters,  and 
the  exportation  at  482,259  hectoliters,  leaving  for  consumption  an  an- 
nual average  of  6,532,763  hectoliters,  equal  to  172,595,598  American 
wine  gallons. 

If,  therefore,  the  average  price  stated  above  be  not  excessive,  which 
can  hardly  be  the  case,  the  total  annual  average  value  of  th£  consump- 
tion of  wine  in  Austia-Hungary  amounts  to  $259,000,000,  equivalent  to 
a  pro  rata  of  $7  per  year  for  each  inhabitant.  If  to  this  amount  we 
add  the  value  of  the  beer  annually  drunk  in  Austria  Hungary,  12,000,000 


THE    VINE    IN    SOUTHERN    FRANCE.  793 

hectoliters,  equal  to  317,000,000  wine  gallons,  valued  at  $79.000,000,  we 
have  a  grand  total  of  $338,000,000  as  the  value  of  the  wine  and  beer 
annually  consumed  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  Empire. 

JAMES  BILEY  WEAVER, 

Consul-  General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE  GENERAL, 

Vienna,  April  8, 1884. 


FRANCE. 

SOUTHERN  FRANCE. 
\ 

REPORT  BY  VICE-CONSUL  MARTIN,   OF  MARSEILLES. 
[Republished  from  consular  reports,  No.  41^.] 

Climate,  soil,  etc. — The  climate  of  that  part  of  France  which  is  washed  by 
the  Mediteranean  can  be  placed  among  the  most  pleasant  in  the  world. 
Extreme  heat  and  cold  are  alike  unknown,  and  while  under  the  influence 
of  regular  sea-breezes  the  thermometer  rarely  shows  a  temperature  of 
more  than  80°  or  86°  Fahrenheit  in  summer,  the  winters  are  remarkably 
mild,  and  snow  and  ice  are  in  fact  a  rarity  in  the  country.  On  the  other 
hand,  drought  is  exceptionally  severe,  and  in  the  warm  season  months  are 
sometimes  passed  without  a  drop  of  rain  to  moisten  the  parched  ground. 
The  water  streams  are  mere  torrents,  which  can  not  supply  any  water 
for  irrigating  purposes  in  the  dry  season,  and,  when  swollen  in  the  fall 
by  frequent  floods  of  rain,  rush  impetuously  to  the  sea,  carrying  away 
large  quantities  of  the  light  vegetable  earth,  in  the  place  of  which  they 
leave  rocks  and  pebbles  brought  down  from  the  steep  barren  hills  with 
which  the  country  is  covered. 

The  soil  is  generally  light  and  stony,  calcareous  or  argillaceous,  some 
times  granitic  or  schistic.  Frequent  and  strong  winds  from  the  north- 
west sweep  across  the  country,  and,  being  cold  and  dry,  are  extremely 
injurious  to  agriculture. 

For  all  these  reasons  the  modes  of  cultivation  and  the  produce  of  the 
soil  are  widely  different  from  what  they  are  in  the  other  parts  of  France. 
The  culture  of  grain,  so  largely  predominant  elsewhere,  is  here  confined 
to  a  few  plains  and  valleys  that  are  favored  with  means  of  natural  or 
artificial  irrigation,  and  is  entirely  inadequate  to  the  demands  of  local 
consumption.  Arbustive  culture,  on  the  other  hand,  is  extensive,  and 
furnishes  the  country  with  most  of  its  revenue.  The  olive  tree,  which 
is  not  cultivated  beyond  a  compartively  short  distance  from  the  Medi- 
terranean shores,  and  the  vine,  which  is  more  extensively  grown  in 
these  than  in  any  other  parts  of  France,  stand  foremost  in  that  branch 
of  agriculture. 

Varieties.— In  a  general  way,  vines  in  this  country  can  be  planted  in 


794        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

any  sort  of  ground,  without  regard  to  altitude,  declivity,  or  distance 
from  the  sea.  Still  it  is  a  well-established  fact  that  better  results  are 
obtained  in  valleys  and  plains  as  to  quantity  and  on  hill-sides  as  to 
quality.  In  other  words,  wine  being  the  chief  object  of  vine-culture  in 
this  country,  the  produce  of  hill-side  vineyards  will  be  less  abundant, 
but  obtains  higher  prices  for  its  superior  flavor,  richness,  and  strength. 

As  for  the  nature  of  the  soil,  every  different  ground  appears  to  be 
better  adapted  to  the  different  varieties,  numbering  three  hundred  or 
more.  A  complete  enumeration  of  these  varieties  would  be  tedious  and 
of  little  interest,  and  I  shall  confine  myself  to  a  brief  description  of  the 
varieties  mostly  to  be  found  in  southern  France. 

The  "  Mourvedre  "  or  "  Mourvedu  "  thrives  best  on  calcareous  soil, 
with  a  thin  layer  of  vegetable  earth  and  a  substratum  consisting  of 
crackled  rocks.  Each  plant  can  then  give  as  much  as  five  pints  of  a  wine 
that  is  substantial,  of  a  rich  color,  with  a  slight  tannic  flavor,  contain- 
ing about  11  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  The  grapes  are  sweet,  black  blue, 
round,  rather  small,  and  more  or  less  thick  on  the  bunch.  In  this  coun- 
try they  come  to  maturity  in  the  first  days  of  September,  and  do  not 
rot  as  easily  as  other  varieties.  The  "Mourvedre"  bears  fruit  on  its 
third  year,  comes  into  full  bearing  on  the  sixth,  and  is  fruitful  after  that 
as  long  as  it  lives,  viz,  from  forty  to  one  hundred  years. 

The  "  Grenache"  has  a  preference  for  hillsides  and  dry  and  gravelly 
soil ;  it  thrives  on  all  kinds  of  ground,  provided  they  be  free  from 
dampness  ;  it  is  more  sensitive  to  cold  than  the  Mourvedre,  and  can  be 
killed  by  a  temperature  of  17°  Fahr.  There  are  two  varieties  of  Gre- 
nache,  the  black  and  the  white.  The  white  produces  good  fruit  for  the 
table,  and  a  kind  of  white  wine  that  is  much  esteemed. 

The  "  Peconi  touar  "  is  remarkable  for  its  durability  and  abundance 
of  produce.  It  gives  the  best  returns  on  rocky  hillsides  and  meager 
soil,  but  does  not  bear  fruit  until  the  fifth  or  sixth  year.  As  the  wine 
produced  is  light  in  strength  and  color,  the  grape,  of  a  black  purple  hue, 
is  generally  mixed  with  the  fruit  of  other  varieties  in  the  preparation  of 
wine. 

The  "  Aramon  "  or  "  Ugni  noir"  only  thrives  in  loamy  soil,  and  must  be 
extensively  cultivated.  It  produces  large  quantities  of  a  wine  that  is 
light,  poor  in  alcohol,  does  not  keep  long,  and  suffers  much  frofi  trans- 
portation 

The  "Brun  fourca"  is  mostly  cultivated  on  hill-sides  or  in  dry,  grav- 
elly, or  stony  land.  The  grape,  which  is  large,  elongated,  of  a  bluish- 
black  color,  is  not  fit  for  the  table,  and  must  be  mixed,  for  the  making 
of  wine,  with  other  grapes  richer  in  sugar  and  tannin.  The  production, 
which  begins  in  the  third  year,  increases  as  the  plant  advances  in  age. 
On  favorable  soil  it  reaches  the  quantity  of  three  quarts  of  wine  for 
each  plant. 

The  "  Cangnau  "  or  "  Monistel n  must  be  planted  on  high,  substantial 
ground,  free  from  dampness.  It  begins  to  bear  fruit  on  the  second  years 


THE    VINE    IN    SOUTHERN   FRANCE.  795 

and  produces  a  spirituous  wine  that  keeps  well,  improves  with  time, 
and  stands  transportation  remarkably  well,  but  is  somewhat  rough  to 
the  taste.  The  vine  is  apt  to  suffer  from  oidium. 

The  "  Picardan"  is  one  of  the  most  productive  varieties  cultivated  in 
this  country.  The  best  results  are  obtained  in  rich,  pebbly,  consistent, 
high  land.  Dampness  is  rather  beneficial  to  the  plant.  The  grapes  are 
la iv,  elongated,  fleshy,  sweet,  and  very  palatable.  The  wine  produced 
is  of  a  fine  red  color,  mellow.  It  possesses  a  pleasant  flavor,  with  a 
smack  of  the  fruit,  and  keeps  well. 

Owing  to  the  general  preference  given  by  the  consumer  of  this  coun- 
try to  red  wine,  the  white  varieties  are  but  little  cultivated,  and  the 
grapes  are  generally  consumed  fresh.  Still  the  number  of  these  vari- 
eties is  large,  and  I  shall  only  mention  those  that  are  most  common  in 
the  country.  The  "  Ugni  blanc"  is  one  of  the  few  white  varieties  that 
are  grown  in  view  of  wine-making,  owing  to  the  small  size  of  the  grapes. 
In  low  and  rich  laud  the  quantity  produced  is  larger  and  amounts  to 
an  average  of  two  quarts  for  every  vine.  On  high,  stony,  or  gravelly 
ground,  on  hill  sides,  the  quality  is  much  superior,  and  the  wine  pro- 
ditced  commands  much  higher  prices  than  that  of  the  plains.  The  plant 
thrives  better  near  the  sea-coa^t,  where  it  is  less  affected  by  cold.  The 
other  varieties,  "Clairette,""Colomband,""Mayorguin"  or  "Marseilles 
plant,"  and  u  Muscat,"  are  generally  cultivated  on  hill-sides,  and  their 
produce  is  sent  to  the  market  for  table  use.  The  Muscat  grape  is  only 
turned  into  wine  in  one  district  of  the  department  of  He'rault,  that  of 
Lunel  and  Frontignan. 

Plantation  and  culture. — In  this  warm  and  dry  climate  it  is  necessary 
to  break  up  the  earth  to  the  depth  of  2  or  3  feet ;  the  time  when  this 
preparatory  work  is  performed  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
soil.  It  can  be  done  on  high  and  dry  ground  before  the  rainy  season 
sets  in,  and  even  in  summer ;  for  low  and  damp  soil  it  is  preferable  to 
wait  until  the  heavy  fall  rains  are  over  and  delay  the  operation  until 
March  or  April. 

When  the  ground  has  been  previously  planted  with  vines,  it  is  a  gen- 
eral custom  to  allow  it  to  rest  for  a  number  of  years,  varying  from  one 
to  two  for  strong,  consistent,  fertile,  or  clayey  soil,  and  for  a  longer 
time  in  sandy,  light,  permeable  land.  Lucern  or  other  leguminous 
plants  are  raised  in  the  interval,  but  the  culture  of  wheat  should  be 
avoided,  a«  it  deprives  the  earth  of  much  of  the  gluten  which  is  neces- 
sary to  the  grape  from  which  wine  is  to  be  made.  When  the  ground  has 
been  properly  prepared  the  vines  are  planted  in  the  form  of  cuttings  or 
young  plants  raised  in  nurseries.  The  latter  grow  faster,  but  vines  that 
have  grown  from  cuttings  appear  to  do  better  in  the  long  run,  espe- 
cially when  they  have  been  taken  from  vines  twenty  or  twenty-five  years 
old.  Slips  can  be  kept  for  some  time  before  being  planted,  but  must 
then  be  allowed  to  soak  in  "water  for  some  days. 

The  time  and  depth  at  which  to  make  the  plantations  are  also  regti- 


796        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

lated  by  the  nature  of  the  ground.     In  dry  and  high  land  winter  is 
the  most  favorable  season ;  in  low  and  moist  ground  the  middle  of 
spring  is  preferable.    The  depth  generally  adapted  is  that  of  2J  feet 
in  dry  and  light  soil,  20  inches  in  medium  land,  and  13  inches  in  rich, 
damp  earth.    In  this  country,  where  vines  are  grown  in  bushes  and 
without  the  support  of  poles,  no  other  care  is  taken  of  the  vineyard 
for  the  first  year  beyond  that  of  keeping  it  clear  of  weeds  by  tilling 
and  hoeing.     After  the  first  year  the  first  pruning  takes  place.     Only 
one  branch  is  left  on  the  stem,  generally  that  which  is  nearer  to  the 
ground.    It  is  well  established  that  a  short  stem  helps  maturity  to  a 
great  extent,  but  as  on  the  other  hand  the  plant  is  made  by  it  more 
liable  to  rot  and  frost,  the  above  rule  is  only  followed  on  hillsides  or 
dry  land :  in  valleys  and  low,  damp  land  the  branch  which  is  left  on 
the  plant  is  selected  at  a  distance  of  12  to  14  inches  from  the  ground. 
In  all  cases  that  branch  is  itself  pruned  short  and  left  with  two  or 
three  eyes  only.    Every  year  after  the  first  a  new  branch  is  left  on  the 
stem,  but  the  total  number  is  rarely  over  four  or  five.     The  guiding 
rule  for  pruning  is  that  branches  shooting  from  the  stem  are  unpro- 
ductive and  should  be  cut  close  to  the  stem.    The  fruitful  sprigs  issaie 
from  one-year-old  branches.    Each  eye  of  these  sprigs  generally  pro- 
duces two  bunches  of  grape  and  one  shoot.    The  quantity  of  eyes  that 
should  be  allowed  to  remain  on  the  vine  depends  largely  upon  the 
nature  of  the  soil  and  the  strength  of  the  plant ;  the  number  on  a  full- 
grown  vine  varies  from  12  to  24.    There  is  no  generally  adopted  time 
for  pruning,  every  vine  grower  using  in  this  respect  his  own  judgment. 
It  ordinarily  takes  place  between  the  months  of  January  and  March, 
and  is  followed  immediately  afterwards  by  a   first  plowing,   which 
after  a  few  days  is  completed  by  a  second  hoeing ;  the  same  operation 
is  repeated  in  April  and  May ;  and,  in  the  best-conducted  vineyards,  a 
third  time  in  June.    The  culture  should  always  be  applied  with  great 
care,  and  never  exceed  the  depth  of  from  10  to  12  inches,  for  fear  of 
hurting  the  roots. 

There  are  but  very  few  districts  in  this  region  where  an  abundant 
supply  of  water  can  be  obtained,  and  the  vineyards  are  in  consequence 
rarely  irrigated.  When  practicable,  water  is  brought  into  trenches 
that  run  along  the  rows  of  vines,  but  never  in  excess,  as  it  is  well  ascer- 
tained that  moisture,  while  improving  the  yield  as  to  quantity,  is  detri- 
mental in  a  large  measure  to  quality,  and  makes  the  vine  much  more 
sensitive  to  frosts  and  cold  weather. 

Fertilizers. — In  new  soils  the  vine  can  easily  dispense  with  fertilizers 
of  any  kind  for  thirty  years  or  more  ;  it  is  even  claimed  by  some  good 
cultivators  that  an  addition  of  virgin  earth  or  calcareous  marl  prove  to 
be  the  best  fertilizers.  Still  the  custom  is  prevalent  to  use  stable  dung 
at  the  rate  of  12  tons  per  acre,  applied  once  in  from  four  to  six  years.  A 
ton  per  acre  of  horns,  woolen  rags,  or  oil-cakes,  which  are  abundantly 
imported  or  produced  at  Marseilles,  is  frequently  used  as  a  substitute. 


THE    VINE    IN    SOUTHERN   FRANCE.  797 

Horns  and  rags  remain  effective  for  five  years,  oil  cake  for  two  only. 
Whatever  may  be  the  manure  employed,  it  is  customarily  buried  in  fur- 
rows cut  between  the  rows  of  vines.  These  rows  are  generally  from  3J 
to  ,">  feet  apart,  and  the  same  distance  is  kept  between  each  plant  in  the 
row,  but  in  some  parts  of  the  country  a  larger  space  frequently  exists 
between  the  rows.  The  intervals  thus  intervening  are  then  devoted  to 
some  other  culture,  wheat  in  most  cases.  But  it  has  been  found  out 
that  the  system  proves  injurious  to  both  cultures,  and  it  has  been  aban- 
doned to  a  a  great  extent. 

Yield. — Grapes  are  never  dried  in  this  country,  except  by  such  farmers 
as  do  not  have  a  sufficient  number  of  vines  to  enable  them  to  undertake 
the  making  of  wine,  or  are  too  far  away  from  a  consuming  center  where 
they  could  send  to  the  market  the  small  quantity  of  fresh  grapes  pro- 
duced on  their  farm.  The  method  followed  by  such  farmers  is  very 
simple  :  The  grapes  are  dipped  in  boiling  water  and  exposed  to  the  rays 
of  the  sun  for  eight  or  ten  days.  The  raisin  thus  prepared  can  not  com- 
pete with  that  imported  here  in  large  quantities  from  Spain,  and  the 
amount  produced  is  consequently  insignificant. 

Kailroad  facilities  have  made  it  possible  to  dispose  of  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  fresh  grapes  at  paying  prices,  but  still  the  great  object  is  the 
production  of  wine.  In  consequence,  all  the  calculations  made  regard- 
ing the  yield,  value,  and  cost  of  crop  depend  upon  this  production, 
which  is  regulated  by  so  many  circumstances  that  it  can  not  easily  be 
established  on  a  fixed  .basis. 

While  the  cost  is  submitted  to  little  variation,  between  the  sums  of 
300  and  400  francs  per  hectare  ($24  to  $40  per  acre),  including  the 
purchase  of  manure,  sulphur  (as  a  preventive  against  oidium),  and  the 
making  of  wine,  the  yield  is  entirely  subject  to  the  weather  throughout 
the  year,  as  is  the  value  to  the  quotations  of  the  wine  market.  It  is 
generally  conceded  that  one  acre  of  vines  can  produce  from  200  to  400 
gallons  of  wine,  and  that  the  cost  of  cultivation  takejs  up  one-third  of 
the  proceeds. 

Diseases. — Many  causes  can  affect  the  yield  and  value  of  the  crop. 
Amongst  those  of  frequent  occurrence  are  atmospheric  influences,  early 
spring  frosts,  that  blight  thje  plant  and  leave  no  other  remedy  than  the 
cutting  of  the  stem  on  a  level  with  the  ground  to  let  the  new  sprouts 
grow  from  the  roots,  or  the  uprooting  of  the  whole  plant,  which  is 
either  replaced  by  a  new  one  or,  more  rarely,  by  means  of  "provining," 
that  is,  forcing  into  the  ground  one  of  the  long  branches  of  the  next  vine. 

Extreme  drought  prevents  the  growth  of  the  grapes  in  size  and  quan- 
tity, but  improves  the  quality  of  the  wine  wonderfully,  according  to  the 
common  saying,  "A  year  of  drought  is  a  year  of  good  wine."  A  wet 
season,  on  the  contrary,  brings  abundance  of  wine,  but  impairs  the 
quality,  so  that  in  many  instances  the  wine  is  unsalable  and  must  be 
turned  into  alcohol. 

The  vine  also  suffers  from  many  parasitic  insects  or  diseases.    Few 


798 


FRUIT   CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


of  these  ever  produce  disastrous  effects  except  oidiuin,  phylloxera,  and, 
more  lately,  mildew. 

Oidiuin,  which  at  a  time  endangered  the  future  of  the  French  vine- 
yards, has  been  and  is  still  successfully  counteracted  by  the  use  of  flowers 
of  sulphur.  They  are  mixed  with  an  equal  quantity  of  plaster,  or  a 
smaller  proportion  of  lime,  and  carefully  sprinkled  on  the  young  leaves 
once  or  twice  before  the  ripening  of  the  grapes.  The  wine-growers  of 
this  country,  who  could  procure  flowers  of  sulphur  at  low  rates  from 
the  important  refineries  of  Marseilles,  were  in  the  end  benefited  by  the 
appearance  of  the  disease,  as  it  opened  for  the  abundant  but  inferior 
wines  produced  in  this  region  a  more  extensive  market,  and  brought 
about  a  decided  advance  in  the  prices,  which  had  been  as  low  as  6 
francs  per  hectoliter  (8  cents  per  gallon).  When  the  rates  of  20  and  30 
francs  per  hectoliter  could  be  obtained  the  production  of  wine  increased 
in  a  remarkable  measure.  In  1874  the  seven  departments  of  Bouches- 
du-Rhone,  Gard,  Aude,  Eerault  (the  production  of  which  alone 
amounted  to  13,000,000  hectoliters),  Pyr6nees-Ori en  tales,  Var,  and 
Yaucluse,  forming  this  consular  district,  contributed  more  than  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  production  in  France. 

It  was  just  then  that  phylloxera  made  its  appearance  and  raged  in 
this  district,  where  it  worked  its  more  pernicious  effects.  Many  vine- 
yards were  entirely  destroyed,  all  were  attacked,  and  an  idea  of  the  ex- 
tent of  the  damage  can  be  formed  from  the  following  table,  giving  the 
area  planted  in  vines  in  thousands  of  acres  and  the  production  of  wine 
in  thousands  of  gallons,  in  each  of  the  seven  departments,  for  the  three 
periods  1856-'60,  1866-'70,  1876->80: 


Department. 

• 

1856-'60. 

1866-'70. 

1876-'80. 

Surface 
cultivated, 
1,000  acres. 

Production, 
1,000  gal- 
lons. 

Surface 
cultivated, 
1,000  acres, 

Production, 
1,000  gal- 
lons. 

Surface 
cultivated, 
1,000  acres. 

Production, 
1,000  gal- 
lons. 

175 
111 

390 
198 
71 
108 
200 

17,  013 

7,555 
108,228 
30,  379 
6,393 
11,040 
20,  341 

200 
131 
524 
222 
74 
114 
185 

44,  486 
16,  062 
362,  636 
50,192 
10,435 
10,  540 
23,504 

279 
161 
363 
54 
30 
67 
161 

85,  565 
34,  844 
143,  576 
5,468 
1,479 
2,747 
12,  733 

Pyreuees-Orientales  

I  It;  ran  It 

G-ard    .     .          

Bouches-du-Rh6ne  
Var  

In  this  connection  the  following  table  of  importation  and  exportation 
at  the  port  of  Marseilles  may  be  a  more  striking  evidence  of  the  vicissi- 
tudes undergone  by  the  production  of  ordinany  wine  in  southern  France: 


1862. 

1867. 

1872. 

1877. 

1882. 

185  206 

263  563 

1  60r>  202 

1  308  355 

13  175  188 

Exportation  gallons.. 

267,  544 

6,  045,  848 

7,  806,  1«J8 

5,  719,  651 

4,  602,  899 

THE   "VINE   IN    SOUTHERN   FRANCE.  799 

The  emotion  created  by  the  ravages  of  phylloxera  was  immense,  and 
the  French  Government  instituted  a  prize  of  300,000  francs  to  be 
awarded  by  a  special  committee  sitting  at  Paris  every  year  to  examine 
into  the  progress  of  the  disease  and  that  made  in  counteracting  its  effect. 
In  its  last  sitting,  which  took  place  this  year,  the  committee  decided 
that  submersion,  sulphide  of  carbon,  and  sulpho-carbonate  of  potas- 
sium should  again  be  recommended  for  the  year  1884,  and  admitted 
that  it  would  be  well  to  use  American  vines  as  u  graft  bearers,"  partic- 
ularly the  Riparia,  Solon,  York,  Madeira,  and  Jacquez.  It  finally  de- 
cided that  the  prize  of  300,000  francs  should  once  more  be  reserved,  as 
none  of  the  remedies  so  far  invented  were  of  a  sufficiently  effective 
character  to  justify  its  being  granted. 

As  I  have  already  remarked,  there  are  but  very  few  places  in  this 
region  which  can  dispose  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  to  make  the 
submersion  system  available. 

The  appliance  of  sulphide  of  carbon  is  costly,  and  although  it  has 
proved  an  efficient  preventive,  it  does  not  appear  to  possess  marked 
curative  efficiency.  In  consequence,  the  planting  of  American  vines 
has  met  in  this  part  of  the  country  with  general  favor,  and  it  is  ex- 
pected that  in  a  few  years  hence  all  the  vineyards  that  have  been 
destroyed  will  be  renovated  by  means  of  American  plants. 

Most  satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained  wherever  the  experiment 
was  made.  M.  Keynaud,  our  consular  agent  at  Toulon,  informs  me  that 
he  planted  several  acres  of  his  property  with  Eiparia  and  Jacquez  vines 
on  which  he  grafted  the  French  varieties  previously  grown  on  the  same 
soil.  After  three  years,  he  reaped  3,360  liters  per  hectare  (a  result  some- 
what superior  to  the  average)  of  a  wine  that  was  in  all  respects  the 
same  as  was  formerly  produced  by  the  original  French  plants.  His 
plantation  does  not  suffer  in  the  least  from  phylloxera,  but  requires 
more  cultivating  and  fertilizing  than  the  French  vines. 

Mildew. — It  was  not  until  last  year  that  mildew  caused  noticeable 
damage  in  the  vineyards  of  France.  No  means  have  yet  been  found 
out  to  counteract  the  disease.  In  fact  very  little  is  known  so  far  about 
it  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  propagates.  It  has  been  noticed 
that  vines  planted  near  the  sea-shore  were  more  liable  to  it,  and  the 
prevalent  opinion  is  that  mildew  is  caused  by  a  persistence  of  moderate 
moisture  in  the  atmosphere,  which  is  of  very  rare  occurrence  in  this  cli- 
mate, except  in  the  month  of  September.  As  the  crops  have  already 
come  to  maturity  by  that  time,  and  the  disease  seems  to  attack  the 
leaves  only,  no  great  anxiety  is  felt  here  concerning  it. 

Wine-making. — The  making  of  wine  is,  in  the  southern  region  of 
France,  carried  on  in  the  most  simple  method.  A  dry,  sunny  day  is 
selected,  when  practicable,  for  the  picking  of  the  grapes,  which  must  be 
ended  before  sunset.  All  the  grapes  are  placed,  just  as  picked  from 
the  vine,  in  immense  wooden  or  masonry  vats  of  from  four  to  six  thou- 
sand liters7  capacity,  and  trampled  under  the  feet  of  a  number  of  men 


800        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

sufficient  to  permit  of  the  operation  being  completed  in  one  day.  The 
"  must "  is  left  to  ferment  in  the  vats  some  eight  days,  and  then  de- 
canted into  barrels,  which  are  not  bunged  until  fermentation  has  stopped, 
that  is,  forty  or  fifty  days. 

As  the  producer  generally  sells  his  wine  at  once  to  the  merchant,  he 
does  not  submit  it  to  any  of  the  many  manipulations  that  take  place  in 
the  traders7  cellars. 

The  only  practice  in  force  is  to  sprinkle  the  top  layer  of  the  grapes  in 
the  vats  with  a  small  quantity  of  plaster,  which,  it  is  claimed,  gives  to 
the  wine  a  better  color  and  a  slight  degree  of  astringency  necessary  to 
its  preservation. 

J.  S.  MARTIN, 

Vice-consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Marseilles,  March  1, 1884. 


CHAMPAGNE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FR1SBIE,  OF  RHEIHS. 
[Republislied  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41^.] 

I  have  the  honor  to  acknowledge  the  receipt  of  Department's  circular 
dated  December  4,  1883,  with  interrogatories  regarding  grape  culture, 
methods  of  cultivation,  etc.,  in  the  best  conducted  vineyards,  and  the 
method  in  practice  for  raisin  culture ;  which  interrogatories  have  been 
prepared  and  submitted  at  the  request  of  some  of  the  leading  fruit- 
growers of  California.  I  realize  that  the  subject  is  one  of  considerable 
importance,  and  shall  be  glad  if  I  can  furnish  anything  of  interest  and 
profit  to  the  great  industry  centered  in  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  first  place,  however,  I  am  estopped  from  giving 
any  information  regarding  raisin  culture  from  the  fact  that  no  grapes 
are  grown  in  this  consular  district  for  that  purpose,  the  climate  and 
soil  not  being  suitable. 

The  vineyards  here  are  cultivated  and  the  grapes  grown  for  the  ex- 
clusive purpose  of  manufacturing  champagne  sparkling  wine,^the  best 
growths  always  being  used  for  that  purpose,  the  manufacture  of  table 
and  dessert  wines  for  commercial  purposes  having  entirely  ceased  in  the 
champagne  district. 

Recognizing  the  importance  of  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  the 
manufacture  of  its  product  to  a  large  class  of  cultivators  in  the  United 
States,  soon  after  my  arrival  at  this  consulate  I  began  an  earnest  study 
of  the  subject,  and  in  the  spring  of  1882  I  communicated  to  the  Depart- 
ment, in  three  separate  reports,  the  results  of  my  investigations,  which 
were  soon  after  published  in  the  monthly  consular  reports.  In  those 
reports  I  wrote  all  there  was  to  be  written  on  the  subject,  in  so  far  as  I 


THE    VINE    IN    CHAMPAGNE.  801 

could  inform  myself  at  the  time,  and  I  have  really  learned  but  little 
new  or  interesting  touching  the  matter  since.  However,  as  a  greatly 
increased  interest  seems  to  have  sprung  up  among  all  classes  of  our 
people  within  a  short  time  past  in  regard  to  the  importance  and  value 
of  consular  reports,  and  as  very  many  are  now  interested  readers  who 
never  read  them  before,  and  as  the  reports  now  called  for  are  for  the 
special  benefit  of  a  class  of  interested  cultivators,  I  have  thought  it 
well  for  me  to  go  back  to  the  minutes  of  my  study  of  the  subject  two 
years  ago  and  give  our  California  friends  and  other  vine-growers  a  re- 
cast of  what  I  then  learned  about  the  cultivation  of  the  vine  in  the 
champagne  district  and  the  manufacture  of  its  product,  together  with 
such  new  facts  as  I  shall  be  able  to  give,  believing  that  it  will  now  come 
under  the  notice  of  many  new  and  appreciative  readers. 

As  far  as  the  champagne  country  is  concerned  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  the  vine  has  been  cultivated  since  the  most  remote  times,  the  dry 
and  chalky  soil  of  the  surrounding  hills  and  valleys  being  specially 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  vine.  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  in 
the  province  of  Champagne,  in  the  department  of  the  Marne,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  districts  of  Rheims  and  Epernay,  is,  according  to  the 
most  reliable  authorities,  of  very  ancient  date.  One  writer  says :  "Strong 
men,  we  know,  lived  before  Agamemnon,  and  strong  wine  was  made  in 
the  fair  province  of  Champagne  long  before  the  days  of  the  sagacious 
old  monk,  Don  Perignon,  to  whom  the  world  is  indebted  for  the  spark- 
ling vintage  known  under  the  now  familiar  name  of  champagne."  Cato 
the  elder  informs  us  that  in  his  day  vine  plants  were  brought  into  Italy 
from  Gaul;  and  Cicero,  in  his  speech  on  behalf  of  Fonteius,  refers  to  the 
great  trade  in  wine  carried  on  by  the  Gauls,  of  which  at  that  time 
Kheims  was  the  capital. 

Domitian  ordered  all  the  vines  in  Champagne  to  be  uprooted  and 
destroyed.  He  had  an  idea  that  the  culture  of  the  vine  caused  people 
to  neglect  that  of  cereals  and  general  agriculture,  and  he  also  feared 
that  the  desire  of  drinking  wine  would  attract  the  barbarians  to  the 
country.  It  was  not  until  about  two  centuries  later  (280  A.  D.)  that 
they  were  replaced  by  the  Emperor  Probus. 

There  are  several  groups  of  low  hills  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Marne  and  the  Yesle,  possessing  a  light,  shallow  soil,  and  with  a  per- 
vious understratum  principally  composed  of  Tertiary  layers  and  of  chalk, 
with  a  mixture  of  silica  and  light  clay,  combined  with  a  varying  pro- 
portion of  oxide  of  iron.  These  groups  of  hills  are  finely  situated  for 
sunshine,  and  of  very  little  good  for  the  cultivation  of  other  vegetable 
produce.  Such  advantages  as  these  seem  to  point  to  a  special  provision 
of  nature  for  the  cultivation  of  the  vine.  Poor,  sometimes  even  barren 
soils,  so  long  as  they  are  easily  accessible  to  air  and  water,  are,  as 
every  one  here  will  tell  you,  quite  sufficient  for  its  growth. 

If  the  first  attempts  at  cultivation  were  crowned  with  success,  still  it 
was  not  till  a  comparatively  recent  date,  which  we  may  fix  at  the  last 


802  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN  .FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

quarter  ot  the  preceding  century,  that  this  industry  sprang  into  im- 
portance. It  was,  indeed,  from  this  time,  that  champagne  wines,  already 
renowned  for  their  fineness  and  lightness,  began  to  be  the  object  of  new 
experiments.  These  resulted  in  a  gradual  increase  and  improvement 
in  vine-growing  and  to  the  perfecting  of  the  produce. 

Sixteen  thousand  five  hundred  hectares  (about  40,700  acres)  are  at  the 
present  time  devoted,  in  the  department  of  the  Marne,  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  vine.  In  each  district  the  nature  and  situation  of  the  soil,  and 
more  especially  the  experience  of  vine-growers,  partly  founded  on  tradi- 
tion, have  led  to  the  adoption  of  different  kinds  of  vines  and  various 
modes  of  culture. 

Unquestionably  the  finest  grapes  are  produced  in  the  hilly  regions  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Rheims  and  Yertus.'  The  wines  coming  from  the 
slopes  of  these  hills  have  long  been  celebrated ;  the  first  under  the  name 
of  river  wines,  and  the  second  under  the  name  of  hill  icines;  but  this  dis- 
tinction has  nearly  ceased  since  the  appropriation  of  wines  of  a  certain 
quality  for  the  manufacture  of  sparkling  champagne. 

The  most  renowned  vineyards  extend — 

1.  Along  the  right  bank  of  the  Marne  from  Mareuil  to  Damery. 
Along  the  line  of  railway  from  Paris  to  Rheims,  the  traveler  sees  on  his 
left  in  succession  the  fertile  hills  of  Damery,  Cumieres,  Hautvillers, 
Dizy-la-Riviere,  and  Ay.    Further  on,  as  the  line  curves,  those  of  Ma- 
reul,  Bouzy,  Ambonnay,  and  Tr^pail  come  into  view. 

2.  On  the  slope  which  faces  the  Vesle  and  the  city  of  Eheims  are  the 
not  less  prosperous  ones  of  Yilly,  Mailly,  Tiliery,  Yerzenay,  and  Yerzy. 

3.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Marne,  4  or  5  miles  from  the  railroad  and 
the  river,  lie  the  celebrated  vineyards  of  Epernay,  Pierry,  Cuis,  Oramant, 
Le  Mesnil,  and  Avize. 

Not  far  from  these  vineyards,  from  which  are  made  the  celebrated 
champagne  sparkling  wines,  are  others  of  less  pretensions,  which 
produce  red  table  wines  of  some  value.  In  the  districts  of  Chalons, 
Yitry,  and  Ste.-Menehould,  only  wines  of  less  value  are  produced,  which 
are  seldom  used  in  the  manufacture  of  champagne. 

In  these  different  localities  the  principal  kinds  of  wines  grown  are  : 
White  grapes,  tipinette,  or  the  white  morillon,  and  the  large  vert-dore 
of  Ay;  red  grapes,  the  pineaux,  and  among  them  the  small  vert-dore", 
distinguished  by  its  compressed,  irregular  bunches  of  middling- sized 
grapes,  by  its  large  leaves,  somewhat  rough  on  the  upper  and  smooth 
on  the  under  side,  lobed,  and  but  little  indented.  The  epinette  is  a  pro- 
lific bearer,  and  its  round,  transparent  berries,  which  hang  in  no  very 
compact  clusters,  are  both  juicy  and  sweet.  It  ripens  much  earlier  than 
either  the  other  varieties.  The  vert-dore  is  robust  and  productive,  but 
yielding  a  less  generous  wine  than  the  pineau,  the  plant  dor6  of  Ay,  and 
the  berries  of  which  are  dark  and  oval,  and  very  thin-skinned,  and  re- 
markably sweet  and  juicf. 

One  variety  is  the  plant  gris,  or  burot,  a  somewhat  delicate  vine,  whose 
fruit  has  a  brownish  tinge,  and  yields  a  light  and  perfumed  wine. 


THE    VINE    IN   CHAMPAGNE.  803 

There  are  several  other  species  of  vine  of  second  rank,  cultivated  in 
the  champagne  vineyards,  notably  the  common  meunier,  or  miller,  bear- 
ing black  grapes,  and  which  derives  its  name  from  the  circumstance  of 
the  young  leaves  appearing  to  have  been  sprinkled  with  flour.  There 
are  also  the  black  and  white  gonais,  the  meslier,  a  prolific  white  variety, 
yielding  a  wine  of  fair  quality;  the  black  and  white  gamais ;  the  tour- 
l<m  ;  the  marmot,  and  several  others. 

These  second-rate  vines  produce  in  abundance  the  wines  which  were 
formerly  reserved  by  the  vine-growers  for  their  own  consumption,  but 
which  are  now  used  by  not  over-nice  speculators  to  mix  with  their 
superior  wines.  It  is  but  fair  to  say,  however,  that  these  second-rate 
vines  are  rapidly  disappearing,  and  vines  of  the  first  class  taking  their 
place. 

On  the  hills  around  Eheims  and  Vertus  the  method  of  low  cultivation 
prevails,  whilst  tall  vines  are  almost  exclusively  grown  on  the  hills  of 
Chateau  Thierry.  These  widely  different  methods  are  said  to  be  re- 
quired by  reason  of  the  different  nature  of  the  soils.  Along  the  course 
of  the  Marne  the  vine  grows  on  a  shallow,  dry  soil,  receiving  and  re- 
flecting nearly  the  whole  of  the  sun's  rays.  The  mode  of  culture  em- 
ployed allows  of  the  assimilation  of  the  vines  to  a  sort  of  trellis-work, 
the  trunks  of  which  are  in  the  ground,  while  the  bearing  branches  grow- 
ing up  from  them  extend  along  the  face  of  the  soil  just  the  same  as  if 
they  were  trained  on  a  wall,  only  in  this  case  the  face  of  the  soil  repre- 
senting the  wall.  On  the  hills  of  St.  Thierry,  on  the  contrary,  the  sit- 
uation is  less  favorable,  the  soil  being  richer,  deeper,  and  more  humid ; 
hence  the  need  of  a  higher  growth  and  a  special  mode  of  cultivation. 
The  vines  are  almost  invariably  planted  on  rising  ground,  the  lower 
slopes,  which  usually  escape  the  spring  frosts,  producing  the  best  wines. 

In  the  champagne  country  the  vine,  whether  cultivated  on  the  high 
or  low  method,  becomes  productive  as  the  result  of  the  most  minute, 
incessant  care  and  attention.  In  the  localities  where  it  is  almost  the 
only  industry,  it  involves  during  the  whole  year  a  series  of  operations 
which  employ  the  greater  part  of  the  population.  According  to  the 
statistics  the  hands  employed  are  about  equal  in  number  to  the  hectares 
of  land  in  cultivation,  and  an  average  of  one  vine-dresser  for  every  2J 
acres  of  cultivated  land. 

The  various  operations  required  in  cultivating  the  vine  are  performed 
by  the  owners  or  vine-growers,  properly  so-called,  or  by  laborers  em- 
ployed by  them,  who  are  to  be  hired  at  wages  which  vary  according  to 
the  urgency  of  the  work. 

The  heads  of  the  great  champagne  houses  are  as  a  rule  proprietors, 
in  one  or  more  localities,  of  extensive  vineyards.  They  possess  also  a 
large  wine-making  establishment,  and  retain  a  regular  troop  of  vine- 
dressers, whom  they  lodge  and  employ  by  the  year. 

Pruning,  tilling,  propagating  by  layers,  bedding,  hoeing,  propping, 
pruning  and  nipping  the  buds,  and  making  storehouses  are  the  principal 


804        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

operations  of  these  workmen  from  January  to  September,  when  the  har- 
vest is  made.  At  this  season  they  conduct  the  vintage ;  then,  when  the 
wine  is  made,  and  the  vine  props  pulled  up,  they  profit  by  the  fine 
weather  at  the  end  of  autumn,  and  in  the  winter,  by  manuring,  digging 
ditches,  charring  or  sulphating  the  poles,  etc. 

For  the  champagne  vine-dresser  the  year  begins  directly  after  St.  Yin- 
cent's  day  j  that  is,  at  the  end  of  January  or  the  first  half  of  February. 
At  this  date,  if  the  weather  be  fine,  operations  are  begun  by  pruning. 
At  Ay  and  Dizy  all  the  large  vines  are  pruned  on  two  stems ;  but  mid- 
dle-sized and  small  ones  on  a  single  stem,  preserving  one  "  eye"  more. 
At  Avize,  Cramant,  and  Yerzenay  they  are  trained  on  a  single  stem, 
but  a  much  longer  one.  It  is  also  towards  the  end  of  February  that  the 
twigs  that  have  been  cut  off  are  gathered  into  bundles,  either  to  be  burnt 
or  to  be  sorted  out  and  kept  for  slips.  In  March  the  first  work  is  done 
on  the  vine,  when  the  first  digging  is  done.  If  it  were  done  earlier, 
there  would  be  the  inconvenience  of  the  soil  being  too  hard ;  and  if  later, 
the  danger  of  losing  the  young  shoots,  so  tender  and  so  slenderly  at- 
tached, by  want  of  attention  mainly  on  the  part  of  hired  work  people. 
In  this  month,  too,  the  vine  is  usually  rebedded,  which  is  done  by  sur- 
rounding the  plant  with  earth  as  high  as  the  new  shoots  of  the  year ; 
but  in  some  places  this  is  done  by  leaving  a  cutting  of  the  year  before 
out  of  the  ground.  This  work  is  done  with  a  hoe,  the  workman  digging 
a  small  hole  under  the  stem,  which  he  then  lowers  by  pressing  on  it 
with  his  foot,  and  then  fills  up  again  with  fresh  soil. 

In  April  these  operations  are  continued.  It  is  also  in  this  month,  if 
the  weather  be  favorable,  that  the  making  of  layers  is  begun.  In  order 
to  do  this  a  ditch  is  dug,  or  perhaps  was  dug  the  season  before,  20  cent- 
imeters (about  10  inches)  deeper  than  the  roots  of  the  parent  stem,  and 
a  layer  of  well  mellowed  earth  taken  from  the  surface  soil  is  placed 
there  5  then  a  horizontal  layer  of  cuttings,  prepared  for  the  purpose,  is 
inserted  on  the  parent  stem  and  is  covered  with  fresh  soil  taken  from 
the  bottom  of  the  trench.  This  method  of  propagating  the  vine  (the 
bedded  plant  being  destined  to  separation  from  the  parent  stem)  has 
the  advantage  of  rapidly  producing  new  sources  of  production,  and  is 
in  general  use  in  the  champagne  district.  It  is  also  during  April  that 
the  propping  of  the  vines  is  commenced,  the  vines  being  supported  by 
stakes,  usually  of  oak,  and  as  a  close  system  of  plantation  is  followed, 
no  less  than  24,000  stakes  are  required  on  every  acre  of  land.  These 
stakes  are  set  up  by  men  $nd  women,  and  an  expert  laborer,  it  is  said, 
will  set  as  many  as  5,000  of  them  in  the  course  of  a  day. 

In  May,  if  the  season  is  early,  it  is  convenient  to  give  the  first  nip. 
ping  to  those  branches  which  grow  too  rapidly.  About  the  25th.  when 
there  is  no  longer  any  fear  of  frost,  the  ground  is  plowed  (or  delved)  again. 
This  light  work,  which  is  needed  to  get  rid  of  pernicious  weeds  and 
vegetation,  is  performed  with  a  hoe  or  weeding-hook.  This  is  best  done 
in  dry  weather,  .and  should  not  be  done  after  rain  or  heavy  morning 
dew. 


THE    VINE    IN    CHAMPAGNE.  805 

Toward  the  end  of  May,  and  especially  about  the  beginning  of  June, 
commences  the  training  of  the  vines.  All  the  branches  of  the  same 
stock  are  tied  by  the  same  baud  to  the  supports  (stakes).  It  is  the  cus- 
tom to  cut  off  the  shoots  which  do  not  reach  the  ligature  at  a  leaf  above 
the  last  grape,  and  to  cut  off  short  those  which  do  not  show  any  sign 
of  fruit.  After  the  vines  have  been  secured  to  the  stakes  and  have  been 
carefully  hoed  around  their  roots  the  tops  are  broken  off  at  a  shoot  to 
prevent  them  from  growing  above  the  regulation  height,  which  is 
usually  from  30  to  33  inches. 

The  cultivators  regard  the  numerous  stakes  which  support  the  vines 
as  affording  some  protection  against  the  dreaded  white  frosts  of  spring, 
but  I  think  there  can  be  placed  but  little,  if  any,  reliance  in  such  a 
source  of  protection.  These  frosts  invariably  occur  between  early 
dawn  and  sunrise,  and,  to  guard  against  them,  some  cultivators  place 
heaps  of  hay,  refuse,  dead  leaves  and  branches,  etc.,  about  6  or  7  rods 
apart,  taking  care  to  keep  them  moderately  damp  to  prevent  too  rapid 
combustion.  When  a  frost  is  feared  the  heaps  on  the  side  of  the  vine- 
yard from  whence  the  wind  blows  are  set  on  fire,  and  the  dense  smoke 
spreads  over  the  vines,  and  is  said  to  produce  the  same  results  as  an 
actual  cloud,  warming  the  atmosphere  and  converting  the  frost  into 
dew.  In  case  there  is  no  wind  blowing,  all  the  surrounding  heaps  are 
set  on  fire  and  the  desired  effects  obtained.  There  are  other  methods 
of  protection  against  frosts  employed,  such  as  roofing  the  vines  over 
with  a  straw  matting  about  1J  feet  in  width  and  in  rolls  of  considerable 
length,  etc.,  but  the  system  of  creating  a  dense,  warm  smoke,  as  stated, 
appears  to  be  most  in  favor. 

Besides  the  plowing,  which  a  good  cultivator  is  never  afraid  of  re- 
peating too  often  at  this  season,  it  is  useful  toward  the  end  of  June  to 
give  the  ground  a  second  delving.  This  second  digging  over  (it  is  gen- 
erally finished  by  the  first  week  of  July),  it  is  well  to  prune  the  lower 
"eyes"  which  have  sprouted  since  the  first  operation  of  the  kind,  it 
always  being  considered  desirable  and  important  to  prevent,  so  far  as 
possible,  the  growth  of  superfluous  woody  matter,  which  tends  to  draw 
nourishment  from  the  growing  fruit  and  injure  its  development.  This 
is  a  matter  which  I  believe  should  more  earnestly  engage  the  attention 
of  vine-growers  in  the  United  States  with  profit  to  themselves  and  sat- 
isfaction of  their  customers,  in  being  able  to  procure  well-developed  and 
consequently  luscious  fruit. 

From  the  20th  of  July  to  the  15th  of  August  the  heat  is  too  great 
to  permit  of  work  in  the  vines,  which  in  fact  are  now  in  no  need  of  par- 
ticular attention,  except  it  be  a  little  digging  if  the  weather  be  rainy. 
The  vine-grower  makes  use  of  this  time  to  make  use  of  his  magazines  ; 
this  is  the  name  given  in  the  champagne  country  to  the  heaps  of  fertil- 
izing matters  which  he  collects  at  the  side  turnings  from  the  roads  or 
other  places  as  near  as  possible  to  the  vines,  and  which  fertilizing  mat- 
ters are  composed  chiefly  of  a  kind  of  compost  formed  of  the  loose 


806        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

friable  soil  dug  out  from  the  sides  of  the  high  hills,  and  of  supposed 
volcanic  origin,  mixed  with  animal  and  vegetable  refuse.  This  is  also 
the  time  to  look  after  the  young  plants  of  the  year. 

Toward  the  end  of  August  it  is  the  rule  to  submit  the  vines  to  a 
severe  pruning,  so  as  better  to  expose  the  grape  to  the  air  and  the  light, 
always  taking  care  not  to  bruise  it. 

At  the  vintage  season,  which  is  generally  the  middle  of  September, 
hundreds  of  families  of  the  surrounding  districts  and  departments,  the 
Aisue,  Ardennes,  and  Somme,  throng  into  the  vineyards,  and  receive 
as  compensation  for  their  labor  from  40  to  60  cents  a  day. 

The  harvest  is  made  with  the  utmost  precaution.  The  grape-gather- 
ers are  advised  to  support  the  fruit  with  the  left  hand,  so  as  to  prevent 
the  riper  grapes  from  falling;  not  to  bruise  it  by  throwing  it  into  the 
basket.  These  small  baskets  are  afterwards  emptied  into  larger  ones, 
or  hampers,  in  which  the  fruit  is  taken  to  the  owners  of  the  vineyard, 
where  their  contents  are  minutely  examined  by  men  and  women,  who 
pluck  of  all  the  bruised,  rotten,  and  unripe  berries  and  throw  them 
into  a  separate  basket,  as  such  fruit  is  a  decided  if  not  fatal  injury  to 
a  first-class  wine.  If  the  grapes  are  very  ripe,  wisps  of  straw  are 
placed  in  the  bottoms  of  the  hampers  to  prevent  jolting  and  bruising. 

The  picking  ordinarily  commences  with  daylight,  and  the  vintagers 
assert  that  the  grapes  gathered  at  sunrise  always  produce  the  lightest 
and  most  limpid  wine,  and  that  by  plucking  the  grapes  when  the  early 
morning  sun  is  upon  them  they  are  believed  to  yield  much  more  juice. 
Later  on  in  the  day,  too,  spite  of  all  precaution,  it  is  impossible  to  pre- 
vent some  of  the  detached  grapes  from  partially  fermenting,  which  fre- 
quently suffices  to  give  a  slight  excess  of  color  to  the  must,  a  thing  to 
be  especially  avoided,  no  matter  how  rich  and  ripe  the  fruit  may  be,  in 
a  high-class  sparkling  wine.  I  desire,  in  passing,  to  call  the  special 
attention  of  those  attempting  to  make  sparkling  wines  in  the  United 
States  to  the  important  fact  that  tbe  use  of  unsound  or  unripe  fruit, 
even  in  a  small  quantity,  is  fatal  to  success. 

When  the  harvest  is  over,  usually  about  the  end  of  October,  the 
stakes  are  taken  up  and  arranged  in  vertical  piles  or  horizontal  heaps. 
Then,  until  the  bad  weather,  the  roads  or  paths  of  the  vineyard  are  re- 
paired ;  old  vines  are  pulled  up ;  the  earth  is  leveled,  the  materials 
from  the  magazines  (manure,  etc.)  are  turned  out;  the  trenches  for 
propagating  the  vines  are  constructed ;  and  when  on  approach  of  the 
frost  the  vines  can  not  be  approached,  the  time  is  spent  in  making  stakes 
(props),  the  earth  ends  of  which  are  first  charred, and  then  soaked  in  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper. 

Such  are  the  principal  operations  which  custom  and  experience  have 
sanctioned  in  the  true  champagne  vineyards;  that  is,  in  the  hilly 
regions  of  Eheims  and  Vertus. 

In  the  vines  called  St.  Thierry,  or  high  vines,  the  succession  of  oper- 
ations is  much  the  same,  and  the  work  differs  but  little  from  that  al- 


THE    VINE    IN    CHAMPAGNE.  807 

ready  described.  This  method  of  cultivation,  however,  necessitates 
three  or  four  plowings ;  further,  at  the  early  spring  pruning  all  the 
fruit-bearing  branches  of  the  preceding  year  are  lopped  off;  then  sup- 
pose one  had  to  choose  between  four  branches  left  by  the  preceding  time 
of  growth,  it  would  in  general  be  best  to  cut  off  two  and  preserve  those 
which  were  nearest  the  parent  stem,  one  being  pruned  with  two  "eyes" 
and  provides  the  woody  matter,  and  as  for  the  other,  destined  to  become 
the  fruit- bearing  branch,  it  should  be  of  medium  thickness,  with  well 
projecting  knots,  and  with  a  tendency  to  grow  horizontally.  At  a  later 
season  the  first  is  fixed  vertically  to  tall  stocks  6  feet  high,  and  the 
second  is  bent  round,  fixed,  and  becomes  the  bend. 

Both  low  and  high  vines  undergo  at  proper  times,  differing  accord- 
ing to  locality,  manuring,  and  improving  operations  of  various  kinds. 
Whether  the  vine  should  be  manured,  and  if  so  under  what  conditions 
and  at  what  times,  is  a  disputed  question  amongst  the  greater  number 
of  writers.  Thus,  Dr.  Guyot  recommends  manuring  every  three  years, 
and  enough  manure  to  be  put  in  each  time  to  last  those  three  years,  viz, 
3  pounds  per  vine  in  the  best  soils,  6  pounds  per  vine  in  medium  soils, 
and  12  pounds  per  vine  in  poor  soils.  On  the  other  hand,  M.  Violart, 
of  Ay,  another  eminent  authority,  recommends  the  moderate  use  of 
manure  for  oldish  vines,  and  protests  against  the  mischievous  use  of 
manures  for  young  vines. 

The  fruit  which  is  grown  from  it  is  only  nourished  by  the  manure  that  has  been  put 
into  the  soil;  it  hardly  takes  any  of  the  nature  of  the  soil.  An  abnormal  vigor  is 
given  to  the  vine,  and  it  is  in  a  way  plethorized  for  several  years,  and  when  the  juices 
of  the  manure  are  exhausted  it  begins  to  grow  weak  ;  it  is  ill,  as  the  vine-dressers 
say.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  manure  young  vines  with  much  moderation,  but  the 
older  ones  will  bear  more. 

One  of  the  most  important  questions,  important  both  by  reason  of  its 
presence  and  its  dangerous  character,  is  without  doubt  that  of  the  dis- 
eases of  the  vine. 

Although  the  phylloxera  has  not  yet  made  its  appearance  in  the 
champagne  country,  still  there  is  no  lack  of  other  scourges  to  the  culti- 
vation of  the  vine.  Every  year  has  its  records  of  substantial  disasters, 
more  or  less  local  in  character.  Here,  as  everywhere  else,  despite  the 
attention  and  shrewdness  of  vine-growers,  and  notwithstanding  the  in- 
vention of  many  means  of  protection,  there  are  some  vines,  generally 
those  with  the  lowest  situation,  which  pay  a  heavy  duty  to  the  frosts 
and  mists  of  spring.  Often,  also,  some  districts  are  robbed  of  their 
produce  by  hail. 

Apart  from  these  cosmic  disturbances,  in  some  districts  where  the 
earth,  more  likely  rich  than  poor,  rests  on  an  impervious  understratum, 
generally  of  a  strong  character,  there  appears,  after  a  luxurious  vegeta- 
tion of  several  years,  the  disease  which  the  vine-dressers  call  chabot — 
the  withering  and  death  of  the  plant^,  which  is  due  simply  to  the  rot- 
ting of  their  roots,  caused  by  an  excess  of  humidity  collected  in  an  uu- 
ivteutive  substratum. 
15GA i!7 


808        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

But  it  is  especially  vegetable  and  auiinal  parasites  that  have  for  a 
loiiger  or  shorter  time  back  threatened  the  harvests.  Of  late  years 
an  infinitesimal  mushroom,  the  Oidium  tuckeri  (vine  mildew),  has  ap- 
peared very  frequently,  not  only  on  trellised  vines,  but  even  in  the 
vineyards.  Flowers  of  sulphur  is  an  undoubted  antidote ;  but  notwith- 
standing its  efficacy  it  has  not  yet  been  generally  adopted  by  vine- 
growers.  Frequently,  too,  the  leaves  of  the  vine  suffer  from  the  incur- 
sion of  another  fungous  or  asexual  plant,  Erineum  necator,  but  the  dam- 
age done  by  it  is  of  small  importance. 

Animal  destroyers  belong  chiefly  to  the  insect  order.  Every  year 
the  different  districts  suffer  from  the  devastations  of  several  kinds  of 
Coleoptera.  In  the  early  spring  the  shoots  suffer  from  the  incisions  of 
the  Culs-crottes  or  Coupe-bourgeons  (OliorUynclius  ligmtici,  0.  raucus). 
Later  on  the  Oribouri  (a  vine-grub)  or  Ecrivain,  scribe  (Bromiris  vitis), 
comes  out  and  bites  the  leaves  and  buds,  and  lays  its  eggs  on  the  stem 
of  the  vine.  Lastly,  in  June  and  July,  appears  the  Beclie,  grafter,  and 
Lisette,  vine  fretter  (JRhynchites  betuleti),  which  rob  the  plants  of  their 
leaves. 

Among  the  Lepidoptera  there  are  two  which  are  especially  obnoxious : 
The  vintage- worm  (Cocliylis  omphaciella)  breeds  twice  a  year,  and  de- 
stroys the  fruit  both  in  spring  and  in  autumn.  The  summer  worm 
(Olnophthirapilleriana)  has  taken  up  its  abode  (as  is  testified  by  many 
old  records)  for  a  long  time  past  in  two  localities  especially.  It  com- 
mits its  depredations  at  various  intervals  of  time,  but  always  for  several 
years  at  a  time.  Its  scene  of  operations  is  the  locality  of  the  best  vines 
half-way  up  the  hill  between  Ay  and  Dizy.  Its  second  rendezvous  is 
at  Yerzenay,  in  the  best  vineyards,  also  situated  about  half-way  up  the 
slope. 

Every  year  the  champagne  vines,  more  or  less  the  victims  of  these 
accidents,  yield,  as  a  rule,  a  rather  poor  crop ;  in  fact,  in  spite  of  the 
careful  attention  and  care  of  the  vine-grower,  an  acre  rarely  yields 
more  than  3  or  4  measures  (6  or  8  hogsheads),  of  2  hectoliters,  i.  e., 
about  6  or  8  measures  to  the  hectare  of  prepared  wine.  To  this  calcula- 
tion of  yield  we  must  add  about  two-thirds  as  much  again  for  secondary 
wines,  known  under  the  names  of  first  "taille"  (pruning),  second  "taille," 
and  "  rebeche"  (second  tilling).  With  the  exception  of  the  first  *  taille," 
which  is  sometimes  used  in  the  preparation  of  sparkling  wines,  these 
wines  are  consumed  by  the  proprietor  and  his  vine-dressers. 

At  Ay,  which  may  properly  be  chosen  as  the  center  and  type  of  the 
true  production  of  champagne,  unbottled  wine  is  worth  in  an  average 
year  from  600  to  800  francs  a  measure  of  2  hectoliters,  and  the  price  is 
about  the  same  for  the  not  less  famous  vintages  of  Cramant  and  Verze- 
nay.  One  year  with  another,  then,  the  vine-growers  receive  a  sum  of 
about  1,800  francs  ($300)  per  acre,  that  is,  by  reckoning  the  minimum 
price  of  600  francs  and  the  production  at  three  "  pieces"  per  acre  j  but 
they  have  been  obliged  to  spend  from  1,000  to  1,200  francs  during  the 


THE    VINE    IN    COGNAC.  809 

5 ear  on  the  vines  and  in  the  production  of  the  wine.  This  result  would 
be  certainly  most  satisfactory  if  this  average  figure  of  production  was 
reached  every  year,  which  unfortunately  can  not  be  said  to  be  the  fact. 
The  comparatively  limited  extentof  the  champagne  vines  (for  although 
there  are  in  the  department  of  the  Marne  16,500  hectares — 40,700  acres — 
of  vineyards,  the  real  centers  of  champagne  making  only  occupy  from 
600  to  800  hectares)  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  high  prices  which  the 
lirst  crop,  good  or  bad,  fetches  every  year. 

JOHN  L.  FRISBIE, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

)  January  31,  1884. 


COGNAC. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PRESTON. 

The  culture  of  the  grape-vine  is  the  first  and  most  important  industry 
of  the  people  of  this  district.  It  is  the  principal  source  of  employment 
and  of  wealth,  and  therefore  great  attention  is  paid  to  it.  They  spend 
much  time  and  money  in  experimenting  and  studying  the  best  means  of 
planting,  grafting,  and  overcoming  the  chlorosis  and  phylloxera. 

The  committee  of  viticulture  of  the  arrondissement  of  Cognac  which 
directs  these  matters  is,  then,  a  very  important  body ;  its  transactions 
are  made  the  subject  of  an  annual  report,  the  last  one  being  made  in 
February  of  this  year. 

They  spent  30,000  francs  for  the  purchase  and  gratuitous  distribution 
of  American  plants  for  grafting  on  the  native  vines  of  the  country  of 
the  Charente,  for  the  creation  of  a  nursery  garden,  and  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  school  of  grafting. 

The  number  of  plants  received  the  past  year  for  grafting  was  256,000. 
To  aid  in  the  success  of  the  plantations,  they  published  and  addressed 
gratuitously  to  every  one  who  asked  for  the  plants,  detailed  instructions 
to  guide  them  in  the  grafting.  There  was  some  trouble  in  finding  land 
having  all  the  qualifications  necessary  for  a  nursery  garden,  but  at  last 
they  hired  land  at  Crouin,  on  the  route  to  Saintes,  containing  13,300 
square  meters. 

The  soil  was  good,  entirely  cleared  up,  and  sufficient  for  two  hundred 
and  fifty  to  three  hundred  thousand  grafts.  A  house  was  built  of 
wood,  in  which  to  preserve  the  plants  which  they  receive  for  distribu- 
tion, and  there  they  will  start  a  school  of  graftage. 

Numerous  grafts  will.be  made  under  the  direction  of  a  professor  and 
in  the  presence  of  the  proprietors  who  will  be  convoked  to  witness  the 
works. 

Mr.  Kivas,  the  able  professor,  constantly  occupied  in  the  study  of  the 


810        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

subject  for  many  years,  lias  hired  a  young  man  from  the  agricultural 
school  who  directs  it. 

Five  experimental  fields  have  been  established,  in  which  about  two 
hundred  and  fifty  new  varieties  of  hybrides  have  been  cultivated.  At 
the  annual  meeting  I  speak  of,  in  February  last,  Professor  Kivas  made 
an  elaborate  report  to  the  committee  of  which  I  transmit  a  free  trans- 
lation. 

WILLIAM  S.  PKESTON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Cognac,  August  26,  1890. 


CULTURE  OF  THE  VINE  IN  COGNAC. 

Report  of  Professor  Rivas  to  the  committee  of  viticulture  of  the  arrondissement  of  Cognac. 
[Translated  by  Consul  Preston.] 

The  old  French  vines,  planted  in  the  low-lands  where  the  soil  is  clayey  and  moist, 
continue  to  become  more  and  more  vigorous.  This  is  due  solely  to  the  persistent 
rains  of  the  last  two  or  three  years.  Retained  in  the  low-lands  at  the  surface  of  the 
soil  by  a  clay  very  compact  they  have  almost  drowned  the  phyloxera,  as  if  making 
a  complete  submersion,  or  at  least  placed  them  in  such  a  condition  that  they  can  not 
multiply  themselves  actively.  A  proof  that  it  is  really  so  is  that  the  vines  placed  on 
the  hillsides  where  the  water  runs  off  continue  to  perish.  This  state  of  things  is 
maintained  if  the  years  are  rainy,  but  not  if  they  are  dry.  When  the  dryness 
becomes  more  intense  all  the  vines  to-day  more  vigorous  disappear  anew. 

It  would  then  be  imprudent  to  make  new  plantations  of  French  vines;  inasmuch  as 
the  young  vines  succumb  rapidly  to  the  attacks  of  the  phyloxera.  In  the  dry  lands, 
it  goes  without  saying,  the  young  vines  last  hardly  three,  four,  or  five  years,  which 
is  proved  by  numerous  examples.  It  is  not  the  same  if  these  new  plantations  are 
treated  for  the  destruction  of  the  insects.  The  sulphur  of  carbon  and  the  sulphu- 
rated carbonate  of  potash  have  been  tried  and  proved.  The  sulphur  of  carbon  in  the 
warrens,  in  the  lands  which  drain  well  and  even  in  clayey  land  when  the  soil  is  well 
dried  again :  the  sulpho- carbonate  of  potash  in  the  lands  of  the  open  country. 

The  high  price  of  the  vines  indemnify  largely  for  the  expenses  of  the  application 
of  these  insect-destroyers. 

FIELDS   OF   DEMONSTRATION. 

The  fields  of  demonstration  which  the  committee  of  viticulture  have  created  in  this 
arrondissement  of  Cognac  are  six.  They  are  situated  on  the  principal  routes  which 
end  at  Cognac,  Jarnac  and  Chateauneuf. 

The  field  of  Chateauneuf  is  established  in  a  flinty  land,  or  in  some  places  clayey, 
reclish  and  sometimes  poor.  The  plantation  has  been  made  in  grafts  on  the  Saint- 
Einilion  and  of  Balzac  or  Jacquez,  York,  Vialla.  Some  ranks  have  been  planted  in 
roots,  which  will  be  grafted  in  the  spring. 

The  vegetation  of  these  vines  is  very  fine,  save  in  one  point,  where  the  water  has 
remained  during  a  long  time,  and  their  vigor  has  very  favorably  impressed  the 
numerous  visitors. 

The  two  fields  of  demonstration  of  Jarnac  are  less  fine.  This  comes  from  the  bad 
quality  of  the  plants  (the  last  year  the  plants  grafted  with  leaves  were  rare,  and 
those  which  should  have  been  employed  wero  defective),  and  above  all  from  abundant 


CULTURE  OF  THE  VINE  IN  COGNAC.          811 

rains,  \vliieli  came  so  soon  alter  planting.  The  ground  was  very  compact,  tin-  water 
Lad  been  retained  in  the  holes  and  drowned  the  roots.  Besides,  in  the  low  country, 
many  of  the  French  vines  have  been  completely  stranded  for  the  same  reason.  This 
year  the  failures  will  be  replaced  with  very  fine  plants,  grafted  and  soldered ;  and 
tli. -re  is  reason  to  hope  that  very  soon  these  fields  will  leave  nothing  to  desire. 

The  vegetation  of  the  vines  of  demonstration  established  near  Cognac  is  really 
very  remarkable.  One  of  these  is  situated  on  the  route  to  St.  Sulpice,  on  ground 
bdnno-in^  to  Mr.  J.  I>rissou.  The  plantation  has  been  made  in  grafts  and  soude"s  de 
Folle,  or  Jacqne/,  JSohmis  or  York.  Five  ranks  have  been  planted  in  roots,  not 
grafted,  of  Rupe.-iris.  Solouis,  York,  Riparia,  Jacquez,  etc.  A  part  will  be  grafted 
in  some  mouths  in  places ;  the  other  parts  will  serve  as  witnesses,  and  will  furnish 
tin-  slips.  As  I  have  already  said,  all  these  vines  are  very  fine;  many  of  the  grafted 
plants  bear  grapes  this  year,  that  is  to  say  of  the  second  leaf;  and  it  is  hoped,  if  there 
is  no  accident,  that  the  harvest  will  largely  cover  expenses  of  culture. 

Another  vine  is  found  on  the  high  road  to  Saintes  near  Yourezac,  and  if  I  am  well 
informed  it  is  the  admiration  of  all  who  have  seen  it.  The  ground  is  reddish,  flinty 
clay,  above  an  under  soil  of  chaple  of  60  centimeters  and  over  of  depth. 

The  graftings  employed  are  the  Solouis,  the  York,  the  Jacquez.  They  have  not 
hern  able  to  cultivate  there  the  Rupestris  aud  Riparia;  these  two  were  wanting, but 
t  hey  will  be  vigorously  developed.  The  plantation  has  been  made  in  soldered  grafts ; 
some  feet  only  of  roots  not  grafted  are  cultivated  as  specimens. 

For  manure,  5  cubic  meters  of  manure  have  been  employed  from  the  farm.  This  is 
not  excessive,  and  the  vine-growers  are  advised  to  use  more  on  the  new  plantations 
(for  the  grafts  and  sonde"s  it  is  important  above  all  that  the  first  year  the  vegetation 
should  be  very  vigorous  in  order  that  the  closing  of  the  cuts  may  be  more  perfect  in 
the  folds) ;  but  I  insisted  that  in  order  to  render  our  vines  demonstrative  as  rapidly 
;,-  possible  they  must  be  planted  under  rather  bad  conditions. 

The  field  of  demonstration  of  Cronin  has  been  planted  111  a  great  part  with  roots 
of  Jacquez,  Solonis,  Rupestris,  and  York,  which  will  be  grafted  in  the  coming  spring. 
The  grafts  soude"s  occupy  but  five  ranks ;  here  they  will  be  able  to  judge  in  the  same 
ground  of  the  comparative  value  of  the  plantations  of  grafts  soudds  and  of  planta- 
tions made  with  the  roots  planted  and  grafted  on  the  spot. 

Up  to  the  present  these  vines  are  all  very  vigorous  ;  all  the  fields  of  demonstration 
have  been  broken  up  to  a  depth  of  from  40  to  45  centimeters  by  the  hand  or  by  the 
plow,  afterwards  the  plantation  has  been  made  in  holes,  the  roots  of  the  young  plants 
being  cut  15  or  20  centimeters  in  length. 

Some  persons  planted  the  roots  with  a  bar,  grafted  or  not,  after  cutting  the  roots 
smooth.  This  is  a  bad  system  of  planting  ;  above  all  for  the  plants  grafted  and  sol- 
dered. It  has  already  been  said  that  these  plants  ought  to  vegetate  vigorously  the 
first  year,  in  order  tnat  the  solder  may  be  completed.  It  is  important,  then,  to  leave 
them  all  their  roots.  The  planting  with  a  bar,  which  requires  their  suppression,  or 
at  least  their  reduction  to  almost  nothing,  is  not  suitable  to  grafts  soude"s. 

To  sum  up,  the  vines  of  demonstration  of  the  committee  leave  nothing  to  desire 
(those  of  Jarnac  excepted),  and  these  certainly  count  for  something  in  the  great  en- 
thusiasm manifested  in  favor  of  American  vines  in  the  borderies  near  Chateau  Neuf, 
etc. 

RECONSTRUCTING  THE   VINEYARDS  WITH  AMERICAN  PLANTS. 

What  prevents  many  from  planting  American  vines  is  that  they  believe  these 
plantations  are  very  expensive.  We  will  try  to  show  that  it  is  not  so. 

Without  doubt  the  plantations  made  with  plants  grafted  and  soldered,  taken  from 
the  nursery  gardens,  come  very  dear,  and  this  is  not  a  very  practical  way  of  recon- 
structing to  a  great  extent;  but  these  same  plants  can  be  raised  here,  and  then  the 
cost  is  insignificant. 

With  a  thousand  slips  of  Jacquez  one  meter  in  length  they  can  make  three  thou- 
sand grafted  slips.  Put  in  nursery  gardens  and  well  cultivated,  they  can  give  a 


812        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

harvest  of  50  per  cent. ;  some  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cognac  obtained  even  60  and  *0 
per  cent ;  say  1,500  plants  grafted,  which  will  have  cost  the  enormous  sum  of  $2. 
This  is  the  price  of  1,000  slips  of  Jacquez;  with  the  Solonis,  Riparia,  Vialla,  the  price 
would  be  a  little  higher. 

We  do  not  mention  here  the  expense  of  hand  work  of  grafting,  or'  the  culture  of  the 
mirsury  slips,  etc.,  for  this  kind  of  work  can  be  done  in  the  evening  by  the  fireside, 
or  on  rainy  days,  etc.  But  these  plants  will  yield  some  grapes  the  second  year,  and 
a  passable  harvest  the  third  year.  I  can  mention  here  a  vine  at  St  Merne  which  has 
yielded  four  barrels  of  wine  to  the  journal  at  its  second  leaf.  Besides,  in  the  Beaujo- 
lais  they  often  harvest  the  second  year  of  planting,  always  the  third ;  while  the  French 
vines  generally  produce  but  at  the  fifth,  sixth,  or  even  the  seventh  year.  Dare  we 
add  that  the  American  vines  grafted  produce  a  third  more  than  the  French  vines ; 
this,  however,  is  the  exact  truth. 

The  grafted  slips  are,  then,  a  rapid  and  economical  means  of  reconstructing  vine- 
yards; but  they  can  operate  differently  and  just  as  economically.  Instead  of  graft- 
ing the  slips  on  the  stalk  they  can  graft  on  the  roots,  and  so  put  them  in  the 
nursery.  The  success  of  the  grafting  is  better  and  the  plants  finer. 

Another  economical  means  is  good;  to  put  the  slips  of  45  or  50  centimeters  long  in 
a  nursery  and  graft  them  there  the  following  year,  and  plant  the  vines  afterwards 
the  second  year  where  the  grafting  has  succeeded.  The  slips  themselves  cost  from 
4  to  15  francs  per  thousand,  according  to  the  graft  bearers;  that  is  less  than  the 
Folle-Blanche,  and  St.  Emilion  cost. 

They  can  also  plant  the  roots,  which  are  grafted  where  they  are  at  the  end  of  a 
year  from  planting.  If  the  grafting  succeeds,  the  vines  are  thus  very  vigorous,  but  in 
one  locality  the  grafting  in  place  often  gives  but  very  insignificant  results. 

The  cause  appears  to  be  the  cold  and  moist  climate.  The  reasons  are  not  very  well 
known,  but  they  can  very  easily  obviate  that  inconvenience,  or  at  least  attenuate  its 
effects.  It  suffices  to  make  at  the  same  time  the  grafting  takes  place  a  nursery  of 
grafts  and  soude's  with  which  they  can  replace  all  the  failures. 

Some  graft  the  roots  on  table  and  at  once  plant  in  nursery.  This  is  a  bad  proceed- 
ing, for  it  has  all  the  inconveniences  of  grafting  in  place  and  of  grafting  on  table  with- 
out the  advantages.  They  succeed  well  sometimes,  but  very  rarely.  The  breaking 
up  of  the  ground  is  what  costs  the  dearest.  The  American  vines  require  a  ground 
well  broken  up,  but  when  they  understand  it  a  hectare  of  laud  can  be  broken  up  with 
a  plow  for  150  francs  ($30)  or  less. 

Besides,  the  expense  of  breaking  up  of  plantation  of  grafting  might  be  still  greater, 
the  two  or  three  harvests  that  the  grafted  American  vines  produce  sooner  than  French 
vines  would  more  than  cover  the  expense.  If  we  add  that  they  produce  more  during 
their  duration;  and  that,  thanks  to  them,  the  blight  is  no  more  to  be  feared,  or  at 
least  it  will  not  be  very  serious.  We  shall  have  shown  what  every  one  already  knows, 
that  if  the  American  vines  have  some  inconveniences,  they  offer  also  serious  advan- 
tages. 

Grafting  still  frightens  many:  but  the  school  of  graftage  which  will  be  open  three 
months  at  Cognac  will  offer  them  an  opportunity  to  convince  themselves  tliat  there 
is  nothing  in  the  world  so  simple  or  so  easy  to  do.  As  for  the  difficulties  of  the  choice 
in  best  graft-bearers  for  a  given  soil,  they  are  not  very  great.  It  is  well  understood 
to-day  what  lands  are  suitable  for  the  usual  graft-bearers;  such  as  Riparia,  Solonis, 
Jacquez,  Vialla,  York  Madeira,'  etc.  Besides,  in  many  of  the  lands  of  the  arrondisse- 
ment  all  these  old  vines  can  give  good  results.  Where  the  difficulty  commences  is 
where  the  proportion  of  calcaire  becomes  considerable;  but  this  is  a  question  we  will 
examine  later.  Hereafter  they  can  plant  without  hesitation  the  American  vines  in 
a  large  part  of  the  arrondissement.  We  can  not  give  exact  figures;  but  after  what 
I  have  observed  in  my  voyages  for  the  gratuitous  distribution,  I  believe  I  am  not 
far  from  the  truth  in  estimating  it  as  about  one-half  of  the  total  surface  of  the  arron- 
di&sement. 


CULTURE    OF    THE    VINE    IN    COGNAC.  813 

That  is,  then,  30,000  hectares  where  American  vines  can  now  he  planted  in  all 
security;  that  is  to  say,  the  area  of  the  old  vineyards  before  the  phylloxera.  Here  is 
a  list  of  communes  where  success  is  certain  :  Cognac,  Crouin,  Saint-Laurent,  Louzac, 
Saint-Andre,  Saint-Sulpice,  Cherves,  Bouthiers,  Breville,  Saint-Seve~re,  Houlette,  Ncr- 
cillac,  Repanao,  Julienne,  Chassors.Jarnac,  Bourg-Charente,  Saiut-Brice,  Gondeville, 
Saint-Amant  de  Graves,  les  Graves,  Chateauueuf,  Mosnac,  Saint-Snrin,  Saint-Simon, 
Triac,  some  parts  of  FKurac,  Foussignac,  Sigonne,  Ars,  Maiuxe,  Saint  Preuil,  Tou- 
zac,  Malaville,  Bouteville  in  Champagne. 

Besides  the  nature  of  the  lands,  which  can  not  deceive  us,  plantations  dating  al- 
ready  from  several  years  show  that  in  these  communes  American  vines  work  well 
and  give  good  results. 

AMERICAN  VINES  IN  CALCAREOUS  SOILS. 

For  the  lands  of  Champagne  and  of  Groie  we  are  less  favored.  For  the  most  part 
American  vines  which  have  there  been  cultivated  have  not  prospered  well. 

But  it  will  be  seen  that  we  need  not  despair  of  finding  one,  and  perhaps  several, 
graft-bearers  which  will  develop  very  well. 

Let  us  first  see  what  is  the  organization  of  our  fields  of  experiments.  These  fields, 
four  in  Champagne,  with  Henry  Perriu,  of  Boussac ;  Henry  Pelletant,  of  Gente" ;  Aime" 
Richard,  of  Louzac;  Filloux,  of  Angeac.  The  fifth,  in  Groie,  with  Mr.  Arsandeau  at 
Sigonne.  Two  other  experimental  fields  will  be  created  this  year.  One  in  the  Groie 
will  be  planted  exclusively  with  varieties  which  have  already  given  good  results  in 
Champagne.  The  other,  in  Champagne,  will  receive  from  two  hundred  to  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  new  varieties.  We  will  have,  also,  in  the  spring  of  this  year,  from 
four  hundred  and  fifty  to  five  hundred  varieties  on  trial,  all  very  rare,  and  all  recom- 
mended for  diverse  reasons  for  calcareous  soils.  It  is  the  unique  collection  of  the 
world. 

Each  variety  is  represented,  as  far  as  possible,  by  ten,  twenty,  thirty,  or  forty  slips 
in  each  field.  The  Berlandieri,  Cinerea,  and  Cordi folia  vines  are  the  most  numerous. 
Half  of  these  will  be  grafted,  the  rest  not ;  so  that  we  can  judge  of  the  value  of  each 
old  vine  as  a  graft-bearer  and  direct  producer  (for  many  can  do  both)  and  the  influ- 
ence of  grafting  on  each  one  of  them.  All  these  varieties  resist  the  phylloxera ;  most 
are  unharmed,  others  carry  it  on  their  roots  but  do  not  suffer  from  it.  The  phylloxera 
in  our  judgment  is  the  most  inoffensive  insect,  and  in  what  follows  it  will  not  be  in 
question.  The  soil  is  the  great  enemy  of  the  vines.  ]t  is  not  then  a  study  to  find  a 
vine  that  will  resist  the  phylloxera  (there  are  thousands),  but  to  find  a  vine  that  will 
not  only  resist  phylloxera,  but  also  prosper  in  lauds  of  Champagne  and  Groie.  This, 
we  shall  see,  is  not  far  from  achievement. 

CHLOROSIS  IN  AMERICAN  VINES. 

Before  examining  in  detail  how  American  vines  prosper  in  calcareous  soils,  we 
should  endeavor  perhaps  to  find  out  what  are  the  causes  of  non-success  of  most  of 
them  in  these  lands. 

Notwithstanding  the  number  of  works  already  published  on  this  subject,  which  do 
not  throw  much  light  on  it,  I  have  not  at  present  any  plausible  explanation  to  give 
for  want  of  success.  I  do  not,  therefore,  give  any  detailed  examination  of  opinions 
which  have  been  expressed  on  the  subject.  I  merely  observe  that  many  are  in  con- 
tradiction with  certain  facts,  which  all  have  had  occasion  to  observe. 

The  chlorosis  of  the  vines,  grafted  or  not,  and  the  stunting  which  follows,  have 
turn  by  turn  been  attributed  to  moisture,  to  drought,  or  to  these  two  elements  com- 
bined; to  want  of  coloring  in  the  soil,  want  of  iron;  to  want  of  light  or  too  much 
light ;  to  climate,  to  the  calcareous  soil  itself,  etc.  The  influence  of  too  much  moisture 
on  the  vegetation  of  the  vines  can  not  be  denied.  I  even  believe  that  it  may  become 
a  serious  cause  of  failure;  l»ut  to  attribute  all  cases  of  chlorosis  to  moisture  is  clearly 


814        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

an  exaggeration,  as  I  have  seen  vines  planted  in  very  moist  lands  (the  water  re- 
mained on  the  surface  from  October  to  June,  and  the  culture  was  impossible,  save  at 
rare  and  short  »ntervals)  that  never  grew  yellow ;  and  I  have  more  than  mere  doubts 
about  the  part  that  moisture  plays  in  turning  the  leaves  yellow. 

Indeed,  the  stains  of  chlorosis  which  at  times  are  noticed  in  the  vineyards  in  ques- 
tion are  always  on  the  hillsides,  where  water  never  remains  and  where  the  soil  and 
subsoil  are  neither  too  moist  nor  too  dry.  Besides,  the  chlorosis  is  never  very  dan- 
gerous which  can  be  attributed  to  excess  of  moisture.  It  appears  chiefly  in  the 
spring,  and  in  the  course  of  vegetation  it  disappears. 

The  influence  of  drought  is  equally  great.  I  have  often  noticed  vines  that  were 
planted  in  very  dry  land.  After  a  few  days  of  sun  and  a  slight  breeze  to  dry  the 
land  entirely,  the  leaves  fade  and  the  grapes  wither  and  fall,  but  no  chlorosis. 

As  for  the  alternatives  of  drought  and  moisture,  these  seem  to  be  the  natural  con. 
ditions  of  vegetation.  Under  this  hypothesis,  calcareous  lands  absorb  much  water, 
then  rapidly  dry ;  at  first  drowning  the  roots,  then  leaving  them  completely  dry.  The 
chalky  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Cogaac  do  not  swell  with  water,  and  a  few  hours  after 
rain  they  can  be  easily  worked.  They  do  not  dry  up  either.  We  have  never  observed 
vines  suffer  from  chlorosis,  although  it  is  in  such  lands  as  these  that  chlorosis  is  most 
intense. 

Iron  seems  to  play  a  certain  role  in  the  formation  of  the  green  matter  of  the  leaves ; 
some  have  even  supposed  that  the  yellow  color  might  be  owing  to  this  element  in  the 
soil;  but  this  is  not  so.  For  a  long  time  past  it  has  been  remarked  that  the  white 
soil  (where  this  cause  is  chiefly  placed)  is  as  rich  in  iron  as  highly  colored  lands. 

This  metal,  it  is  true,  is  not  found  there  in  the  same  state  of  oxidation  and  of  lia- 
bility to  assimilation ;  but  it  matters  little,  since  the  roots  which  grow  in  the  white 
soil  contain  as  much  ifon  as  those  growing  in  soil  very  rich  in  color.  Besides,  most 
of  the  land  of  Groie  in  the  Charentes  where  American  vines  do  not  thrive  is  the 
most  highly  colored,  the  soil  being  very  red,  and  consequently  ought  to  contain  more 
oxide  of  iron  in  the  best  state  to  assimilate. 

It  must,  however,  be  said  that  an  addition  to  the  soil  of  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
iron  poured  at  the  foot  of  the  roots  has  a  happy  action  on  the  formation  of  the  green 
matter  of  the  leaves.  This  is  the  result  obtained  from  numerous  trials  made  in  laud 
of  Groie  *  by  Mr.  Jord  in  the  Charente-Infe'rieure.  The  same  result  I  have  myself 
obtained  from  experiments  made  in  laud  of  Champagne.  But  this  action  of  sulphate 
of  iron  is  very  limited ;  the  vines  thus  treated  are  a  little  less  yellow,  that  is  all  the 
difference. 

The  slight  overheating  of  the  soil,  which  results  from  want  of  coloring  on  the  sur- 
face, does  not  account  for  the  greater  part  of  cases  of  chlorosis.  The  lands  of  groie, 
it  has  already  been  stated,  are  colored  red  or  ocher ;  the  heating  of  the  soil  is  almost 
too  intense.  The  greater  part  of  the  land  of  Champagne  has  a  deep  gray,  or  even 
black  color,  like  marsh-land. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  pretended  influence  of  light,  which,  according  to  some, 
is  one  cause  of  chlorosis  when  it  is  not  intense,  and  according  to  others  whe^  it  is  ex- 
cessive. 

As  for  the  climate,  it  surely  plays  a  certain  role  in  the  adaptation ;  but  generally 
speaking,  the  more  it  is  soft,  temperate,  and,  above  all,  less  burning,  the  more  it  fa- 
vors the  development  of  American  vines.  And  this  is  so  true  that  in  the  south  of 
France  the  Riparia  rupestris  and  Jacquez  solonis  are  almost  the  sole  vines  cultivated 
as  graft  bearers,  while  less-heated  regions  cultivate  many  more. 

The  Vialla,  which  does  not  grow  badly  in  the  south,  vegetates  here  very  well,  and 
equally  well  in  the  Beaujolais.  It  is  quite  the  best  for  light  lauds  that  are  silicious. 

The  Herbemont,  that  turns  yellow  so  rapidly  and  is  stunted  in  the  Herault,  thrives 
in  analogous  soils  of  the  Charentes,  and  even  in  bad  soils  it  grows  vigorously.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  Oporto,  York  Madeira,  etc.  It  is  clear  that  the  phyloxera  makes 

*  Groie:  Light,  yellow  soil,  mixed  with  chalk-stonea. 


CULTURE    OF    THE    VINE    IN    COGNAC.  815 

less  ravage  in  moist  and  temperate  climates,  and  that  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
moist  lands  are  more  favorable  to  the  vegetation  of  the  vine  than  very  hot  and  burn- 
ing lands.  The  Mediterranean  region  is  not,  therefore,  considered  any  more  as  a 
fav<m-<l  laud  for  the  reconstruction  of  vines. 

The  soils  being  equally  good  the  Charentes  have  the  advantage  over  the  southwest, 
center,  etc.,  the  facility  of  adaptation  of  the  same  grafts  to  different  soils  being  here 
much  greater. 

The  influence  of  carbonate  of  lime  appears  more  certain.  It  is  of  daily  observation 
that  the  richer  in  calcaire  the  lands,  the  less  they  favor  the  culture  of  American  vines. 
This  has  been  proved  by  Mr.  Chauzit  by  means  of  two  hundred  comparative  analyses 
of  soil  from  regions  quite  diverse.  The  most  interesting  is  to  know  just  what  these 
"  special  properties  "  are.  Others  suppose  that  the  carbonate  of  lime  acts  directly  on 
the  plant.  This  supposition  pleases  me  if  it  were  confirmed.  Unfortunately  up  to 
the  present  time  nothing  has  justified  it.  The  researches  I  commenced  last  year  and 
have  continued  this  year  will  perhaps  give  the  key  to  some  of  these  phenomena. 

To  resume,  neither  moisture  nor  dryness,  or  the  two  combined,  count  for  anything 
in  most  of  the  cases  of  chlorosis  and  stunting  which  occur  in  very  calcareous  soils. 
If  their  action  is  not  completely  null,  it  is  at  least  very  limited. 

Most  of  the  phenomena  of  chlorosis  are  owing  to  the  carbonate  of  lime,  with  which 
they  appear  united,  as  cause  to  effect.  Carbonate  of  lime  is  much  more  injurious  to 
thci  vine  in  proportion  as  it  is  mixed  with  the  vegetable  soil,  whatever  may  be  its 
depth. 

In  a  trial  field  of  the  committee  of  viticulture  the  vegetal  land  has  a  depth  of  4ft 
centimeters.  It  is  a  soil  of  good  quality,  where  formerly  vines  grew  with  vigor,  and 
I  hoped  that  in  consequence  of  the  depth  of  earth  most  of  the  American  vines  would 
grow  there,  at  least  for  a  certain  time.  But  it  is  there  that  they  are  more  yellow  ;  the 
soil  contained  39  per  cent,  of  calcaire. 

While  in  another  field  of  the  same  geological  formation,  and  of  which  the  vegetal 
bed  was  not  more  than  15  centimeters  deep,  overlying  immediately  a  bank  of  chalk, 
tender,  and  easily  pulverized,  the  vines  are  much  less  yellow,  the  soil  containing  not 
more  than  34  per  cent,  of  calcaire.  I  believe,  then,  that  the  composition  of  the  sub- 
soil has  not  all  the  importance  which  was  at  first  attributed  to  it.  Without  doubt, 
when  the  arable  land  is  calcareous  it  will  injure  the  vines  if  it  contains  much  lime; 
but,  if  the  arable  bed  is  not  calcareous,  whatever  may  be  its  depth,  the  American 
vines  have  good  chances  of  prospering,  even  when  placed  over  a  subsoil  of  marl  or 
chalk.  Besides  the  examples  cited,  there  are  a  good  number  of  lands  in  Champagne 
whose  vegetal  bed  does  not  exceed  20  or  25  centimeters  immediately  over  chalk,  ten- 
der and  easily  pulverized,  and  yet  American  vines  grow  well  there.  It  is  because 
the  thin  layer  of  earth  is  not  at  all  calcareous.  There  is  a  third  deposit,  sometimes 
clayey,  sometimes  formed  of  quartz  gravel.  Such  is  also  the  case  of  several  planta- 
tions which  have  been  cited  as  examples  of  reconstruction  in  chalky  lands.  They 
are  in  reality  in  entirely  different  conditions. 

It  is  equally  certain  that  all  American  vines  are  not  alike  sensitive  to  the  action  of 
carbonate  of  lime.  Most  are  not  adapted  to  calcareous  soils ;  some  appear  to  resist 
it  completely,  and  this  is  the  case  with  several  vines  which  Mr.  Vialla  observed  in 
America.  Further  on  it  will  appear  that  it  may  be  necessary  to  add  several  new 
hybrids,  both  natural  and  artificial. 

In  the  same  species  the  numerous  forms  inclosed  present  differences  tangible  enough 
that  it  is  possible  by  selection  to  isolate  those  which  offer  a  real  interest. 

The  species  and  varieties  the  niost  meritorious  will  now  be  reviewed  and  some  de- 
tails given  on  most  of  the  vines  which  have  been  tried  in  very  calcareous  land.  These 
condensed  indications  have  been  gathered  by  myself  in  the  experimental  fields  of  the 
committee  of  viticulture  of  the  arrondissement  of  Cognac  established  in  chalky  lands, 
where  until  now  American  vines  have  failed.  We  have  verified  them  during  a  long 
voyage  made  last  year  in  all  the  regions  where  the  soil  offers  some  analogy  with 


816         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

those  of  the  Cbarentea  (in  the  center,  southeast,  south,  southwest)  by  observations 
made  in  the  experimental  fields  and  in  the  vineyards. 

The  wild  species  (Riparia). — After  having  been  much  used  for  the  reconstruction  of 
vineyards  then  almost  abandoned  after  numerous  cases  of  chlorosis,  the  Riparia  is 
once  more  in  favor,  and  properly  so,  for  it  is  one  of  the  best  known  graft-bearers. 

In  the  first  place,  it  strongly  resists  phyloxera,  a  quality  deficient  in  many  Ameri- 
can vines  cultivated  for  the  same  purpose.  It  bears  quite  well  grafts  of  most  French 
vines  (except  Balzac  and  Mourv6de,  and  a  few  others  which  it  nourishes  badly),  both 
in  Provence  and  Languedoc,  as  well  as  in  the  Chareutes.  Its  stalk  does  not  swell 
much  where  the  land  in  which  it  is  planted  does  not  suit  it,  but  this  is  perhaps  of 
minor  importance. 

Grafts  have  been  seen  on  the  Riparia  double  the  size  of  the  subject,  and  the  same 
were  not  in  appearance  less  vigorous.  Can  these  dimensions  have  any  bearing  on  the 
duration  of  the  root  ?  It  can  not  yet  be  asserted,  but  it  certainly  is  much  to  be  feared. 
The  exaggerated  swelling  of  the  graft,  or,  rather,  of  the  graft  bearer,  have  been  at- 
tributed to  the  effects  of  annular  incision. 

In  fact,  it  is  known  that  in  plants  which  have  undergone  this  operation  the  part 
above  the  cut  swells  much,  while  the  lower  part  remains  thin.  The  consequence  is 
a  general  feebleness  which  if  not  excessive  favors  the  fructification,  but  which  may 
also  hasten  the  decay  of  the  plant.  This  is  often  the  case  with  grafts  on  the  Riparia. 
French  varieties  grafted  thereon  are  more  fertile  than  when  alone ;  they  fear  less  the 
blight  and  their  fruit  ripens  more  rapidly.  But  in  reality,  notwithstanding  these 
analogies,  there  is  nothing  in  common  between  the  circular  incision  and  the  graft, 
except  during  the  first  and  second  years  that  follow  the  grafting. 

Until  the  solder  is  complete,  the  graft  can  be  assimilated  to  a  partial  incision  or 
cut  of  any  kind;  but  as  soon  as  the  solder  is  perfect,  and  the  tissues  of  the  graft  are 
n  communication  with  those  of  the  subject,  there  is  nothing  that  resembles  the  in- 
cision. 

In  a  branch  or  stem  in  which  an  incision  is  made,  as  soon  as  the  ends  are  reunited 
and  soldered,  the  circulation  of  the  sap  is  re-established  as  before  the  cut,  and  the 
lower  part  swells  like  the  upper  part  j  the  tree  or  branch  ceases  to  be  more  fertile. 
In  grafts  on  the  Riparia,  well  soldered,  nothing  like  this  occurs. 

Although  there  is  no  apparent  obstruction  to  the  circulation  of  the  sap,  yet  the 
grafted  part  continues  to  grow  immeasurably,  while  the  subject  rests  feeble.  The 
explanation  of  this  phenomenon,  I  believe,  is  of  the  physiological  order.  There  is 
perfect  harmony  between  all  the  organs  of  the  same  vegetable ;  each  one  contributes 
to  the  growth  of  the  others  in  the  best  conditions.  Grafting  seems  to  me  to  break 
this  harmony.  The  matter  elaborated  by  the  new  stein  is  no  longer  that  which  suits 
the  subject;  placed  henceforth  in  less  favorable  conditions  of  growth  it  is  less  de- 
veloped ;  it  suffers  and  remains  feeble ;  the  master,  not  absorbed  by  the  subject,  ac- 
cumulates in  the  grafted  part  and  produces  an  abnormal  swelling. 

The  disorders,  then,  which  follow  the  grafting  are  not  in  consequence  of  the  graft 
itself.  They  arise,  in  my  opinion,  from  the  internal  and  external  differences,  ^r  the 
vital  differences  which  exist  between  the  graft  and  the  subject. 

A  vine  grafted  on  itself  (whether  Riparia  or  any  other  species)  ought  not  to  pro- 
duce any  anomaly  like  this.  As  soon  as  the  solder  is  complete  it  should  grow  as  if 
never  grafted.  It  is  easy  to  give  proofs.  Besides  those  found  in  arboriculture,  and 
which  are  so  well  known  that  it  is  unnecessary  here  to  cite  them,  I  will  observe  that 
our  old  French  vines,  grafted  with  neighboring  varieties,  have  never  shown  anything 
like  that  offered  by  the  Riparia.  They  grow  as  before ;  their  vegetation  is  the  same. 

There  is  the  most  perfect  analogy  between  the  functions  and  mode  of  living  of  the 
grafted  part  and  the  subject.  The  latter  preserves  the  same  conditions  of  vegetation 
that  it  had  before  the  grafting.  The  more,  therefore,  two  grafted  vines  offer  analogy 
in  their  functions,  the  less  the  subject  will  suffer  from  the  grafted  part.  It  is  this 
analogy  which  establishes  the  identity  (in  the  case  of  a  vine  grafted  upon  itself), 


CULTURE    OF    THE    VINE    IN    COGNAC.  817 

which  is  now  called  affinity.     On  the  other  hand,  the  morn  two  grafted  vines  differ 
from  each  other,  the  more  the  subject  will  suffer  from  the  grafting. 

Riparin  being  quite  different  from  the  French  vines,  which  it  must  bear,  it  is  not 
surprising  that,  for  the  reasons  given,  the  grafts  are  always  feebler  than  other  kinds. 
This  weakness  will,  in  certain  cases,  kill  the  vine,  or,  at  least,  engender  chlorosis  and 
stunting  of  grafted  roots.  Rlparia  has  frequently  developed  quite  vigorously,  as  well 
as  other  vines,  as  long  as  it  is  not  grafted,  even  in  very  bad  soils  ;  bat  once  grafted 
\  rotation  suddenly  stops.  And  then  the  disorders  caused  by  grafting  increase  those 
of  the  non-adaptation  of  the  soil.  This  weakness  is  produced  in  all  kinds  of  soil,  but 
it  is,  perhaps,  mitigated  by  a  good  adaptation.  For  these  reasons  the  Rlparia  re- 
quires a  deep  and  rich  soil,  or  it  must  be  manured  very  highly,  and  the  manure  must 
be  azote"  to  maintain  it  in  good  vegetation.  And  thus  Riparia  will  prosper  many 
years.  For  some  time  it  has  been  an  experiment  to  plant  Riparia  in  all  soils,  but 
noon  it  appeared  that  it  could  not  be  an  universal  graft-bearer.  Wherever  the  white 
marl,  chalk,  tender  and  easily  pulverized,  forms  a  part  of  the  arable  bed,  Riparia, 
when  grafted,  turns  yellow.  It  is  one  of  the  most  calciferous  of  American  vines.  All 
these  varieties  are  not  equally  subject  to  chlorosis,  and  some  were  selected  which 
turned  yellow  less  than  others,  although  none  have  a  sufficient  vegetation  to  be  safely 
used.  In  general  these  varieties  die  earlier  than  the  common  varieties.  Consider- 
able noise  has,  however,  been  made  of  late  about  a  certain  species  of  Riparia  called 
Riparia-Ramond.  This  species  has  its  own  value,  as  the  propagator  of  it  has  succeeded 
in  reconstructing  vineyards  in  parts  where  the  ordinary  Riparia  and  other  graft- 
bearers  have  rapidly  turned  yellow. 

As  it  has  become  notorious,  let  us  examine  under  what  conditions  of  soil  and  culture 
it  thrives  with  Mr.  Ramoud. 

The  subsoil  of  his  vineyards  is  very  calcareous.  Sometimes  quite  hard,  of  white 
rock,  but  now  and  then  quite  tender,  and  softening  under  the  influence  of  frost,  it 
changes  in  some  parts  to  a  pulverizable  marl.  The  composition  of  the  vegetal  land 
varies.  It  is  almost  deficient  in  calcaire  in  narrow  places  where  it  has  not  been  broken 
up  or  mixed  with  the  subsoil.  In  some  places  it  is  siliceous,  flinty  in  others,  what- 
ever may  be  the  depth.  Wherever  the  subsoil  is  near  the  surface,  ferns,  pines,  chest- 
nuts grow,  although  I  did  not  know  that  such  plants  and  trees  were  adapted  to  cal- 
careous soils.  The  composition  of  the  parts  cultivated  is  unlike.  In  plowing  the 
subsoil  has  mixed  with  the  siliceous  or  flinty  surface  and  numerous  small  fragments  of 
calcareous  marl,  and  the  soil  is  consequently  quite  diversified  ;  but  it  offers  often 
strong  resemblance  to  land  of  Groie.  Now  and  then  it  is  a  sandy  soil,  with  20  per 
cent,  of  calcaire ;  sometimes  the  land  is  quite  fertile  and  even  very  rich,  with  12  per 
cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime.  This  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime  may  be  less  than  that. 

The  depth  is  from  10  to  40  centimeters,  with  subsoil  more  or  less  compact  of  calcare- 
ous rock.  The  Riparia-Ramond  thrives  in  all  these  lands;  the  grafts  last  year  were 
much  admired  and  the  harvest  bountiful.  But  in  every  case  the  soil  is  broken  up 
carefully  and  abundantly  manured.  It  moreover  profits  by  the  flinty  and  sandy  soil. 
The  Riparia-Ramond  certainly  benefits  from  this  cultivation.  But  unless  it  resists 
chlorosis  better  than  Riparia  it  can  not  last.  Still,  in  addition  to  increasing  the  nutri- 
tive  properties  of  the  soil,  these  considerable  additions  to  the  land  from  the  third  year 
of  plantation  profoundly  modify  the  physical  composition  of  the  arable  land.  There 
are  some  places,  it  is  true,  where  this  is  not  the  case,  but  then  either  the  grafts  have 
not  been  grafted  or  only  recently.  To  be  able  to  estimate  the  value  of  this  vine  it 
should  be  planted  under  the  most  ordinary  conditions. 

In  an  experimental  field  containing  above  40  per  cent,  of  calcaire,  Rnpestris,  York, 
and  Solonis  fail,  while  Riparia-Ramond  thrives,  but  only  after  two  years  of  growth. 
lliparia-Ramond,  in  fine,  in  lands  of  Groie,  of  Charente,  Bourgoine,  etc.,  which  are 
partially  calcareous,  will  do  well,  but  it  will  certainly  be  insufficient  in  chalky 
grounds  containing  a  large  proportion  of  carbonate  of  lime.  These  lands  have  been 
tried  in  four  different  places  and  invariably  the  vines  turned  yellow,  although  lesa 


818         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

than  ordinary  Riparia,  and,  in  some  cases,  very  stunted.  In  land  of  Groie,  wherever 
I  have  observed,  it  was  deep  green. 

Ripdria-Ramond  is  easily  described.  Its  root  or  stem  grows  higher  than  ordinary 
Riparia,  but  does  not  equal  it  grafted.  The  branches  shorter,  knit  hard,  of  hazel-nut 
color,  as  they  ripen,  red  during  vegetation,  and  this  shade  is  occasionally  found  in 
the  veins  or  fibers  of  the  leaves.  The  latter  quite  ample,  opening  like  V,  intensely 
green  on  both  faces,  and  bright.  On  the  lower  face  the  filaments  are  stiff  as  well  as 
in  the  veins  and  on  the  edges.  These  filaments  are  united  at  joints  of  the  principal 
veins  or  fibers.  The  teeth  are  large,  slightly  projecting,  wall-crowned,  unarched, 
regular  or  almost  so  at  the  end  of  the  limbs.  The  teeth  facing  the  lateral  and  terminal 
lobes  are  only  a  little  bent.  The  grapes  are  small,  short,  and  thick  seeds,  compact 
and  peculiar  to  the  taste. 

All  this  proves  that  it  is  not  a  genuine  Riparia.  The  form  of  the  teeth,  the  shape 
of  the  veins,  the  diminutive  size  of  the  stalks,  and  the  hardness  of  the  wood,  its  color 
like  weeds,  as  well  as  the  form  of  the  grapes,  etc.,  are  so  many  indications  which, 
seem  to  establish  the  relationship  with  Rupestris. 

Each  time  I  have  occasion  to  compare  it  with  Ruparia-Rupestris,  cultivated  side 
by  side,  it  has  always  seemed  to  "bear  the  closest  aualogy  to  these  hybrids. 

Last  year  was  remarkable  for  Riparias  in  calcareous  lands.  The  number  was  con- 
siderable. One  of  them  is  native  of  the  Chareutes.  According  to  the  information  at 
hand,  it  grows  in  lands  which  contain  over  60  per  cent,  of  calcaire.  But  Riparias, 
not  grafted,  and  slips  from  them  planted  in  similar  lands  and  subsequently  grafted, 
quickly  disappear. 

Another  species  coming  from  the  North  will  also  be  vigorous.  According  to  the 
information  acquired  it  does  not  sustain  its  reputation.  It  will  grow,  it  is  true,  in 
very  calcareous  soil ;  but  that  proves  nothing. 

As  for  those  grafted,  and  which  compose  the  small  vineyards,  the  land  is  not  the 
same  as  those  of  Groie  and  Champagne  in  the  Charentes.  In  some  the  subsoil  is 
clearly  chalky,  a  tender  turf,  rich  in  chalk  ;  but  it  has  already  been  shown  that  the 
subsoil  does  not  play  a  great  role  in  the  manifestation  of  chlorosis. 

The  soil  is  quite  flinty,  red  or  gray,  and  the  ordinary  Riparia,  as  well  as  many 
others,  should  certainly  have  prospered  in  it. 

Without  limiting  these  observations  to  the  vegetation  of  plants  not  grafted,  a 
dozen  forms  of  Riparia  and  as  many  of  Rupestris  might  be  named,  which  have  lived 
for  the  past  ten  years  in  open  ground  of  Champagne  very  calcareous  and  chalky.. 

The  Taylor,  Clinton,  Solonis,  and  Yacquez  were  planted  in  these  lands  thirteen  or 
fourteen  years  ago,  and  do  not  turn  yellow ;  but  none  of  these  vines  are  grafted. 

Some  have,  however,  been  grafted  in  these  poor  lands  and  have  done  well.  It  was 
done  on  roots  of  seven  or  eight  years  old,  which  had  acquired  sufficient  strength  to 
sustain  without  much  suffering  the  greffage. 

One  of  the  ablest  viticulturists  in  the  Charentes  has  already  confirmed  this  ob- 
servation. He  only  grafts  on  roots  of  three  or  four  years  on  the  sprouts  of  a  year's 
growth  cut  down  close  to  the  ground.  This  may  be  an  interesting  item ;  but  o$  what 
practical  value  ?  And  then  it  is  not  proved  that  these  vines  would  live  even  grafted 
upon  vines  of  seven  or  eight  years,  after  a  few  years  of  graftage. 

On  the  whole,  after  all  that  has  been  said,  it  will  not  do  to  try  the  Riparia  (except 
with  prudence)  so  much  recommended  for  calcareous  lauds,  for  none  have  as  yet  been 
proved  in  these  lands.  Riparia-Ramond  alone  is  an  exception.  Yet  it  can  not  be  cul- 
tivated in  the  chalky  lands  analogous  to  those  of  Champagne. 

Rupestris. — This  vine  has  also  been  recommended — I  scarcely  know  why — for  very 
calcareous  soil.  Perhaps  the  reason  is  that  it  has  been  seen  growing  vigorously  on 
rocks  which  border  the  rivers  in  the  United  States.  But  there  are  many  species  of 
rocks,  and  even  calcareous  rocks,  when  very  hard,  are  quite  favorable  to  American 
vines.  Some  of  the  waste  lands  in  the  H6rault  are  proofs  ;  and  some  calcareous  chalky 
lauds  in  Charente  which  contain  95  per  cent,  of  carbonate  of  lime. 


CULTURE    OF    THE    VINE    IN    COGNAC.  819 

And  then  Mr.  Vialla  states  that  Rupcstris  grows  specially  in  America  in  very  poor 
ground,  formed,  however,  of  flinty  gravel,  and  not  intermixed  with  vegetal  soil.  It 
is  the  same  thing  in  France. 

It  does  not  answer  to  plant  Rupestris  in  calcareous  soil.  It  dies  there  even  sooner 
than  Riparia,  and  if  it  is  superior  to  the  latter  in  many  parts  of  the  South,  it  is  only 
because  these  lands  are  not  too  calcareous.  In  all  cases  when  the  proportion  of  cal- 
caire  is  too  great,  Rupestris  dies.  Ir.  the  lands  of  Champagne  and  Groie  it  dies  where 
the  Riparia  is  sometimes  strong.  The  silicious  is  by  far  the  best  soil  for  it,  and  in  such 
a  soil  it  is  superior  to  all  graft- bearers,  which  it  surpasses  as  the  lands  are  less  and 
less  fertile.  I  have  seen  it  very  vigorous  in  tertiary  deposits  formed  exclusively  of 
gravel  of  the  size  of  buckshot  and  hazel-nuts,  while  Riparia,  Vialla,  and  York-Madeira 
were  there  very  feeble. 

Riipesfris  is  then  the  best  vine  of  all  for  poor,  silicions  soil,  although  it  succeeds  in 
rich  soil,  also  ;  yet  cheaper  graft-bearers  are  as  good.  It  grows  admirably,  also,  in 
certain  calcareous,  sterile  lands,  formed  of  calcareous  fragments  rolled  very  hard. 
In  these  lands  Riparia  does  not  turn  yellow,  but  Rupestris  is  far  superior  to  it.  For 
the  old  alluvial  earth  of  Charente,  of  which  the  subsoil  is  gravel  mixed  equally  with 
calcareous  and  silicious  fragments,  I  believe  Rupestris  the  best  vine.  Like  Riparia 
various  species  of  Rupestris  were  recommended  for  calcareous  soil.  Certain  ones  are 
in  our  experimental  fields,  and  others  in  soils  of  diverse  nature,  all  growing  in  about 
the  same  way,  and  in  very  chalky  land  they  all  turn  yellow. 

V.  Cordifolia. — This  vine  has  been  recommended  by  Mr.  Vialla  for  several  years  for 
calcareous  soil.  Until  recently  this  vine  had  not  been  much  cultivated  on  account 
of  the  numerous  suckers  that  grow  from  it,  and  it  does  not  appear  to  play  any  impor- 
tant part  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  vineyards.  It  is  not  adapted,  either,  to  very 
calcareous  soil.  Several  trials  of  the  vine  have  failed.  In  chalky  land  it  is  affected 
with  chlorosis,  and  soon  dies,  often  during  the  first  year.  This,  at  least,  is  the  result 
of  our  experiments.  The  greater  number  of  varieties  cultivated  were,  it  is  true,  issues 
of  the  seeds  planted  in  France  and  gathered,  not  upon  Cordifolia  in  calcareous  lands 
of  America,  but  on  those  growing  in  the  rich  alluvial  earth  of  the  rivers.  It  is  possible 
that  the  vines  which  grow  spontaneously  in  rich  silicious  lands  are  not  adapted  to 
calcareous,  poor  soil,  and  therefore  our  experiments  may  not  be  considered  important. 
But  I  have  unfortunately  cultivated  Cordifolia  that  came  direct  from  calcareous  lands 
in  America,  and  they  did  no  better  than  the  others.  In  conclusion,  I  do  not  consider 
Cordifolia  of  use  in  poor  ground. 

V.  Cinerea. — The  remarks  made  above  of  Cordifolia  will  apply  word  for  word  to 
Cinerea.  Like  Cordifolia,  it  turns  yellow  and  is  stunted  during  the  first  year,  both 
the  species  coming  directly  from  calcareous  lands  in  America,  as  well  as  those  obtained 
in  France. 

Nothing,  then,  can  be  expected  from  this  vine. 

It  has  been  recommended  for  moist  and  flinty  lands;  it  grows  in  fact  very  well  in 
flinty  beds  in  the  Aude;  but  until  now  no  plantation  of  this  vine  has  been  made  to 
any  extent  in  France,  and  it  is  preferable  to  abstain  from  much  use  of  it. 

J '.  Monticola  (Fcexeana  Texana).—A.  species  of  vine  but  little  known  as  yet  in  France. 
Mr.  Vialla  noticed  it  in  America  in  very  calcareous  land,  and  which  bears  much 
analogy  to  land  of  Groie.  It  might  therefore  prosper  in  analogous  soil  in  France. 
We  have  several  cultivated  in  chalky  land;  none  have  turned  yellow;  their  strength 
is  sufficient,  notwithsanding  the  vine  passes  for  very  feeble.  This  is  all  that  is  known 
of  this  vine,  and  its  future  can  not  be  judged. 

Candicans.— The  Mustang  ( V.  Candicans)  is  the  vine  that  attains  the  greatest  di- 
mensions in  America.  It  grows  vigorously  even  in  quite  bad  lands. 

It  has  been  little  cultivated  in  France,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  propagating 
it  by  cuttings  or  slips,  and  this  is  the  reason  why  we  have  not  been  able  to  cultivate 
it  in  our  experimental  fields.  Some  of  these  slips  are  always  found  mixed  acciden- 
tally with  roots  sent  to  us  from  the  South.  They  turned  yellow  like  those  of  Cinerea 
and  Cordifolia.  It  follows  that,  if  this  observation  is  of  any  value,  it  will  not  do  to 


820         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

plant  this  vine  in  bad  land.  Moreover,  Mr.  Vialla  ne^er  observed  it  in  Texas  in 
lands  rich  in  carbonate  of  lime.  It  has  not  yet  been  tried  in  other  lands,  and  should 
it  be  an  object  to  find  a  process  of  rapid  multiplication,  the  trials  of  adaptation, 
which  have  been  made  with  other  varieties  successfully,  must  be  recommenced. 

V.  Arizonica. — This  vine  is  very  rustic  and  a  strong  resistant  of  phylloxera.  It  is 
employed  in  California  as  a  graft-bearer,  and  not  cultivated  in  France. 

It  grows  spontaneously  in  California  and  Arizona  on  very  dry  hills,  stony  and  cal- 
careous. 

If  it  was  more  vigorous,  it  would  perhaps  have  some  value  for  lands  of  Groie.  We 
have  planted  a  dozen  roots  in  Champagne.  They  grew  yellow  a  little,  but  without 
degenerating.  It  is  not  in  any  case  a  vine  to  multiply. 

V.  Calif  ornica.— This  vine  is  of  no  value  either  in  France  or  America.  It  dies  of 
phyloxera,  and  samples  we  cultivated  in  Champagne  turned  rapidly  yellow. 

V.  Berlandieri.— It  has  been  in  France  for  some  time  ;  resists  phylloxera  very  well, 
and  makes  a  good  graft-bearer.  Until  now  it  has  but  little  multiplied  in  France,  on 
account  of  the  difficulties  to  propagate  it  from  slips  that  easily  break.  It  has,  how- 
ever, been  proved  to  grow  well  in  bad  lands  even  where  there  was  much  lime.  On 
Dr.  Bavin's  lands  it  grows  in  chalky  soil.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  experiments 
made  by  Mr.  Planchon  in  loam,  composed  of  four  ingredients  and  very  calcareous.  Its 
grafts  were  really  remarkable.  The  same  is  seen  at  some  places  in  the  Charente 
Sufirieure,  where  it  remains  deep  green,  while  numerous  varieties  around  it  turned 
yellow.  Nothing  more  was  known  about  this  vine,  when  Mr.  Vialla  discovered  it  in 
America  in  Texas,  in  soil  analagous  to  the  calcareous  land  of  Charente  and  of  Cham- 
pagne. The  various  experiments  I  have  made  show  that  it  will  resist  a  strong  dose 
of  calcaire. 

In  our  experimental  fields  four  hundred  roots  planted  show  no  trace  of  chlorosis. 
It  is  the  same  in  other  parts  of  the  Charente  Infe'rieure,  while  numerous  varieties, 
recommended  for  calcareous  soil,  even  the  Folle  Blanche,  planted  in  equally  good  con- 
ditions, have  not  escaped  phylloxera.  It  is  not  yet  known  whether  these  hopes  will  be 
realized  or  not.  It  is  objected  that  in  the  beginning  this  vine  is  feeble,  but,  later,  it 
is  strong,  and  compares  favorably  with  the  most  vigorous  graft-bearers.  It  is  prop- 
agated by  slips  of  a  year's  growth.  This  system  is  excellent,  and  it  is  advisable  to 
multiply  it  by  grafted  slips.  This  way,  I  hoped,  last  year  would  overcome  the  diffi- 
culty. But  it  failed.  The  grafted  slips  succeeded  no  better  than  the  slips.  It  is 
preferable  to  graft  slips  of  Berlandieri  from  30  to  35  centimeters  long,  or  even 
shorter,  on  French  or  American  stalks.  They  grow  very  well.  The  slip  planted  in 
good  soil,  leaving  one  or  two  eyes  above  ground,  take  root  at  once,  but  the  Belan- 
dieri  soon  throws  off  a  certain  number  of  roots.  Very  fine  roots  are  thus  obtained. 
Grafts  with  only  one  eye  have  not  succeeded,  and  the  issues  from  them  have  not  had 
sufficient  strength.  A  preceding  report,  all  that  was  interesting  to  relate  of  the  hy- 
brids of  Berlandieri  and  French  vines,  was  given,  so  far  as  chalky  land  is  concerned. 
Numerous  experiments  have  verified  these  previsions. 

We  shall  see,  in  the  next  place,  that  even  if  Berlandiera  can  not  play  any  great 
part  as  graft  bearer  in  chalky  lands,  it  is  not  the  same  with  these  hybrids. 

HYBRIDS— American  hybrids.— Hybrids  that  result  from  crossing  American  vines 
are  very  numerous.  The  best  known  are  Solonis,  York-Madeira,  Huntington,  Cham- 
pins,  N^vo-Mexicana,  Cordifolia-Rupestris,  Riparia- R  up  estris,  Rupestris  ^Estivalis,  Cin- 
erea  Rnpestris,  etc. 

Solonis. — This  vine  is,  according  to  Mr.  Millardet,  a  hybrid  of  Riparia-Rupestris 
and  Caudicans;  of  Riparia  and  Caudicans  only,  according  to  Mr.  Vialla.  In  either 
case  Solouis  is  a  graft-bearer  that  is  less  exposed  to  chlorosis  in  chalky  lands,  as  well 
as  in  flinty  and  cold  soils.  The  reason  is  not  to  be  found  in  the  aptitude  of  its  gen- 
erators. Riparia  and  Rupestris  are  not,  as  has  been  seen,  adapted  to  calcareous  soil. 
Mustang  (V.  Caudicans}  is  even  better,  although  doubted.  It  is  a  vine  with  acquired 
qualities  by  hybridation,  ard  tliis  is  common  to  all  hybrids.  Solonis,  in  very  cal- 
careous soil,  develops  well  generally  when  not  grafted,  and  is  not  excessively  chlo- 


CULTURE    OF    TUE    VINE    IN    COGNAC.  821 

rotique.  But,  grafted,  it  is  rapidly  stunted.  In  land  of  Groie  the  grafts  exist,  do  not 
turn  yellow  much,  but  remain  very  feeble.  When  the  ground  is  broken  up  and  ma- 
nured, it  is  better.  It  gives  good  enough  results  under  these  conditions.  But  really 
it  is  only  in  flinty,  moist  lands  that  Solonis  should  be  planted.  There  it  is  the  best 
graft-bearer  of  all.  When  it  has  been  planted  side  by  side  with  lliparia,  York,  etc., 
in  such  conditions,  its  vigor  was  always  superior  to  them ;  but  for  land  of  Groie  it 
must  be  entirely  abandoned. 

Novo  Mexicana. — According  to  Mr.  Vialla,  hybride  of  Ruparia  and  Mustang,  and 
consequently  related  to  Solonis,  to  which  besides  it  offers  the  greatest  analogy.  Novo- 
Mexicana,  then,  is  a  group  of  hybrids  only  dissimilar  by  very  little.  Solonia  is  one 
of  these  hybrids.  It  resists  chlorosio,  like  Solonis,  better  than  many  other  vines ;  but 
it  has  been  cultivated  for  so  short  a  time  in  France  that  we  can  not  pronounce  upon 
its  value.  In  one  of  our  experimental  fields  of  Champagne  it  turned  yellow,  but  less 
than  Solouts.  In  ordinary  lands  it  is  vigorous  and  well  adapts  slips,  but  it  has  not 
yet  acquired  resistance  of  phylloxera.  It  is,  then,  an  interesting  vine  for  study ;  but 
too  great  hopes  must  not  be  placed  upon  it.  Among  its  many  varieties  a  choice 
should  be  made.  Mr.  Vialla  sent  me  lately  a  remarkable  species,  called  Nova  Mexi- 
cana d'Hutchon. 

Fo-fc  Madeira. — This  vine  is  recommended  for  dry  lands.  It  succeeds  there  very 
well,  and  few  phylloxera  are  found  on  its  roots,  but  these  dry  lands  ought  not  to  be 
calcareous.  It  does  bettor  in  siliceous  soil  formed  of  big  stones,  with  a  little  vegetal 
earth  and  poorer  than  the  soil  of  Rupestris.  York  is  quite  feeble  whenever  the  siliceous 
grains  are  unmixed  with  good  earth  and  compact.  In  these  conditions  its  grafts  are 
never  very  fine.  They  bear  much  fruit,  too  much,  even,  but  it  ripens  badly.  In 
the  calcareous  land  of  Groie  it  does  not  turn  yellow  much,  but  its  development  there 
is  always  so  restrained  that  it  can  not  well  be  utilized  for  plantations.  In  Champagne 
lands  it  dies  rapidly,  and  it  is  equally  bad  in  moist,  flinty  soils. 

The  Vialla  aud  Franklin  should  be  planted  in  light,  siliceous  land,  as  it  is  only  there 
they  will  grow  vigorously.  If  the  proportion  of  calcaire  is  a  little  raised  they  soon 
die,  and  they  are  also  feeble  in  moist  and  stony  soils.  We  pass  by  the  Clinton  and 
Taylor,  which  have  been  almost  abandoned  as  graft-bearers. 

The  Oporto  has  been  recommended  for  calcareous  soil,  but,  I  think,  wrongly.  It 
is  only  vigorous  in  soils  that  suit  Vialla,  where  it  is  even  more  vigorous  than  the 
latter. 

The  Champins.— These  vines,  cultivated  in  France,  are  hybrids  of  Rupestris  and 
Mustang.  Their  characteristics  are  quite  various.  Some  which  are  bushy  with  glit- 
tering leaves,  almost  smooth,  resemble  Rupestris]  others  which  are  portly,  dull 
leaves,  downy,  as  well  as  the  branches,  are  more  like  Mustang.  These  vines  do  not 
equally  resist  phylloxera.  Although  for  the  most  part  quite  difficult  to  multiply 
(the  slips  take  badly,  the  layers  only  succeed),  still,  hopes  are  entertained  for  their 
adaptation  to  bad  soils.  Some  of  them  have  so  far  resisted  chlorosis,  where  Riparia 
was  torn  up  ;  but  the  resistance  of  many  of  these  hybrids  to  phylloxera  is  more  than 
doubtful.  Some  even  died  under  the  attacks  of  this  parasite.  And  in  the  experi- 
mental fields  of  Champagne  all  the  species  (Nos.  1,  2,  5,  10)  which  were  cultivated 
turned  yellow  the  first  year.  Elsewhere  they  did  well  a  little  longer  time,  but  only 
to  the  moment  of  graftage.  It  is  uncertain  how  they  would  do  in  land  of  Groie,  as 
they  are  not  strong,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  they  will  ever  serve  as  graft-bearers  in 
these  lands.  The  hybrid  Champins,  result  of  crossing  Berlandieri,  Monticola,  etc.,  with 
Mustang  and  what  Mr.  Vialla  found  in  America,  may  prove  to  be  better  resistants  of 
phylloxera  and  less  liable  to  chlorosis  on  account  of  their  origin.  I  have  not  yet 
made  the  trial. 

Huntington.—Thia  is  a  hybrid  of  JZuparia  and  Rupestris.  According  to  Mr.  Millardet, 
it  is  allied  to  V.  Labrusca.  The  tatter's  influence  must  be  feeble,  for  there  is  no  well 
»1  <jfined  characteristic  of  Lebrusca  in  the  Iluntington.  The  fruit  is  not  foxy ;  the  leaves 
'  ^e  entirely  smooth  as  well  as  the  branches  and  the  tendrils  are  prolonged  in  some 
r\  the  branches.  Until  now  this  vine  has  been  little  used  as  a  graft-bearer,  on 


822        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

account  of  its  feebleness,  and  also  as  its  resistance  to  phyloxera  has  not  been  yet 
determined.  It  is  multiplied  in  the  Charentes  and  the  south  of  France  as  a  direct 
producer.  The  grapes  are  very  numerous,  small,  of  medium  seeds,  compact,  of  a 
peculiar  taste,  but  not  sour.  The  wine  produced  is  bad.  For  want,  however,  of 
better,  the  inhabitants  of  the  Charentes  mix  it  with  other  wines  and  drink  it.  It  is 
most  remarkable  for  its  fine  vegetation  in  very  bad  lands.  Whatever  may  be  said 
against  Huntington  it  remains  green  and  vigorous  in  lands  of  Groie  where  Rupestris, 
Solonis,  and  Elparia  are  soon  stunted.  It  is  the  same  in  lands  where  American  vines 
grow  well;  much  better  than  Eiparia,  York,  Solonis,  Rupestris,  etc.,  and  which  never- 
theless grew  finely.  It  is  not  to  recommend  its  culture  or  to  advise  its  use  as  graft- 
bearer  or  direct  producer,  for  it  does  not  resist  phyloxera  well;  but  in  calcareous  soil 
it  is  a  vine  least  of  all  liable  to  chlorosis.  The  cause  is  unknown. 

Eiparia- Rupestris. — This  vine  is  an  example  of  what  has  already  been  said,  that 
certain  hybrids  offer  certain  aptitudes  which  certainly  were  not  transmitted  from 
their  originals.  Almost  all  hybrids  are  more  vigorous  than  their  generators.  They 
swell  more  and  their  branches  are  longer  and  stronger.  They  are  better  adapted  to 
bad  soils  than  Riparia  or  Rupestris.  Few  of  these  vines  have  been  grafted,  but  they 
will  not  do  it  well  and  their  trunk  would  rapidly  develop,  as  we  believe.  The 
swellings,  so  frequent  and  voluminous  at  the  point  of  solder  on  Riparia,  are  never 
seen,  and  it  is  thought  that  Eiparia-Rupestris ,  or  some  among  them,  will  make  excel- 
lent graft-bearers.  Other  reasons,  too,  than  these  might  be  given.  First,  among 
vines  that  grow  well  in  very  calcareous  soil,  like  the  Groie,  are  found  just  two  of  these 
hybrids,  Huntington  and  Riparia-Ramond. 

In  a  plantation  in  very  poor,  calcareous  land  some  roots  were  more  vigorous  than 
Rupestris  planted  under  the  same  conditions  by  their  side,  and  on  examination  the 
roots  were  identified  as  hybrides  of  Ruparia  and  Rupestris.  In  very  calcareous  land 
of  Provence  a  Rupestris,  result  of  crossing  with  Riparia,  grew  very  well  where  many 
vines  planted  at  the  same  time  are  already  dead. 

Nearer  Cognac,  in  land  of  Groie,  where  the  best  of  Rupestris  may  die,  some  of  the 
Riparia- Rupestris  are  very  fine.  In  Ardeche,  in  soil  of  bad  quality,  of  Mr.  Couderc 
Rnparia-Rupestris  is  remarkable.  And  I  may  be  excused  in  my  preference  for  these 
vines  by  adducing  proofs  of  their  beauty  in  the  worst  lands  of  the  Charente,  as  may 
be  witnessed  in  lands  of  Messrs.  Foex,  Millardet,  and  Grasset.  All  that  have  been 
cultivated  in  our  experimental  fields  have  a  fine  vegetation  in  Champagne,  a  few  only 
have  turned  a  little  yellow ;  it  is  not  believed,  however,  that  they  will  be  good  graft- 
bearers  for  these  lands.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  in  lands  of  Groie  they  may  be  used 
without  apprehension.  In  fact,  they  have  a  marvelous  vegetation  and  surpass  the 
finest  species  of  Franco-American  hybrids.  All  are  not  equally  fine,  it  is  true,  and 
a  serious  selection  must  be  made.  Thus  a  Eiparia- Rupestris  of  Yaeger  comprised  two 
kinds:  one,  more  like  Rupestris  (its  branches  erect,  shorter,  and  red-colored  like 
herbs),  was  the  more  vigorous  ;  the  other,  resembling  Riparia,  has  longer  branches  of 
yellowish  green,  prickly  leaves;  it  turns  yellow  in  land  of  Champagne,  while  the 
first  remains  green.  In  addition  to  several  well- selected  specimens,  upon  \Mthich  ex- 
periments have  already  been  made,  we  shall  continue  to  make  others  known. 

Cordifolia-Rupestris. — These  vines  grow  vigorously  in  America,  and  also  in  some 
parts  of  the  south  of  France.  Mr.  Millardet  has  commended  their  use  in  calcareous 
soil.  But,  in  my  opinion,  it  is  an  error,  for  they  will  not  prosper.  Several  I  have 
had  planted,  both  natural  arid  artificial,  all  turned  yellow  rapidly  and  died  in  a  lew 
months.  They  take  better  in  land  of  Groie,  but  the  poorest  vines  imaginable.  It  is 
not  known  for  what  reason  they  have  been  recommended  so  highly.  Mr.  Millardet 
maintains  that  they  are  adapted  to  flinty  soil,  cold  and  compact.  But  they  have 
failed  in  good  garden  soil,  and  no  reliance  can  be  placed  in  them,  whatever  be  the 
kind  of  soil.  They  are  not  of  value  either  in  chalky  lands  or  in  Groie. 

Rupestris  ^stivalis. — Of  this  vine  we  possess  very  few  specimens.  One  did  well 
in  lands  of  the  south  of  France  ;  but  transplanted  in  chalky  land  near  Cognac,  they 
were  stunted  before  the  expiration  of  the  first  year.  Nothing  can  be  expected  of  these 


CUL'iURE    OF    THE    VINE    IN    COGNAC.  823 

vines.  Some  of  them,  however,  have  merit.  That  of  Lessignun  tfro  <vs  well  with  Mr. 
Bouisset,  and  the  Taylor,  after  four  or  five  years,  continues  to  grow  vigorously  in 
land  of  Groie,  according  to  Mr.  Tord.  But  these  vines  are  not  adapted  to  chalky 
soil. 

t'incrca-Rupestris.—  This  vine  is  no  better  than  Cinerea  and  inferior  to  Rupestris  in 
our  experimental  fields.  In  some  bad  lands  of  the  South  there  is  a  variety  quite  fine, 
but  it  is  not  of  any  interest  to  ourselves.  Experiments  are  actually  made  with  sev- 
eral of  these  hybrids,  sent  to  me  by  Messrs.  Foex,  Couderc,  Millardet,  and  Grasset. 
They  have  been  too  short  a  time  in  the  fields  to  give  an  opinion,  and  we  have  but 
live  or  six  samples.  Those  which  resist  phylloxera  best  are  Othello  X Rupestrw, 
SolonisX  Othello,  CanadaXRupestris,  Cognac,  etc.  The  American  hybrids,  by  Franco- 
Americans  are  greenest.  CanadaxRupestris  is  also  very  fine  with  Mr.  Couderc,  in 
Ardeche,  and  will  surely  be  a  good  graft-bearer. 

Hybrids  Franco- American. — This  name  is  assigned  to  crossings  of  a  variety  of  vine 
vinifera  with  any  American  vine.  And  during  this  report  by  vine  of  French  origin, 
must  always  be  understood  vine  vinifera. 

Jacquez.— As  a  direct  producer  this  vine  has  been  much  cultivated  in  the  south  of 
France,  and  it  is  now  grafted  almost  exerywhere.  In  warmer  latitudes  the  color  of 
the  wine  changes  very  rapidly,  and  in  the  north  the  fruit  ripens  badly  and  is  very 
susceptible  to  cryptogaraic  diseases.  It  is  advantageous  as  graft-bearer.  A  few  years 
ago  when  chlorosis  generally  prevailed  among  riparia  vines,  and  they  ceased  for  this 
reason  to  multiply  it,  Jacquez  grafts  alone  remained  green.  In  very  calcareous  land 
of  marl  Jacquez  die,  but  much  later  than  Riparia.  They  are  fine  graft-bearers  for 
most  of  our  vines ;  save,  perhaps,  Balzac  or  Mourve"de,  which  in  most  places  are  cov- 
ered with  excresences.  It  is  so  well  adapted  to  grafts  that  after  a  short  interval  the 
joint  can  not  be  distinguished.  It  is  known  already  why  these  grafts  are  less  fertile 
than  on  Riparia. 

The  affinity  between  subject  and  graft  places  the  root  in  as  good  conditions  as  if  it 
were  not  grafted.  The  harmony  is  perfect  and  it  is  not  therefore  surprising  that  grafts 
on  Jacquez  produce  less  than  on  Riparia,  and  they  are  fully  as  fertile  as  French  vines 
of  the  same  age. 

Jacquez  is  especially  remarkable  for  the  facility  with  which  it  grows  in  very  diverse 
lands.  In  marl  and  chalky  soil  it  is  not  a  good  graft-bearer,  but  it  grows  best  there; 
but  in  Champagne  it  is  the  only  graft-bearer  that  succeeds  well.  It  is  not  yet  proved 
that  it  resists  phylloxera,  or  its  reconstitution  in  calcareous  soil  would  already  be  pos- 
sible. In  cold,  flinty  soil  it  also  grows  well.  In  a  word,  it  grows  like  our  French 
vines  and  is  at  the  same  time  hybrid  of  American  vines,  to  which  it  owes  its  resist- 
ance to  phylloxera,  and  of  a  French  vine,  to  which  it  owes  its  adaptation  to  all  kinds 
of  land  and  resistance  to  chlorosis.  And  from  these  analogies  it  adopts  easily  most  of 
the  grafts. 

But  it  is  more  sensitive  to  blight  than  Riparia,  and  this  is  a  sign  of  great  strength. 
This  defect  can  be  remedied,  too,  by  a  longer  slip,  or  perhaps  by  proper  manure. 
When  grafts  on  Riparia  grow  feeble  they  should  receive  a  compost  of  azotes ;  here,  on 
the  contrary,  it  should  be  manure  of  potash  and  phosphates.  It  is  important  to  note 
that  Jacquez,  hybrid  Franco-American,  resists  better  than  its  American  generators 
chlorosis,  and  consequently  agree  well  with  it  as  a  graft-bearer,  and  develop  as  if 
they  had  not  been  grafted. 

Othello,  Canada,  Triumph,  etc. — They  make  little  resistance  to  phylloxera;  but,  as 
direct  producers,  these  hybrids  are  interesting  species,  found  in  our  vineyards  on 
account  of  their  facility  of  adaptation  to  very  bad  soils;  and  they  enable  us  to  judge 
the  value  of  species  daily  furnished  to  us  by  Messrs.  Conders,  Foex,  Grasset,  and 
Millaudet.  But  whatever  may  be  their  value  as  direct  producers,  and  the  quality  of 
their  fruit,  they  will  never  replace  in  renowned  vineyards  our  ancient  French  va- 
rieties. It  is  in  their  culture  in  very  calcareous  soils  that  I  have  to  speak.  They  all 
sustain  a  very  high  dose  of  calcaire.  According  to  Chauzit,  Othello,  a  hybrid  of  Clin- 
ton of  Canada,  by  Black  Hamburg,  will  live  in  soils  containing  50  per  cent,  of  car- 
15GA 28 


824        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

bonate  of  lime,  and  it  is  also  successively  cultivated  iu  lands  of  marl,  where  the  recon- 
struction of  the  vineyards  with  Riparia,  Rupestris,  Solonis,  and  Vialla  was  checked.  It 
has  been  seen  in  several  chalky  lands  around  Cognac,  aged  from  three  to  eight  years, 
Tery  fine  and  green;  while  by  its  side  Noah,  the  famous  American  hybrid,  the  savior 
of  Chareutes,  was  stunted. 

Canada  also  resists  chlorosis.  It  has  been  seen  in  bad  land  of  Groie,  subsoil  marl, 
to  grow  well,  very  green;  by  the  side  of  herbemonts  very  feeble.  The  same  with 
Triumph,  etc.  Thus  we  see  that  these  vines  by  right  of  origin  are  well  qualified  for 
our  lands  (except  as  to  their  resistance  to  phylloxera).  Their  American  generators 
arc  JEstivalis,  Cinerea,  Labrusca,  and  Riparia,  all  sensible  to  chlorosis,  and  we  can  ex- 
pect to  do  even  better  with  crossings  of  Berlandieri  or  other  species  resisting  phyl- 
loxera with  our  native  vines.  And  by  selecting  those  adapted  to  calcareous  soils, 
such  as  Folle- Blanche,  St.  Emilion,  Ugni-Blanc,  St.  Peter,  Colombo,  Pinet,  etc.,  the  suc- 
cess would  seem  to  be  assured  for  the  most  calcareous  soils.  These  hybrids  ofier 
much  interest.  In  my  opinion,  after  several  experiments,  hybrids  Franco-American 
and  V.  Berlandieri  are  sure  to  reconstruct  chalky  soils.  Hybrids  V.  Berlandieri  by 
French  are  among  the  most  remarkable.  In  several  of  our  fields  of  Champagne  Ber- 
landieri by  Roussaune,  Cabernet,  Sultanieli,  Aramon,  Malbec,  etc.,  have  not  turned 
yellow,  but  have  all  retained  a  very  bright  green  color.  They  are  not  all,  however, 
equally  vigorous  and  a  choice  must  be  made.  A  few  received  from  the  school  of 
Montpellier  are  feebler  than  Rupestris  hybrids  by  French  ones.  But  their  vegetation 
is  more  vigorous  than  Jurancon  Folle-Blanche  planted  by  their  side.  French  hybrids 
by  Rupestris  vegetate  better  than  the  preceding  and  are  of  equal  foliage.  They  are 
certainly  the  most  vigorous  hybrids  yet  known. 

At  the  school  at  Montpellier  they  have  had  for  some  years  Rupestris  xAlicaute- 
Bouschet  of  unheard-of  growth,  and  it  succeeds  in  our  trial  fields  very  well. 

Among  other  plants  of  the  same  group  which  grow  finely,  Aramon-Rupestris-Gauzin 
may  be  here  mentioned.  They  turn  a  little  yellow  in  chalky  soil  around  Cognac,  but 
very  little.  Gamay-Condei'c  is  also  very  strong  and  green  in  our  trial  fields  and  else- 
where. One  of  the  finest  is  Rupestris- Cabernet,  of  Mr.  Millardet,  then  Gros  Coleman- 
Rupestris,  Aramon  X  Rupestris,  Alicante- Bouschet  X  Rupestris,  Petit  Bouschet  X  Reparia, 
etc.  There  are  also  diverse  hybrids  of  Rupestris  by  French  vines  in  other  trial  fields 
which  have  been  established  in  chalky  lands  of  Champagne  and  Groie  identical  to 
these,  which  are  still  greener  and  more  vigorous.  These  I  have  myself  proved. 
Hybrids  of  value  are  not  formed  from  Vitis-Cordi folia.  They  turn  yellow  a  little  less 
than  Cordifolia,  but  can  not  be  relied  on,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  hybrids  from 
Cinerea.  Crossings  between  these  and  our  French  vines  have  not  succeeded.  The 
samples  sent  to  me  have  almost  all  turned  yellow.  Hybrids  Riparia  are  very  vigor- 
ous and  not  very  liable  to  chlorosis. 

The  complex  hybrids  of  American  vines,  York,  Othello,  Solonis,  Clinton,  Taylor, 
etc.,  and  French  are  not  strong  and  some  turn  yellow.  The  following  is  the  order  of 
preference  to  be  given  to  vines,  according  to  their  strength  and  foliage,  which  I  have 
carefully  observed  in  our  experimental  fields  and  elsewhere  in  identical  lands : 

First.  Those  strongest  and  greenest :  Cabernet  X  Rupestris,  Gros  Colman  X  Rupestris, 
Colombean  X  Rupestris  Martin  on  Gamay-Condere,  Canada  X  Rupestris,  Aramon  X  Ru- 
pestris- Ganzin,  Petit -Bouschet  X  Riparia,  etc. 

Second.  Very  green  and  not  so  strong.  V.  Berlandieri,  Folle-Blanche,  Aramcn  X 
Berlandieri,  Malbec  X  Berlandiei'i,  Cabernet-Berlandieri,  Sultanieh  X  Berlandieri,  Rous- 
sonne  Berlandieri,  and  a  few  other  hybrids  of  French  vines,  with  Berlandieri  V.  Mon- 
ticola. 

Third.  Very  strong,  but  a  little  yellow.  Ruparia-Rupestris,  No.  10875  Ruparia- 
Rupestris  of  Jaeger,  and  a  few  numbers  of  the  Montpellier  school.  In  Groie  they  do 
not  turn  yellow. 

Fourth.  Less  strong  and  more  subject  to  chlorosis,  Riparia-Ramond.    Diverse  hy- 
brids of  V.  Cordifolia,  Riparia,   York,   Othello,  with  sundry  French  vines,  may  be  • 
joined  to  this  group. 


PHYLLOXERA    IN    CHAMPAGNE.  825 

Fifth.  Most  subject  to  chlorosis:  Mexicana,  Solonis,  York,  Champin,  V.  Arizonica, 
Californica,  etc. 

Sixth.  Those  very  yellow  and  more  or  less  cottis :  V.  Cordifolia,  Cinerea  Candicaus, 
Cordifolia  Rupeatris,  Rupestris-^Estirvalis,  Cinera  Rupestris,  etc. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

Cau  definite  conclusions  he  drawn  from  all  that  precedes! 

These  experiments  are  of  recent  date,  hut  the  results  are  in  harmony  with  numerous 
facts  of  vine  culture  proved  several  years  ago  and  already  reported  by  me.  First. 
r.  Herlandieri  and  hybrids  resulting  from  crossing  it;  Rupestris  and  even  Ruparia 
with  European  varieties  grow  best  in  the  chalky  lands  of  Champagne;  most  of  them 
do  not  turn  yellow  there. 

Second.  In  lands  of  Groie  these  vines  grow  finely ;  but  it  must  be  added  that  Riparia- 
Ramoud  and  sundry  species  of  Riparia-Rupestris,  such  as  Nos.  108,  101,  75,  and  some 
natural  Rip  aria-  Rupestris  of  Jaeger,  develop  well  in  the  same  soil. 

Third.  Other  varieties  of  hybrids  or  species,  although  offering  more  or  less  resist- 
ance to  phylloxera,  will  not  in  any  way  suit  for  cultivation  in  lands  of  marl  or  chalk. 

Fourth.  How  will  these  vines  do  when  grafted?  On  account  of  their  relationship 
to  the  slips  which  are  grafted  upon  them  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  they 
will  unite  much  better  with  them  than  Riparia,  Solonis,  etc.  Some  of  the  facts 
brought  forward  by  Mr.  Millardet  seem  to  prove  this.  What  has  been  said  of  Jacquez 
and  Riparia  show  it  as  well.  Consequently,  the  disorders  which  are  followed  by 
chlorosis  and  appear  so  frequently  after  grafting  will  not  here  be  apprehended,  and 
the  adaptation  to  the  soil  will  be  so  much  more  easier  on  account  of  this. 

It  is  to  be  feared  that  their  grafts  will  be  less  fruitful  than  those  of  Riparia,  Solonis, 
York,  etc.,  but  they  will  surely  be  more  vigorous :  besides  they  will  always  produce 
as  much  as  the  same  French  varieties,  not  grafted,  of  the  same  age  and  strength. 


PHYLLOXERA  IN  CHAMPAGNE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  PRESTON,  OF  NICE. 

So  much  has  been  said  in  the  papers  lately  about  the  reappearance 
of  the  phylloxera  in  the  French  vineyards  that  I  thought  anything  on 
the  subject  would  be  useful  to  our  viticulturist.  The  inclosed  slip  is 
taken  from  the  Little  Gironde  of  August  20, 1890,  and  shows  the  energy 
with  which  some  proprietors  are  determined  to  act  to  destroy  the  pest 
and  the  prompt  measures  they  have  taken. 

I  send  inclosed  the  original  article,  with  my  translation,  as  an  ad- 
denda. 

WM.  S.  PRESTON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Nice,  August  20,  1890. 


PHYLLOXERA  IN  CHAMPAGNE. 

A  prominent  wine  merchant  of  Champagne,  Mr.  Chandon,  while  waiting  for  sul- 
phur of  carbon  to  come  from  Villefranche,  Rhone,  had  the  vines  attacked  by  phyllox- 
era in  the  district  of  Treloup,  Aisne,  torn  up  and  destroyed  by  fire.  To  one  of  our 


826         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

correspondents  who  criticised  this  way  of  doing  Mr.  Chandou  replied  and  gave  the 
reasons  that  induced  him  to  act. 

"As  soon  as  the  news  that  the  vines  were  touched  with  phylloxera  reached  me,"  he 
says,  "I  immediately  proceeded  to  the  land  and  satisfied  myself  that  the  disease  dated 
at  legist  from  four  years. 

"  Numerous  delegates  of  phylloxera,  commissioners,  inspectors,  etc.,  had  been  there, 
and  nothing  had  been  observed  by  them  during  four  years.  No  sulphur  of  carbon 
prescribed;  in  fact,  nothing  done.  Without  waiting  for  administrative  formalities, 
so  slow,  or  administrators  who,  without  my  initiative,  would  still  be  inquiring  what 
was  best  to  be  done,  I  purchased  the  laud  and  ordered  the  vines  to  be  rooted  up.  At 
the  same  time  I  covered  the  land  with  straw  saturated  with  petroleum  and  fired  it, 
in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  a  single  insect.  Then  I  had  the  laud  planted  with 
clover.  These  preliminary  steps  closed  as  soon  as  the  sulphur  of  carbon  and  poles 
arrived.  The  latter  eight  days  after  the  phylloxera  was  discovered." 

Mr.  Chandon  adds  that  in  destroying  the  vines  he  pursued  a  twofold  end  : 

First.  He  prevented  the  spread  of  the  evil  by  the  shoes  and  clothing  of  the  crowds 
who  came,  out  of  curiosity,  and  walked  ail  over  the  contaminated  vineyard. 

Second.  He  indicated,  or  used,  the  only  practical  remedy,  namely,  destruction 
when  the  disease  is  in  its  infancy.  This  system  is  practiced  in  Switzerland  and  Hun- 
gary with  perfect  success. 

Mr.  Chandon  complains  that  the  people  of  the  locality  refused  to  co-operate  with 
Mr.  Common,  inspector  delegate  of  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  and  they  were  con- 
sequently obliged  to  wait  a  month  after  the  discovery  of  the  phylloxera  for  credits, 
decrees,  regulations,  etc. 

In  conclusion,  Mr.  Chandon  says : 

"  In  order  to  prevent  the  swarming  and  subterranean .  propagation  it  is  necessary 
to  act  promptly  and  at  once,  and  I  have  contributed,  I  think,  in  the  best  way  possi- 
ble to  destroy  this  formidable  insect. 

"  I  mention  these  facts  to  stop  the  malevolent  insinuations  which  have  been  put  in 
circulation. 

"  To  conclude,  growers  can  only  preserve  their  vineyards  by  the  formation  among 
themselves  of  great  syndicates,  which  will  be  able  to  indemnify  fully  proprietors  of 
contaminated  vines  destined  to  be  completely  destroyed. 

"  This  is  the  only  sure  way  known  to-day  capable  of  hindering  the  progress  of 
the  invader  and  of  protecting  the  vineyards." 


GIRONDE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ROOSEVELT,*  OF  BORDEAUX. 

[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41£.]  | 

Soils. — The  land  more  or  less  devoted  to  viticulture  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Gironde  may  be  divided  into  six  categories:  (1)  Alluvial  or 
palus  land,  (2)  rich,  strong  soil,  (3)  marly  calcareous  land,  (4)  gravelous 
land,  (5)  siliceous,  and  (6)  sablo-argillaceous  land. 

The  alluvial  or  palus  lands  lying  in  the  bottom  of  the  valleys  are  the 
result  of  the  successive  deposits  of  rivers.  This  category  includes  the 
drained  marshes  and  substratum  of  the  valleys. 

*  Consul  Roosevelt  acknowledges  his  indebtedness  for  the  greater  part  of  the  in- 
formation contained  in  this  report  to  M.  Edoner  Feret,  of  Bordeaux,  a  recognized 
authority  and  author  on  vine  culture. 


VINE    IN    THE    GIRONDE.  827 

The  soil  of  drained  marshes  is  mixed  with  mold,  fine  sand,  and  organical 
particles  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter;  the  subsoil  is  composed  of 
clay,  sand,  turf,  and  sometimes  marl.  The  nature  of  pal  us  soil  is  simply 
that  of  the  marsh  where  the  alluvial  Ground  has  been  drained  and  im- 
proved by  culture.  The  best  pal  us  laud  is  in  the  district  ot  Lesparre, 
in  the  cantons  of  Blauquefort,  Barbon-blanc,  Blaye,  and  Saiut-Ciers- 
Lalande,  and  borders  the  side  of  the  Garonne,  the  Dordogne,  and  the 
Isle.  The  wines  of  those  vineyards  possess  color  and  vinosity,  but  lack 
delicacy  of  taste. 

The  highlands  are  those  where  the  argils  predominate ;  they  exact, 
according  to  their  nature,  the  assistance  of  manure,  transports  of  light 
earth,  and  constant  plowing.  These  lands  are  generally  to  be  found  on 
the  hills  and  hill-sides;  they  have,  in  general,  a  calcareous  or  stony 
subsoil;  this  kind  of  soil  is  particularly  appropriate  to  the  vine. 

The  marly  calcareous  land  covers  a  considerable  part  of  the  country ; 
it  agrees  with  the  vine  when  sand,  argil,  or  gravel  forms  an  important 
proportion  of  the  ground. 

Gravelous  land  is  the  most  favorable  for  vine  culture  as  regards  the 
quality  of  the  production,  and  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  :  (1)  On 
gravelous  land  composed  of  stones  or  quartz,  being  about  3  feet  in 
depth,  and  having  a  subsoil  of  clay  and  argil  or  alios,  the  best  growths 
of  M£doc  and  Graves  are  cultivated ;  (2)  sandy,  gravelous  land,  form- 
ing a  composition  of  sand  and  stones,  based  on  an  inert  sand  or  upon 
aliotic  layers,  is  not  propitious  to  the  vine  in  consequence  of  the  humid- 
ity of  t lie  subsoil. 

The  siliceous  land  covers  nearly  half  of  the  department.  It  partakes 
of  the  siliceous  nature,  mixed  with  clayish,  calcareous  elements,  which, 
when  properly  worked,  is  well  suited  to  the  culture  of  the  vine. 

The  batardes,  or  terres  batards,  present  an  intermediate  state  between 
the  rich  land  and  the  siliceous  sandy  lands;  their  fertility  is  more  or 
less  great  according  to  their  situation;  the  ordinary  white  plants  grow 
in  these  soils  with  facility. 

Subsoils. — The  study  of  subsoils  is  also  of  importance  to  those  desiring 
to  cultivate  vineyards.  They  have  a  considerable  influence  upon  the 
success  of  the  vine  and  upon  the  nature  and  quality  of  its  production. 
I  shall  divide  them  in  six  classes :  Argillous,  sablo-argillous,  calcareous, 
marly,  gravelous  or  stony,  sandy  aliotic. 

Argillous  subsoil,  when  it  is  composed  of  close  or  compact  argil,  is 
hurtful  to  the  vine,  because  it  is  moist,  and  in  consequence  the  roots 
are  easily  attacked  by  cold,  and  giving  to  the  fruit  a  very  definable 
earthy  taste. 

The  sandy  argillous  subsoils  are  favorable  to  the  vine,  providing  the 
sand  enters  for  about  one-half  into  its  composition,  permitting  the  wa- 
ter to  pass  through  sufficiently  to  exercise  "a  salutary  influence  on  the 
roots — that  is  to  say,  refreshing  them  without  leaving  behind  an  un- 
healthy humidity  ;  but  then  the  vine  on  these  soils  is  ordinarily  more 


828         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

cultivated  with  a  regard  to  quantity  rather  than  quality  of  its  produc- 
tions ;  meanwhile  tihe  soil  is  fertile,  and  admits  of  the  finest  vines  being 
cultivated  here. 

The  calcareous  or  marly  subsoils  are  often  compact  and  not  suffi- 
ciently porous,  by  reason  of  which  a  free  flowage  of  water  is  checked, 
and  when  near  the  surface  of  the  soil  they  are  extremely  hurtful  to  the 
vine,  they  may,  notwithstanding,  be  of  great  use  by  digging  the  ground 
and  mixing  it  with  the  upper  layers  of  earth.  If  these  layers  are  sandy 
or  sandy  gravelous,  a  very  favorable  result  may  be  obtained ;  but  if 
composed  of  greasy  sand,  the  mixture  will  not  be  so  good.  The  nature 
of  this  soil  is  especially  favorable  to  the  white  vine. 

The  gravelous  or  stony  subsoils  are  very  favorable  to  the  vine.  They 
present  sometimes  small  siliceous  stones  or  pebbles,  white,  gray,  bluish, 
and  transparent;  these  stones  are  termed  "  graves ;"  sometimes  little 
blocks  or  stones  of  a  dull  opaque ;  sometimes  also  little  pieces  of  stone 
or  rock  in  the  crevices  of  which  the  roots  of  the  vine  generally  pene- 
trate, thereby  forming  the  base  of  a  great  hardiness  and  vigor  for  the 
plant,  and  of  an  agreeable,  well-developed  taste  and  flavor  for  the  wines. 

The  sandy  subsoils  are  suitable  to  the  vine,  because  they  permit  its 
roots  to  penetrate  to  a  great  depth,  to  find  the  stability  of  temperature 
which  is  favorable  to  them.  The  most  part  of  these  soils  produce  a  fine 
delicate  wine,  but  lacking  sometimes  in  body  and  color. 

The  aliotic  subsoils,  sometimes  ferruginous,  are  impervious  as  those 
of  the  argil  and  marl;  they  form  a  bed  which  arrests  water,  thereby 
rendering  the  earth  too  dry,  especially  if  sloping;  the  water,  following, 
the  bent  of  the  incline,  settles  in  the  lower  parts.  When  flat  it  is  too 
damp,  a  defect,  however,  which  can  be  easily  remedied  by  digging  up 
the  earth  to  a  certain  depth.  Under  these  circumstances,  they  are  very 
much  in  request.  The  best  vineyards  in  the  Medoc  are  established  on 
grounds  of  this  nature. 

Planting.—  Before  planting  the  vine  the  nature  of  the  soil  should  be 
attentively  studied,  and  the  preparatory  labor  performed  according  to 
its  species.  It  is  most  urgent  that  the  vine  should  be  sheltered  from 
prolonged  dampness;  to  this  effect  the  earth  must  be  disposed  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  regulate  the  slopes  and  facilitate  drainage.  If  in  a  very 
hard,  argillous  land,  called  terre  tape,  or  boulbaine,  or  tuf,  the  roarl  or 
alios  should  be  found  of  shallow  depth,  the  subsoils  must  be  broken 
up  to  render  them  pervious  and  to  mix  them  with  the  superficial  layers 
of  earth. 

The  earth,  purified  by  the  means  above  indicated,  and  by  drainage 
whenever  it  is  essential,  demands  a  most  important  operation — improve- 
ment and  manure. 

To  manure  the  earth  about  the  vine  is  always  a  most  essential  pre- 
paratory feature,  at  least  when  not  operating  upon  alluvial  soil,  but 
when  this  is  the  case  a  liquid  manure  is  sometimes  employed  and  poured 
into  the  hole  assigned  to  each  plant.  When  planting  superficial  earth, 


TEE    VINE    IN    THE    GIRONDE.  829 

which  has  not  been  before  used  for  cereals,  or  which  has  not  been  ma- 
nured for  a  long  time,  at  least  half  a  cart-load  of  manure  is  required 
for  a  row  containing  from  75  to  80  plants.  In  planting  a  feeble  or  used- 
up  ground  double  that  amount  of  manure  must  be  employed.  It  is 
very  important  to  have  the  plants  well  chosen;  to  this  end  it  is  only 
required  that  the  foot  or  base  should  be  healthy  and  vigorous,  taking 
them  only  from  branches  having  hitherto  borne  fruit.  In  certain  com- 
munes each  cutting  has  a  little  of  the  wood  of  the  preceding  year;  but 
great  importance  is  not  attached  to  this  latter  precaution,  as  many 
succeed  as  well  in  planting  the  young  end.  To  replace  the  dead  feet 
in  a  young  plantation  root-plants  are  sometimes  preferred  (called 
"  chevelus  "  or  "  barbeaux")  to  the  ordinary  plants  or  layers. 

This  replacement  is  also  made  by  "  provins."  The  term  "  provins  "  is 
applied  to  a  branch  or  tributary  of  the  old  vine-stalk,  upon  which  new 
roots  develop  without  separating  it  from  the  mother  vine.  In  order  to 
make  a  "  provin  "  a  long  branch  is  left  upon  the  old  vine- stalk  nearest 
to  the  one  to  be  replaced,  and  if  possible  in  the  same  row ;  a  pit  is 
then  dug,  about  1  foot  deep,  between  the  two  plants ;  it  is  then  filled 
up  with  mold  or  manure,  if  the  earth  be  poor ;  the  branch  is  then  put 
into  the  pit  without  separating  it  from  the  mother  vine,  and  the  end 
raised  in  the  place  of  the  dead  stalk ;  it  is  supported  by  means  of  a 
wooden  stake,  and  requires  to  have  its  top  cut  off  like  the  mouth-piece 
of  a  flute,  care  being  taken  that  the  bud  should  be  on  the  side  opposite 
the  slope  in  order  to  avoid  its  being  drowned  or  damaged  by  the  flow- 
ing of  the  sap.  The  severing  of  the  "  provin"  is  indispensable  to  pre- 
vent the  mother  plant  from  declining  or  even  dying.  The  separation 
is  begun  after  the  second  year  by  cutting  on  the  branch  a  cross-section 
about  one-third  deep,  and  by  completely  cutting  it  the  year  after.  These 
"  provins,"  or  layers,  have  the  advantage  of  producing  from  the  first 
year ;  it  is  admitted  in  the  Me'doc  that  every  "  provin  "  pays  its  expenses 
from  the  first  year.  The  u  provins  "  are  made  at  the  period  when  the 
sap  begins  to  ascend  into  the  branches,  rendering  them  more  supple ; 
care  is  taken  to  make  some  slight  incisions  in  the  part  of  the  branch 
lying  under  ground,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  growth  of  the  roots.  In  the 
planting  of  the  vine  by  layers  I  find  that  five  different  modes  are  em- 
ployed in  the  department.  The  three  first  are  the  most  extensively 
used. 

(1)  Planting  by  reversion. — This  mode  is  certainly  the  best,  but  also 
the  most  costly,  inasmuch  as  the  work  for  one  acre  costs  about  $117. 
It  consists  in  opening  trenches  in  the  direction  of  the  vine-rows,  a  suf- 
ficient distance  apart;  the  first  trench  being  finished,  the  earth  coming 
from  it  serves  to  fill  up  the  last ;  manure  is  then  thrown  in  and  the 
plants,  or  "  barbeaux,"  are  placed  in,  being  supported  by  stakes.  The 
next  trench  then  undergoes  the  same  operation,  and  so  on  to  the  end. 
Planted  in  this  manner  the  vine  produces  early,  but  is  not  of  long  dura- 
tion. 


830  FRUIT   CULTURE    IN   FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

(2)  Planting  by  staving  and  with  a  stake  or  bar. — Another  mode  gener- 
ally used  when  the  subsoil  approaches  the  surface  of  the  ground  and 
when  its  nature  renders  it  accessible  to  dampness,  were  it  not  broken 
up,  consists  in  turning  up  with  picks  the  subsoil  of  alios  or  clay  to  a 
depth  of  about  2  feet  and   mixing  it   with   good   earth  or  manure 
brought  for  that  purpose.     These  operations  being  over,  a  crowbar  is 
driven  into  the  ground  to  make  a  hole,  into  which  the  scion  is  placed, 
and  which  is  carefully  filled  up  with  earth  all  around  the  scion.     Some- 
times, in  order  to  increase  the  adherence  of  the  plant  to  the  ground,  it 
is  watered  with  a  kind  of  liquid  mud  or  manure. 

(3)  Planting  with  the  stake  or  bar. — This  mode  is  certainly  the  simplest 
and  most  economical,  but  can  be  employed  only  in  loose  earth  easily 
perforated  and  comparatively  fertile.     Pulverized  and  liquid  manure  is 
generally  employed  in  this  mode  of  planting.     It  consists  in  thoroughly 
plowing  and  harrowing  the  earth,  after  which  a  hole  is  made  with  an 
iron  bar.    This  hole  is  sometimes  enlarged  by  means  of  a  wooden  cone 
armed  with  an  iron  point  in  order  to  increase  the  quantity  of  manure 
given  to  the  plant. 

(4)  Planting  with  "araire"  or  plow. — This  mode,  which  is  one  of  the 
less  expensive,  can  only  be  used  in  deep  soil.    It  is  little  employed.    It 
consists  in  making  a  deep  furrow  by  means  of  the  plow  and  filling  in 
with  manure,  placing  the  plants  therein  and  covering  the  furrow. 

(5)  Planting  in  the  little  trench. — This  mode  has  been  for  along  time 
almost  entirely   given   up.      It  differed   slightly  with  the  preceding 
method  inasmuch  as  a  little  trench  one  foot  wide  and  one  and  one-half 
deep  was  dug  instead  of  a  furrow.    All  of  these  plantings  are  gener- 
ally made  in  the  months  of  February,  March,  and  April,  even  before, 
weather  permitting,  and  can  be  continued  up  to  the  middle  of  June,  on 
condition  that  the  plants  be  kept  under  ground  in  a  northern  direction, 
in  order  to  prevent  them  from  growing.     Finally  the  plant  is  set  up- 
right, earthed  up,  cut  at  the  third  knot  above  ground,  and  fastened  to 
a  little  stake. 

During  the  first  two  or  three  years  after  planting,  certain  vineyards 
of  Me"doc  are  tilled  six  times  yearly,  but  for  the  greatest  part  tillage 
takes  place  but  four  times  during  the  year.  The  young  vines  at  this 
period  require  particular  attention ;  they  must  be  freed  from  snkils  as 
much  as  possible,  and  each  year  the  plants  which  have  not  thrived  must 
be  replaced  by  layers.  If  among  the  plants  that  have  succeeded  there 
should  be  one  or  more  of  any  kind  not  wanted,  these  must  be  grafted. 
Grafting,  which  was  formerly  occasionally  employed  by  the  vine-growers, 
is  every  day  becoming  more  universal ;  since  the  invasion  of  the  phyl- 
loxera many  fine  plants  have  been  ingrafted  on  American  plants,  which 
resist  phylloxera. 

Situation  and  care. — For  the  ridges  there  are  no  fixed  directions ;  the 
slope  of  the  ground  is  previously  consulted,  in  order  to  facilitate  drain- 
age without  risk  of  the  subsoil  being  carried  away.  Some  vine-growers 


THE   VINE    IN   THE    GIRONDE.  831 

(when  the  ground  permits)  set  their  ridges  from  east  to  west,  asserting 
that  the  wind  and  hail  come  from  the  west;  by  this  method  the  first 
feet  of  each  row  alone  are  injured  ;  the  others,  affording  mutual  shelter 
to  one  another,  have  less  to  suffer.  It  is  noticeable  that  this  direction 
of  east  to  west  is  practicable  only  in  the  M6doc,  where  the  vines  are 
very  low,  because  the  shade  of  any  individual  plant  can  not  be.prVju- 
dicial  to  the  others  ;  nevertheless,  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  land 
is  not  evenly  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  sun,  which,  of  course,  is  not 
so  favorable.  Other  vine-growers  plant  in  the  direction  of  north  to 
south,  so  that  the  rays  of  the  sun  may  penetrate  into  the  vine  rows  as 
long  as  possible,  in  order  to  heat  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  fruit  in  a  more  equal  manner. 

The  soil,  according  to  its  condition,  is  tilled  from  two  to  four  times  a 
year,  either  by  plow  or  by  spade.  The  wages  of  laborers  having  doubled 
of  late  years,  the  plow  is  consequently  in  greater  use  in  most  of  the  vine- 
yard. 

When  the  vine  is  stripped  of  its  leaves  and  fruit  laborers  are  employed 
to  examine  each  vine  row,  in  order  to  weed  out  the  quick  or  dog  grass, 
which  is  very  destructive.  The  old  vine  plants  are  often  covered  with 
a  kind  of  moss  which  serves  as  a  refuge  for  crowds  of  injurious  insects 
to  the  vine.  Some  proprietors  take  the  precaution  to  destroy  them  dur- 
ing winter;  others  do  not  attach  the  same  importance  to  them.  Since 
the  appearance  of  the  new  disease  of  the  vine,  some  proprietors  have 
obtained  favorable  results  from  barking,  by  which  means  a  great  num- 
ber of  insects  and  their  eggs  can  be  destroyed,  including  those  of  the 
phylloxera. 

Another  part  of  the  winter  labor  consists  in  removing  .the  earth 
brought  by  the  plow  or  by  the  waters  into  the  u  capvirades,"  a  kind  of 
alley  made  between  the  rows  for  facilitating  the  running  of  water  and 
lor  allowing  sufficient  room  for  the  teams  to  turn. 

After  the  pruning,  which  should  take  place  as  late  as  possible,  on 
account  of  the  spring  frosts,  the  laths  and  decayed  stakes  are  replaced ; 
the  branches  or  hastes  are  then  fastened  by  means  of  a  kind  of  rush  to 
the  nearest  stave.  The  best  season  for  this,  as  the  hastes  have  frequently 
to  be  curved  or  bent,  is  when  the  sap  begins  to  ascend  into  the  branches, 
rendering  the  wood  pliant.  This  work  should  be  carefully  avoided  in 
dry  weather.  When  once  the  vine  is  in  good  condition  labor  com- 
mences. 

In  the  month  of  June  the  vine  is  nipped ;  that  is  to  say  the  sap  is 
stopped  from  going  into  the  "  suckers,"  thus  named  because,  though 
possessing  much  vigor,  they  notwithstanding  are  unfruitful.  The  shoots 
or  sprouts  appearing  on  the  old  wood  are  cut  off  (at  least,  those  not 
intended  to  become  fruit-bearing  branches).  In  July  the  vine  is  some- 
what freed  of  its  suckers,  in  order  that  the  air  may  circulate  round  the 
plant  and  that  the  grapes  may  be  better  exposed  to  the  solar  influence. 
This  also  facilitates  the  passage  of  the  plow. 


832        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

In  August  the  leaves  are  thinned.  This  work  does  not  take  place 
every  year  throughout  the  department,  particularly  in  those  vineyards 
which  only  produce  common  wine.  Great  attention  should  be  bestowed 
upon  this  work,  in  order  to  avoid  too  much  exposure  to  the  sun,  and  at 
the  same  time  aid  maturation. 

Pruning  is  certainly  the  most  important  operation  that  the  vine  claims 
from  its  care-takers.  On  this  depends  not  only,  in  a  great  measure,  the 
abundance  of  the  crop,  but  especially  the  health  of  the  plant.  It  takes 
place  generally  from  the  end  of  the  fall  of  the  leaf  until  the  commence- 
ment of  the  hard  frosts.  Before  this  period  the  wood  is  not  sufficiently 
ripe,  and  would  cause  the  loss  of  a  parb  of  the  sap.  Later  the  cicatrice 
arising  from  the  pruning  would  not  have  time  to  heal  up  before  the  sap 
ascends,  and  a  serious  flow  would  occur  in  spring.  For  some  years  past 
the  vines  have  been  considerably  tried  by  spring  frosts ;  it  has  there- 
fore been  judged  wise,  even  at  the  risk  of  losing  a  small  portion  of  the 
sap,  to  prune  as  late  as  possible,  in  order  to  retard  the  shoot.  This  is 
customary  in  the  Burgundy  vineyards. 

It  is  recommended  to  vine-dressers,  when  opera  ting,  to  have  with  them 
a  little  box  of  some  fatty  liquid,  and  to  put  a  little  of  such  on  each 
wound  made  by  the  pruning,  above  all  on  the  old  wood,  so  as  to  pro- 
tect it  from  the  changes  of  temperature,  which  often  cause  the  interior 
of  the  plant  to  decay.  The  pruning  is  conducted  in  two  fashions  :  with 
a  pruning-knife  or  with  vine-scissors ;  this  latter  instrument  is  very  ex- 
peditious. But  in  the  Medoc,  and  many  other  places,  they  prefer  the 
pruning-knife,  with  which  the  judicious  vine-dresser  carries  on  his  work 
better,  without  injuring  the  wood,  cutting  and  paring  here  and  there, 
where  he  thinks  fit  to  do  so,  making  incisions,  lifting  a  very  light  piece 
of  wood,  etc.  The  vine-shears  are  preferable  to  the  pruning-knife  when 
cutting  young  vines  which  have  no  thick  wood  to  take  up*.  I  shall  not 
undertake  here  a  treatise  on  the  pruning  of  the  vine,  or  an  appreciation 
of  the  different  modern  systems.  Such  details  would  require  a  volume, 
and  are  consequently  out  of  my  compass.  The  value  of  these  different 
systems  is  so  intimately  connected  with  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  its 
situation,  and  with  the  nature  and  vigor  of  the  plant,  that  I  can  not  go 
further  than  commending  practice,  observation,  and  intelligence  as  the 
best  guides  to  the  vine-dresser.  To  the  general  information  already 
given  I  may  add  the  following  fundamental  principles: 

Charge  the  vine  only  in  accordance  with  its  age  and  vigor ;  equalize 
the  burden  of  the  different  arms  of  the  vine,  so  that  one  side  should  not 
bear  all  the  sap  at  the  expense  of  the  other;  carefully  save  on  each 
plant  the  short  cuts  which  are  intended  to  become  fruit-bearing  branches 
for  the  next  year,  and  which,  being  low  shoots,  keep  down  the  vine, 
which  has  a  tendency  to  spring  up. 

In  theMe'doc  the  vine  is  planted  in  rows  which,  according  to  the  vine- 
yards, vary  between  180  to  300  feet  in  length;  the  latter  is  seldom  used, 
on  account  of  the  difficulty  of  transporting  manure,  gathering  the  grapes, 


THE  VINE  IN  THE  GIRONDE.  833 

etc.  In  certain  districts  tbo  rows  are  3  feet  apart ;  in  others,  a  little 
less.  The  plants  are  more  or  less  distant,  according  to  their  nature  and 
that  of  the  soil ;  this  distance  varies  from  3  to  4  feet.  The  trunk  of  the 
plant  is  from  6  to  8  inches  long,  and  fixed  to  a  little  stake  about  15 
inches  high  ;  laths  are  attached  to  the  tops  of  the  stakes,  and  to  the 
laths  are  fastened  the  two  arms  of  the  vine.  For  some  years  past  these 
wooden  laths  have,  in  several  vineyards,  been  profitably  replaced  by 
iron  wires.  This  system,  which  presents  great  advantages  above  all  in 
an  economical  point  of  view,  has  been  in  use  for  the  last  twenty-five 
years  by  Monsieur  Eichier,  the  inventor,  and  by  his  heirs,  in  all  of  their 
vast  vineyards. 

The  stakes  are  sometimes  of  pine,  but  more  generally  of  chestnut 
wood ;  the  latter  cost  from  $2.30  to  $2.70  the  thousand,  while  the  former, 
which  do  not  last  so  long,  cost  from  $1.35  to  $1.55.  The  laths  come  from 
the  west  of  the  Me"doc,  where  for  some  years  past  pines  have  been  grown 
on  a  large  scale.  When  delivered  at  the  vineyard  they  cost  from  $3.85 
to  $4.80  the  thousand. 

Pruning. — On  the  first  year  of  planting  the  vine  is  pruned  from  the 
two  eyes  nearest  to  the  ground.  The  second  year  the  process  is  per- 
formed in  the  same  manner.  The  third  year,  when  pruning,  three  or 
four  buds  are  left  untouched.  In  strong  earth  the  weaker  plants  are 
cropped  short ;  but  two  arms  are  left  to  the  most  vigorous  plants.  The 
fourth  year,  in  light  soils,  arrangements  are  commenced  for  establishing 
the  two  arms;  in  heavy  soil  this  operation  is  completed,  the  trunk  of 
the  vine  is  then  made  6  inches  high,  so  that  when  the  plant  is  earthed 
up  the  arms  start  almost  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the  ridge.  Special 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  arms  follow  the  direction  of  the  laths. 
The  vine  always  having  a  tendency  to  rise,  great  attention  is  paid  to 
save,  when  pruning,  the  short  cuts  which  are  intended  to  become  fruit- 
bearing  branches,  in  order  to  be  able  to  cut  off  the  old  wood  when  it 
becomes  too  long.  The  fruit-branches  are  chosen  from  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding year,  near  the  old  wood;  the  under  branch  is  chosen  by  prefer- 
ence, so  as  to  avoid  the  plant  rising  too  quickly. 

The  branches  are  allowed  13J  or  15  J  inches  in  length ;  they  are  fast- 
ened horizontally  to  the  lath  ;  this  is  intended^to  equalize  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  sap,  and  to  form  at  the  base  of  the  branches  a  proper  wood 
for  renewing  the  vine.  One,  two,  and  sometimes  more  of  the  last  buds 
of  the  branches  are  taken  off  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  shoots  pro- 
duced by  the  others,  and  to  facilitate  fastening.  As  soon  as  the  pruning 
is  over,  the  branches  gathered  up,  the  different  kinds  of  winter  work  con- 
cluded, such  as  the  clearing  of 'the  dog-grass  and  of  the  moss  covering 
the  trunks  of  the  old  vines,  the  transports  of  earth  conveyed  from  the 
alleys  to  the  middle  of  the  ridges,  and  the  vines  propped,  plowing 
commences.  Four  plowing*  are  made;  the  first  one  toward  the  end 
of  February  or  the  beginning  of  March.  The  object  of  this  is  to  "  open 
the  vine,'7  according  to  the  expression  of  the  countiy  j  that  is  to  say,  to 


834        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

uueartb  it;  but  as,  in  plowing  on  both  sides  of  a  row,  the  earth  can 
not  be  raised  between  each  plant,  women  pass  behind  the  plow  with  a 
hoe  to  take  up  the  earth  and  spread  it  in  the  middle  of  the  rows.  The 
second  plowing  generally  takes  place  in  the  middle  of  April,  with  a 
plow  of  a  peculiar  shape  called  "  bent."  Its  purpose  is  to  earth  up  the 
vine,  so  as  to  spread  about  the  foot  the  earth  taken  off  by  the  last 
plowing.  When  the  vines  are  young  or  surrounded  by  the  young 
plants,  a  woman  with  a  shovel  follows  the  plowman  and  lays  her 
shovel  between  the  plow  and  the  young  plants  or  layers,  so  as  to  avoid 
their  being  stifled  or  bent  by  the  earth.  The'  third  plowing  takes 
place  in  the  month  of  May,  before  the  flowering,  and  is  exactly  the  same 
as  the  first  one.  The  fourth  takes  place  at  the  end  of  June,  after  the 
flowering;  for  this  the  special  plow  called  the  "bent"  is  again  used. 
After  the  fourth  plowing,  women  or  children  pass  down  the  rows  to 
raise  the  young  bunches  which  are  sometimes  a  little  earthed  up.  It  is 
also  at  this  time  of  the  year  that  the  leaves  begin  to  be  thinned  more 
or  less,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  vegetation  and  to  the  tempera- 
ture. 

In  all  vineyards  a  constant  war  has  to  be  made  against  the  destruc- 
tive insects  which  swarm  in  them,  especially  snails.  Many  proprietors 
in  the  Me"doc  keep  for  this  purpose  hens  and  ducks,  which  go  into  the 
vineyards  to  feed  on  these  parasites ;  but  care  is  taken  to  remove  them 
in  due  time,  in  order  to  avoid  their  injuring  the  new  buds  or  attacking 
the  grapes. 

Expenses  of  culture. — The  expenses  of  culture  in  the  Me"doc  vary  ac- 
cording to  the  communes,  and,  above  all,  according  to  the  facilities  of 
working.  (1)  A  small  property  cultivated  by  the  hands  living  on  the 
place  has  hardly  any  expenses  beyond  the  keeping  of  the  vine-dresser 
and  his  family.  (2)  A  large  property  requires  a  manager,  with  fore- 
man, laborers,  vine-dressers,  etc.  (3)  A  middle-sized  one  is  cultivated 
by  the  proprietor,  who  hires  a  team  of  oxen  and  oversees  his  laborers. 
Each  of  these  properties  not  only  has  different  expenses  of  culture,  but 
obtains  different  prices  for  the  products. 

The  "prix-faitf  or  "  agreed  price,"  is  the  name  given  to  a  certain 
space  of  ground,  for  the  culture  of  which  the  price  has  been  agreed  in 
advance. 

Expenses  for  a  "prix-fait "  composed  of  24, 000  vines,  planted  about  1  yard  apart  and  occu- 
pying about  6  acres  of  land. 

The  following  necessary  expenses  attendant  on  the  vineyard  are  almost  invariable  : 

Manual  labor,  for  pruning,  binding,  lathing,  etc t $48.42 

Manual  labor,  for  clearing  away  the  dog-grass 4. 63 

Purchase  of  10,000  stakes,  at  $2.02  the  thousand 20.20 

Purchase  of  5,000  laths,  at  $3.86  the  thousand 19.30 

Purchase  of  10  sheaves  of  binding  reeds,  at  $1.16  each 11.60 

Four  plowings  and  a  winter  supplementary  plowing 52.11 

One  hundred  and  fifty  daysj  wages  to  the  women  for  raising  the  vines,  de- 
stroying the  insects,  unearthing  the  young  branches,  etc.,  at  19  cents 28. 50 


THE,  VINE    IN    THE    GIRONDE.  835 

Layers $7.72 

Expenses  of  vintage  of  Stuns,  at  $6.75 33.75 

Expenses  of  racking  and  other  coopers'  work 7.72 

Purchase  of  twenty  casks,  at  $3.47 69.40 

Expense  of  delivery  at  Bordeaux  for  4£  tuns 4.82 

303. 17 
Expenses  varying  according  to  the  nature  of  the  toil  and  according  to  the  proprietors. 

Sulphuring:  Labor  and  purchase 7.92 

Manuring  5,000  feet  a  year:  Manual  labor,  at  $2.70  the  1,000  feet 13. 51 

Purchase  of  manure  or  mold  :  92  cubic  yards,  at  $1.18 108.56 

Cleaning  of  the  trenches  and  vine- tracks,  hauling  earth,  etc 17. 37 

General  expenses  incumbent  on  the  vine  domain. 

Taxes,  duties,  etc 25.09 

Keeping  the  buildings  in  repair 9.65 

Overseeing  and  sundry  details 21.23 

Keeping   the  stock  in  good  order  (wine-vessels,  etc.,  wheelrights,   black- 
smiths, farriers,  etc.) . 19. 30 

Wear  and  tear  on  teams,  harness,  etc *  19.30 

Renewal  of  the  vineyard,  2  percent,  every  year 46.32 

Interest  on  advances,  six  months,  at  5  per  cent,  per  annum 14. 79 

Total  general 606.21 

Average  yearly  revenue,  supposing  the  sale  of  5  tuns  (20  casks)  of  wine  at 

vintage  time  at  $168.87  per  tun ... 844.35 

To  be  deducted : 

7  per  cent,  discount  and  brokerage $59.10 

3  per  cent,  waste  for  6  months 33.77 

_^___  no   Q"7 
«/<£•  O/ 


751.  48 

If  from  this  be  deducted  the  expenses  for  culture  ($606. 21),  there  remains  $145. 27, 
representing  the  net  yield  of  each  " prix~faittn  corresponding  to  about  6^  acres  (6.42), 
which  makes  $22.63  per  acre. 

If  a  vineyard  of  superior  table  claret  be  valued  at  $390.50  per  acre,  it 
will  be  found  that  it  yields  a  net  revenue  of  5.80  per  cent,  per  annum. 
Such  a  revenue  can  be  obtained  only  by  those  who  can  afford  to  appro- 
priate a  certain  amount  of  money  to  improve  the  estate.  A.  yearly  out- 
lay of  about  $485  per  acre  is  indispensable,  and  has  to  be  repeated  for 
several  consecutive  years  before  giving  any  profit,  because  the  harvest 
is  generally  sold  only  after  two  or  three  years,  in  order  to  give  the  wine 
sufficient  time  to  acquire  its  qualities  and  realize  a  fair  price. 

The  sum  of  $485  per  acre  is  overreached  in  some  of  the  famous  vine- 
yards of  the  Me"doc,  where  the  care  and  treatment  of  the  vines  and 
wines  are  almost  luxurious.  Extravagance  may  well  be  afforded  when 
the  wines  are  sold  from  $380  to  $580  the  tun  of  four  casks.  In  this  case 
the  capital  represented  by  the  vineyard  is  much  more  considerable  than 
the  foregoing  valuation,  and  the  price  o"f  the  land  rises  proportionately 


836  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

to  the  produce  of  the  vines  and  the  price  of  the  wines.  The  vineyards 
at  Chateau-Lafitte  are  valued  at  nearly  $4,700  per  acre.  On  the  other 
hand,  there  are  many  vineyards  in  the  Medoc — in  fact,  the  majority  of 
them — whose  wines  at  vintage  time  do  not  obtain  quite  an  average  of 
$168  per  tun.  Yet  most  of  those  vineyards  are  worth  $390  per  acre. 
In  fact,  good  management,  a  thorough  experience  in  the  matter,  and 
money  always  in  readiness,  are  indispensable  conditions  for  success. 

GEO.  W.  KOOSEVELT, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Bordeaux,  January  23, 1884. 


ITALY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  RICHMOND,  OF  ROMS. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41^.] 

The  vine  in  Italy  is  cultivated  on  the  plains,  in  the  valleys,  and  up  the 
sides  of  the  mountains  to  an  altitude  of  500  and  even  of  600  meters  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  On  Mount  Etna  the  cultivation  is  successfully  prose- 
cuted at  an  elevation  of  950  meters  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Along 
some  portions  of  the  coast  the  vineyards  are  brought  close  down  to  the 
edge  of  the  sea,  and  the  vines  are  planted  right  in  the  sand  deposited 
by  the  action  of  the  waves.  In  this  latter  case,  however,  it  has  been 
found  that  the  sea-breezes  are  often  hurtful  to  the  vines,  but  no  remedy 
has  ever  been  thought  of  to  combat  the  evil  effects  resulting  therefrom. 

The  Italians  cultivate  the  vine  in  vineyards,  which  are  exclusively 
devoted  to  that  end,  or  in  orchards  in  conjunction  with  other  fruits  and 
vegetables.  In  many  places  the  vines  are  only  allowed  to  reach  a  low 
growth,  and  are  not  supported  by  props,  while  in  others  they  attain  a 
medium  height,  and  are  supported  by  poles  or  trained  along  wires. 
When  trained  to  a  greater  height  they  are  attached  to  trees,  of  which 
latter  the  most  affected  for  the  purpose  are  the  black  poplar  (in  the 
Campagua),  the  white  poplar  (in  Tuscany),  and  the  elm  (in  ^Emilia). 
There  are  also  trellises  especially  adapted  for  the  training  of  grapes  in- 
tended for  table  use.  All  these  different  methods  of  vine-culture  are  to 
be  found  in  the  same  sections,  only  varying  with  the  different  conditions 
of  the  soil,  the  qualities  of  the  vines,  and  the  exigencies  of  the  wine 
trade. 

With  regard  to  the  soil,  it  may  be  stated  that  in  Italy  the  vine  is 
cultivated  pretty  much  everywhere.  But  there  are  certain  qualities  of 
soil  which  are  more  favorable  than  others  to  secure  a  desirable  result 
as  to  quality  and  quantity  of  crop.  The  most  productive  vines  are  those 
growing  in  localities  subject  to  inundations,  and  the  best  quality  of  wine 
is  produced  by  the  vineyards  planted  in  light  gravel  soil  of  the  hills, 


T1IK    VINE    IN    ITALY.  837 

containing  a  certain  quantity  of  oxide  of  iron.  In  porous  volcanic  soil 
the  grape  is  of  excellent  quality,  and  the  wine  obtained  from  the  growth 
on  chalky  soil  is  very  highly  esteemed.  The  best  Chianti  wine  comes 
from  a  slaty  soil  of  reddish  color,  containing  a  certain  percentage  of 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  in  the  hilly  districts  there  is  considerable  chalky 
soil  not  adaptable  to  any  other  use  than  that  of  viticulture.  In  the 
majority  of  the  vineyards  where  the  custom  is  to  plant  the  vines  in 
rows,  and  train  them  on  trees,  the  intervening  spaces  are  cultivated  in 
the  usual  rotations  of  planting,  but  care  is  taken  to  avoid  such  growths 
as  might  be  incompatible  with  the  successful  development  of  the  vine. 
In  low-growing  vineyards,  however,  no  other  culture  is  ever  prose- 
cuted. 

It  is  not  generally  customary  to  irrigate  the  vine,  although  it  is  some- 
times done  with  marked  success.  Drainage  is  always  carefully  provided 
for  in  the  vineyards. 

The  average  yield  of  wine  to  the  hectare  may  be  set-  down  as  14.29 
hectoliters.  The  yield  in  Veneto  is  only  10  hectoliters,  but  in  Pied- 
mont it  reaches  23.07  hectoliters  to  the  hectare. 

The  cost  and  mode  of  planting  vineyards  vary  considerably  according, 
to  locality.  In  Yiterbo  the  vines  are  planted  some  18,000  to  the  hectare, 
and  are  trained  on  poles  at  an  outlay  of  1,823.58  lire  to  the  hectare,  for 
the  first  four  years,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance  averages  383.03  lire, 
while  the  average  yield  to  the  hectare  is  33  quintals  of  grapes.  At  Bari, 
in  Altamura,  the  vine  is  cultivated  without  props,  and  the  cost  of  plant- 
ing 6,200  vines  to  the  hectare  is  1,215.24  lire,  the  annual  cost  of  mainten- 
ance is  266.86  lire,  and  the  average  yield  per  hectare  is  25  quintals  of 
grapes.  In  Tuscany  the  vine  is  also  cultivated  without  props  5  the 
planting  per  hectare  costs  2,518  lire;  annual  cost  of  maintenance,  466.12 
lire,  average  yield  49.50  quintals  to  the  hectare. 

LEWIS  RICHMOND, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL,  Consul- General. 

Rome,  April  1,  1884. 


TUSCANY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL    WELSH,  OF  FLORENCE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41$.] 

To  the  cultivation  of  oranges,  lemons,  and  figs  little  or  no  attention 
is  given  in  Tuscany.  More  attention  is  paid  in  Tuscany  to  vine  culture 
than  to  that  of  olives,  inasmuch  as  the  grape- vine  is  less  delicate,  and 
withstands  better  the  severity  of  climate  and  variety  of  soil.  Except- 
ing in  some  mountainous  regions,  it  may  be  said  that  the  grape  is  culti- 
vated all  over  Tuscany. 

To  enumerate  the  different  vines  of  Tuscany  would  take  up  too  much 
space.  For  the  province  of  Florence  alone  there  are  about  150  different 


838        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

varieties  grown,  of  which  two-thirds  (or  100)  produce  raisins  and  grapes 
for  table  use,  and,  with  the  others,  the  grapes  are  made  into  wine. 

The  systems  of  cultivation  are  not  less  numerous  than  the  varieties 
of  vines.  There  are  vines  disposed  in  the  French  system,  trained  low 
and  in  rows  .at  a  meter  (3  feet  3  inches)  distance  one  from  the  other, 
supported  by  iron  wire  or  stakes;  low  vines  placed  in  rows  on  the 
edges  of  fields;  vines  stretched  between  maple  trees,  elm  trees,  or 
poplar  trees ;  low  vines  in  rows  over  the  trees,  and  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Pistoia  and  Lucca  many  vine  arbors. 

Vines  are  reproduced  sometimes  with  sprigs,  but  generally  by  shoots 
left  free  for  two  years  in  the  ground,  which  should  be  well  dug  at  the 
commencement  and  end  of  each  summer.  The  third  year  the  shoots  are 
dressed  and  the  most  vigorous  selected.  Two  or  three  years  later  the 
vines  are  affixed  to  stakes  and  the  year  following  the  grapes  appear. 
Ditches  measuring  1.20  meters  (4  feet)  in  width  and  depth  are  dug  for 
planting  vines  at  a  distance  varying  from  60  to  70  centimeters  (2  feet) 
for  rows  with  low  vines,  the  distance  being  less  on  the  hillside  than  in 
the  plains. 

At  Val  di  Nievole,  in  the  middle  of  a  field  surrounded  by  vines,  a 
row  of  mulberry  trees  is  always  to  be  found,  and  on  the  sea-coasts  of  the 
Lucchese  olive  trees  are  to  be  seen  along  the  edges  and  rows  of  vines 
in  the  interior  of  the  fields.  Olives  and  vines  are  often  grown  together. 

The  pruning  of  the  vine  is  done  before  or  after  wiuter.  For  vines 
united  to  trees,  two  systems  of  pruning  are  in  use,  viz  piegatoio,  or 
tralciaia,  and  penzana,  or  catena.  The  former  is  the  most  common,  and 
consists  in  twisting  two  vigorous  shoots,  to  which  twenty  or  more  cuts 
have  been  made,  and  tied  to  a  supporting  branch  with  the  extremity 
turned  down.  For  the  latter  the  shoots  are  preserved  much  longer, 
twisted  with  another  vine  and  supported  by  another  stake.  Low  vines 
»re  usually  pruned  on  the  system  "  cornetto,"  viz,  with  two,  three,  or 
^bur  cuts,  according  to  the  variety,  and  while  growing  they  require  the 
taking  off  of  the  tops  of  the  shoots,  they  being  tied  to  a  stake  whenever 
vhey  are  50  or  60  centimeters  £1  foot  8  inches  or  2  feet)  long,  and  tied 
itgain  when  they  have  reached  the  height  of  the  stake;  and  finally 
^wisting  the  extremities  of  one  vine  with  another,  so  as  to  make  an  arch, 
which  last  operation  is  made  when  the  grape  is  already  completely 
formed.  In  the  vineyards  managed  according  to  the  French  system  the 
Noil  is  spaded  in  the  spring,  and  also  in  August,  and  each  year  well  ma- 
nured. The  vine  thrives  throughout  all  Italy,  needing  a  sunny  expo- 
sure in  northern  Italy,  while  in  the  middle  and  the  south  it  thrives 
oqually  well  in  valley,  table,  or  hill-side  lauds,  but  prefers  a  rough  soil, 
Jar  from  moist  or  foggy  localities,  and  avoiding  ground  excessively  com- 
pact or  clayey.  Stony  soil,  if  sufficiently  watered,  is  well  adapted  to 
vine  culture. 

WM.  L.  WELSH, 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE,  Consul, 

Florence,  March  17,  1884. 


THE    VINE    IN    VENETIA.  831) 

VENETIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  NOTES. 

[Repnblislied  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41$.] 

CLIMATE  AND  FRUIT-GROWING  IN  ITALY. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  soil  and  climate  of  Venice  seem  specially 
favorable  to  the.  fruit  of  southern  regions,  and  while  in  fact  almost  every 
species  of  such  fruit  may  be  produced  in  some  specially  favored  spot  of 
its  territory,  even  the  palm  tree  flourishing  unsheltered  at  certain  well- 
known  points  of  the  Riviera,  yet  this  is  far  from  being  a  tropical  country; 
and  when  it  is  remembered  that  Naples  has  almost  exactly  the  latitude 
of  New  York,  that  Venice  lies  farther  north  than  Halifax  and  nearly  on 
a  line  with  Mackinaw,  regions  where  fruit-culture  of  any  kind  is  rather 
precarious  than  otherwise,  it  will  be  evident  that  with  all  allowance  for 
the  isothermic  variations  of  the  two  continents,  the  success  of  such  semi- 
tropical  fruits  as  oranges,  lemons,  and  olives  must  always  be  partial, 
and  dependent  rather  on  exceptional  advantages  of  situation  than  on 
the  normal  conditions  of  the  country  and  climate. 

That  vegetation  so  foreign  to  the  latitude  should  find  a  congenial 
home  in  Italy  is  mainly  due  to  the  topographical  peculiarities  of  the 
region,  as  is  proved  by  the  abrupt  transition  in  crossing  the  Adriatic  to 
the  inhospitable  climate  of  the  Balkans.  The  semicircle  of  the  Alps, 
shutting  out  the  vicissitudes  of  temperature  caused  by  the  action  of 
frost  and  thaw  on  the  plains  of  Northern  Europe,  leaves  these  narrow 
shores  only  open  to  the  genial  rays  of  the  southern  sun,  and  to  winds 
charged  with  the  heat  of  Africa  and  the  moisture  of  the  intervening 
sea.  The  influence  of  these  exceptionally  favorable  conditions  is  strik- 
ingly illustrated  by  the  fact  that  while  the  orange  and  lemon  are  in 
their  natural  element  only  in  Sicily,  the  point  where,  after  Gibraltar, 
Europe  approaches  nearest  the  coast  of  Africa,  yet,  strangely  enough, 
the  only  other  locality  where  their  production  becomes  a  profitable  in- 
dustry is  found  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  kingdom  and  almost 
in  the  heart  of  the  Alps.  All  travelers  are  familiar  with  the  olive  plan- 
tations of  Northern  Tuscany  and  the  Eiviera  of  Genoa.  The  oil  of 
Lucca  is  proverbial  for  its  excellence,  due  evidently,  with  the  prosperity 
of  all  this  favored  region,  to  the  redoubled  barrier  of  the  Apennines,  a 
protection  not  only  from  the  rude  climate  of  Northern  Europe,  but  from 
the  chilly  influence  of  the  Alpine  snows  as  well,  maintaining  here  per- 
petual spring  even  when  winter  reigns  on  their  sheltering  heights 

VINE-GROWING  IN  VENETIA. 

The  vine,  on  the  contrary,  thrives  anywhere  with  the  luxuriance  of  a 
native  product,  finding  all  its  requirements  satisfied  by  the  relative 
warmth  which  barely  suffices  for  more  sensitive  plants,  and  finding,  be- 
156A 29 


840        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

sides,  in  the  volcanic  origin  of  much  of  the  Italian  soil  the  elements  best 
suited  to  nourish  its  vigorous  growth.  This  natural  adaptation,  and  the 
extreme  facility  with  which  it  lends  itself  to  every  situation  and  every 
mode  of  treatment,  have,  by  allowing  the  persistence  of  antiquated 
methods  of  cultivation,  almost  as  effectually  as  the  difficulty  of  succeed- 
ing with  the  more  exotic  plant,  maintained  the  present  imperfect  and 
unsatisfactory  state  of  the  industry.  Until  very  recently  no  efforts  have 
been  made  to  improve  the  stock  of  vines  or  the  appliances  and  processes 
for  the  manufacture  of  wine,  and  no  standard  types  exist  to  fix  any  per- 
manent character  for  the  one  or  the  other.  The  plants  change  their  na- 
ture and  name  as  they  change  their  locality ;  the  same  product  bearing 
different  names,  or  the  same  name  applying  to  different  varieties  in  neigh- 
boring regions,  while  the  quality  of  the  wine  depends  on  the  accidents  of 
the  season  and  the  chances  of  unintelligent  manipulation.  Including 
all  the  slight  variations  caused  by  climate  and  situation,  and  known 
only  by  their  rustic  names,  some  125  varieties  of  red  and  70  of  white, 
grapes  are  counted  in  the  territory,  mostly  belonging  to  the  species 
Vitis  Vinifera,  a  few  to  the  Vitis  silvestris. 

ISLAND  AND  LAGOON  VINEYARDS. 

Of  these,  several  of  the  sweeter  and  more  delicate  kinds,  cultivated 
on  the  Lido  and  islands  of  the  lagoon,  are  abundant  in  the  market  of 
Venice ;  but  this  very  abundance  and  cheapness  would  make  it  seem 
here  an  idle  superfluity  to  prepare  them  as  conserves  for  commerce,  and 
nothing  of  the  kind  is  thought  of.  Besides  that,  being  the  lightest  and 
least  alcoholic  of  Italian  grapes,  it  is  doubtful  whether  they  possess  the 
strength  and  flavor  desirable  for  the  purpose. 

The  existence  of  these  vineyards,  surrounded  by  the  sea,  arid  often  so 
low-lying  that  they  must  be  defended  from  the  invasion  of  unusually 
high  tides,  as  well  as  the  abundance  and  excellence  of  their  product,  is 
sufficient  assurance  that  the  situation  causes  them  no  prejudice.  It 
seems,  however,  to  deprive  them  of  the  vigorous  flavor  necessary  to  a 
good  wine-grape ;  and  for  the  small  quantity  of  wine  fabricated  at  Venice 
is  generally  used  the  fruit  of  the  neighboring  mainland.  For  this  pur- 
pose the  hill-side  growth  has  a  traditional  superiority  well  established 
here,  as  in  all  vine-growing  countries.  I 

The  plants  employed  in  these  island  vineyards  are  none  other  than 
the  choicer  varieties  common  to  the  surrounding  country.  The  Marze- 
mena  or  Lugliatico  (the  Balsa mina  of  the  Kornans)  is  a  vine  of  medium 
growth  and  extension,  the  leaves  indented  to  one-third  of  their  width, 
with  branches  of  moderate  size,  and  grapes  quite  round,  deep-colored, 
and  extremely  sweet.  Inland  it  thrives  best  in  the  valleys  and  along 
the  foot  of  the  hills,  and  is  used  to  color  and  sweeten  the  finest  wines, 
but  is  too  poor  in  tannin  and  salts  to  suffice  alone.  The  Pignola  (Pig- 
nola  rossa  of  Tuscany),  much  resembling  the  above,  but  more  robust  in 
flavor,  is  prized  in  mixtures  for  its  large  proportion  of  salts.  The  Ver- 


THE    VINE    IN   VENETIA.  841 

diso  and  Bianchetto  are  the  commonest  of  white  grapes  throughout  North- 
ern Italy,  and  need  no  description.  Besides  these  varieties,  evidently 
of  the  ordinary  stock,  the  red  and  white  Muscadel  are  abundant,  with 
larger  and  more  oval  fruit,  of  a  decided  musky  flavor,  called  the  Fragola 
(strawberry)  grape  by  the  Venetians,  and  a  certain  quantity  of  the 
small,  deep-colored  fruit  of  the  wild  species,  in  long,  close  bunches,  with 
the  pungent  sweetness  everywhere  familiar. 

The  absence  of  trees  and  want  of  space  on  the  diminutive  islands 
where  these  grapes  are  grown  have  made  close  cultivation  a  necessity. 
The  vines  are  planted  4  and  5  feet  from  each  other,  in  rows  about  3 
yards  apart,  and  trained  on  gratings  of  lattice,  slanted  from  about  5  feet 
9  inches,  the  height  of  a  man,  to  within  2J  feet  of  the  ground,  or  else 
on  upright  espaliers  or  trellises  around  the  inclosures  or  on  the  banks 
of  the  numerous  canals  and  ditches  which  intersect  these  amphibious 
gardens  in  every  direction.  The  plants  are  tended  with  the  care  and 
attention  of  the  market  gardener,  and  so  far  have  been  free  from  ail 
the  prevalent  diseases  of  the  vine. 

The  nature  of  the  climate  is  a  sufficient  guaranty  against  any  risk 
of  injury  to  the  fruit  from  sea-fogs  and  mists,  the  long  summer  heats 
and  frequent  droughts  being  the  dangers  most  to  be  apprehended,  and 
often  compromising  the  success  of  crops  of  every  kind.  Fogs  are  rare 
at  all  times,  and  during  the  season  of  vegetation  absolutely  unknown, 
while  tbe  ordinary  evening  mist  from  the  water  does  not  prevail  till  late 
in  autumn,  when  the  sun,  sinking  early  toward  the  horizon,  loses  some- 
what of  its  dissipating  power.  The  rare  wet  seasons  cause  an  occa- 
sional falling  off  by  preventing  the  full  maturity  of  the  grapes,  but  the 
permanent  enemy  is  drought,  which  the  vine  certainly  fears  less  than 
many  other  plants. 

VINEYARDS  ON  THE  MAINLAND. 

On  the  mainland  the  plan  is  far  from  receiving  the  same  careful  and 
rational  treatment.  Every  traveler  has  been  charmed  with  the  grace- 
ful luxuriance  of  the  vine-mantled  trees  which  border  the  routes  of 
Northern  Italy  with  their  interminable  festoons,  and  overrun  the  coun- 
try, making  it  an  ideal  picture  of  exuberant  vegetation,  but  an  example 
of  the  worst  possible  farming,  say  the  specialists.  From  time  immemo- 
rial the  Venetian  cultivator  has  imitated  the  simple  arrangement  of 
nature  in  marrying  the  vine  to  its  primitive  support,  and  the  best  proof 
of  the  inexhaustible  fertility  of  the  region  is  the  fact  that  with  such  a 
system  he  succeeds  in  producing  delicious  grapes  and  passable  wine. 
Efforts  are  made  to  introduce  vineyard  culture,  but  the  want  of  capital 
or  impatience  for  hasty  gain  still  prevails,  and  in  the  Valpolicella  dis- 
trict of  Verona,  where  the  choicest  of  Venetian  wine  is  made,  the  old 
system  is  universal,  while  in  Conegliano  some  of  the  new  plantations 
commenced  under  the  auspices  of  the  school  there  have  been  torn  up, 
and  the  number  of  vineyards  has  rather  diminished  during  the  past  ten 


842        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

years.    The  practice  is  the  same  for  fruit  or  wine  grapes,  and  the  same 
varieties  serve  indifferently  for  both. 

In  this  double  cultivation  the  sustaining  trees  are  planted  some  time 
previously,  with  the  same  regularity  as  the  vines,  from  3  to  10  yards 
from  each  other,  and  in  rows  from  10  to  30  yards  apart,  according  to  soil 
and  situation,  much  deeper  if  possible,  also,  to  avoid  the  interference  of 
their  root  as  well  as  to  lessen  the  drain  on  the  soil  to  the  prejudice  of 
the  vines.  The  ash,  maple,  and  cherry  are  generally  preferred  for  the 
purpose,  as  less  impervious  to  the  sun,  on  the  hill ;  the  maple,  elm,  and 
poplar  in  the  plain.  After  reaching  the  height  of  6  feet,  all  the  vigor 
of  the  young  tree  is  confined  by  pruning  it  to  three  or  four  of  its  most 
robust  branches. 

PLANTING  AND  CULTIVATING  THE  VINES. 

The  vine  (and  the  methods  of  cultivation  are  given  here  with  some 
detail,  as  they  are  the  same  substantially  for  all  sorts  of  vines  and  in 
all  parts  of  the  territory)  is  reproduced  from  slips  (magliuoli)  carefully 
chosen  from  the  best  individuals,  well  furnished  with  buds,  and  cut  near 
the  middle  of  the  bearing  trunk  with  a  small  portion  of  the  wood  at- 
tached. Before  planting,  these  slips  are  subjected  to  a  sort  of  macera- 
tion, exposed  to  the  sun  with  their  lower  ends  immersed  in  running  water. 
This  softening  process  predisposes  them  to  take  root  and  bud  more 
promptly.  They  are  then  planted  by  some  cultivators  in  a  nursery  for 
two  or  three  years,  but  most  generally  on  their  permanent  locality,  to 
allow  the  young  vine  to  adapt  itself  at  once  to  the  soil  in  which  it  is  to 
grow.  The  furrow  is  commonly  2  or  3  yards  wide  and  half  a  yard  deep, 
shallower  in  light  and  loose  earth,  but  a  compact  or  clayey  soil  should 
be  broken  as  deeply  as  possible.  At  the  bottom  are  often  placed  large 
stones  or  fascines  of  osier,  a  sort  of  rough  sewerage  to  aid  a  freer  cir- 
culation of  air  and  moisture.  On  rocky  hillsides  it  is  also  a  means  of 
economizing  the  scanty  supply  of  vegetable  earth.  These  furrows 
should  be  opened  and  well  broken  up  some  time  beforehand,  in  autumn 
if  possible,  since  the  soil  gains  in  quality  by  the  action  of  air,  sun,  and 
frost. 

The  planting  takes  place  with  the  opening  of  spring — from  the  middle 
of  February  to  the  1st  of  April.  The  slips  are  placed  four  or  $ve  on 
each  side  and  at  9  inches  to  1  foot  from  the  tree,  disposing  them  in  the 
best  position  to  take  root  easily  $  and  covering  lightly  at  first  with  fresh 
soil  and  manure  or  vegetable  refuse,  to  be  filled  up  afterward  with  earth 
improved  by  exposure,  according  to  the  progress  of  the  season,  till  the 
surface  is  leveled  or  the  plant  properly  imbedded ;  rapidly  in  the  plain, 
more  gradually  on  the  hillside,  where  the  spring  rains  would  soon  wash 
away  the  unsolid  mass,  while  on  the  contrary  the  cavity,  aided  by  a 
little  support  of  stories  below,  retains  and  profits  by  whatever  they  may 
bring  from  above. 

The  choicest  and  best  cultivated  vines  of  the  region,  those  qf  the 


THE   VINE    IN   VENETIA.  843 

Valpolicella,  often  require  to  be  terraced  thus  with  a  succession  of  sus- 
taining walls,  and  are  in  such  localities  so  closely  planted  that  in  a  few 
years  the  tendrils  are  festooned  not  only  from  plant  to  plant  but  from 
row  to  row — a  thing  never  permitted  in  the  plain,  where  this  cross- 
festooning  would  obstruct  plowing  for  other  crops  in  the  intervening 
spaces. 

Generally  both  the  vine  and  its  support  are  pruned  low  and  only  al- 
lowed to  spread  horizontally,  the  vine,  as  it  extends  beyond  its  sus- 
taining limbs,  being  led  over  their  forks  and  left  pendent  till  long 
enough  to  be  attached  by  its  extremities  to  those  of  a  neighboring 
plant;  more  rarely  bound  to  upper  limbs  it  mounts  to  the  height  of  the 
tree,  since  at  a  certain  distance  from  the  earth  it  loses  its  vigor  and  steril- 
izes. At  Valpolicella,  the  sustaining  plant,  after  reaching  the  neces- 
sary size  and  force,  is  often  killed,  that  it  may  no  longer  rob  the  vine 
of  its  nutriment. 

During  the  earlier  period  of  its  growth  the  vine  is  pruned  rigorously 
to  confine  its  vigor  to  the  portion  by  which  it  attaches  itself  to  the  tree, 
lopping  all  but  the  clinging  tendrils.  Afterwards  the  practice  is  to  re- 
trench the  higher  shoots  and  force  it  to  bear  as  low  as  possible,  remov- 
ing at  the  same  time  those  which  have  borne  for  one  or  more  years,  the 
better  to  re-enforce  those  intended  to  bear  the  succeeding  year.  Accord- 
ing to  treatment  and  situation,  the  vine  begins  to  give  a  profitable  crop 
at  from  three  to  six  years. 

VARIETIES  OF  GRAPE. 

Of  the  200  or  more  indistinct  varieties,  confusedly  attributed  to  the 
various  districts  of  the  territory,  not  more  than  25  are  cultivated  to  any 
extent  or  furnish  a  product  of  commercial  value. 

The  principal  of  these  for  the  district  of  Verona,  the  base  and  sub- 
stance of  its  most  generous  wine,  is  the  Corvina,  a  close-growing  viue, 
whose  branches,  with  little  tendency  to  spread,  are  thickly  budded  and 
bear  an  unusual  abundance  of  rather  small  fruit  in  pyramid-shaped 
clusters.  This  grape  is  specially  rich  in  all  the  elements  for  vinification, 
saccharine,  saline,  coloring,  and  tannic,  and  is  at  its  best  along  the  bases 
of  the  hills  and  in  the  upper  valleys.  On  higher  ground  it  changes  its 
character  somewhat,  with  lighter  and  longer  branches ;  the  fruit  is  less 
crowded  and  abundant,  extremely  sweet,  and  delicious  for  table  use. 
As  a  rule,  the  red  varieties  succeed  better  on  the  hillside,  the  white  in 
the  valley,  and  the  same  plant  removed  to  a  higher  level  changes  more 
or  less,  the  fruit  becoming  rarer  and  smaller,  but  more  concentrated  in 
quality,  while  both  it  and  the  stems  take  a  deeper  color.  This  altera- 
tion the  cultivators  call  u  ingentilire?  The  Corvina  is  the  only  grape 
capable  of  producing  superior  wine  alone  and  without  mixture,  though 
to  heighten  its  excellent  qualities  it  generally  figures  only  for  45  to  50 
per  cent,  in  the  best  fabrication. 

Next  in  value  is  the  Terodola,  a  plant  more  spreading  than  the  above, 


844        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

with  deeply  serrated  leaves,  small  but  well-furnished  bunches  of  round, 
thick-skinned,  and  very  black  grapes ;  affects  the  same  localities  with 
the  Corvina,  and  makes  strong,  high-flavored  wine,  improved  by  mix- 
ture with  the  last  named  and  others,  where  it  serves  best  in  the*propor- 
tion  of  20  per  cent. 

After  these  superlative  products  come  the  Rossignola,  choice,  also,  but 
very  delicate ;  thrives  only  in  the  best  exposures,  always  the  first  at- 
tacked by  epidemics,  and  requires  constant  sulphuration. 

The  Schiavo,  a  strong-limbed  and  vigorous  plant,  abounding  with  fruit; 
only  tolerable  for  wine,  but  excellent  for  the  table. 

The  Lambrusea  grows  wild  in  Tuscany;  improved  by  culture  and 
properly  qualified  by  mixture  gives  superior  wine ;  and  the  Marzemina, 
indifferent  for  wine,  delicious  for  eating. 

Among  white  varieties,  the  Bigolona  and  Durassena,  gathered  ex- 
tremely ripe  and  concentrated  by  drying,  both  make  an  exquisite  des- 
sert wine,  the  Vino  Santo,  so  called  because  the  grapes  may  be  kept,  and 
sometimes  are  not  brought  to  press  till  Holy  Week. 

The  Montenara  and  Torbiana  are  preserved  more  exclusively  for  the 
table  during  the  winter. 

Most  of  the  white  varieties  may  be  kept  and  improve  in  flavor  by  dry- 
ing till  the  approach  of  spring.  For  this  purpose  the  clusters  are  laid 
on  a  grating  or  hung  from  the  ceiling  in  a  well  aired  situation — a  pro- 
cess as  old  and  as  well-known  as  the  grape  itself. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  make  special  mention  of  the  grape  cultiva- 
tion in  other  parts  of  the  territory,  where  the  same  varieties  in  less  fa- 
vorable conditions  are  produced  with  less  perfection.  The  whole  range 
of  country  along  the  foot  of  the  Alps  is  fertile  in  abundant  and  excel- 
lent fruit. 

At  Conegliano,  to  the  north  of  Venice,  as  mentioned  in  my  last  an- 
nual report,  the  soil  and  situation  are  exceptionally  well  adapted  for 
the  culture,  and  a  school  has  been  established,  aided  by  state  and  pro- 
vincial subvention,  for  promoting  more  rational  and  efficient  methods. 
The  soil  here  is  the  most  decidedly  calcareous  to  be  found  in  the  terri- 
tory, derived  from  the  disaggregation  of  the  masses  of  dolomite  and 
oolithic  limestone  of  the  mountains  above,  and  from  extensive  beds  of 
marl  lower  down,  largely  mixed  with  fragments  of  the  underlying  por- 
phyry, quartz,  and  granite.  Where  this  soil  rests  on  strata  of  loose 
conglomerate,  as  is  generally  the  case  here,  the  vine  finds  a  congenial 
situation. 

Here,  to  the  contrary  of  Yerona,  the  white  wines  succeed  best.  The 
Verdiso  and  Bianchetto  have  much  local  reputation,  and,  properly  ma- 
nipulated, make  a  good  foaming  wine  of  unusual  body  and  flavor.  The 
Prosecco,  Pignola,  and  Baschero  are  also  excellent,  and  are  largely  con- 
sumed in  Venice  and  the  surrounding  country,  though  their  want  of 
alcoholic  force  prevents  exportation  to  any  great  extent 


THE    VINE    IN    VENETIA.  845 

The  rod  wines  of  the  Rabosa  and  Sch<'un>  are  also  a  permanent  staple 
in  the  consumption  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  territory,  and  all  are  ex- 
cellent for  table  use,  being  cultivated  along  with  others  for  the  exclusive 
purpose. 

In  proceeding  westward  the  soil,  with  the  constant  predominance  of 
the  calcareous  element,  but  with  a  larger  admixture  of  scoriae  and  vol- 
canic matter,  lends  itself  to  the  production  of  stronger  and  richer  qual- 
ities both  of  fruit  and  wine.  This  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  ex- 
treme westward  districts  of  the  territory,  where  the  hills  of  Verona  are 
almost  exclusively  composed  of  the  detritus  of  Cretaceous  strata,  mingled 
with  quartz  and  the  disaggregation  of  basalt  and  friable  basaltic  tufa. 
The  vine  prospers  everywhere,  varying  with  the  differences  of  the  region ; 
sweet  but  light  and  watery  on  the  limestone  of  the  plain ;  deep-colored, 
strong,  and  aromatic  on  the  basaltic  hills  to  the  east  j  rough  and  tonic 
on  the  glacial  accumulations  beyond  the  Adige. 

INTERCROP  CULTIVATION  IN  VINEYARDS. 

The  practice  of  cultivating  for  other  crops  the  spaces  between  the 
vines  is  universal;  in  fact,  the  vine  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  any  dis- 
tinct apportionment,  but  rather  to  be  superadded  as  the  necessary 
garniture  of  every  field,  which,  regardless  of  its  presence,  is  tilled  in  all 
respects  according  to  the  ordinary  agricultural  routine  of  the  country, 
and  this  double  culture  only  fails  where  the  situation  is  so  precipitous  or 
so  bare  as  to  make  any  product  but  that  of  the  vine  out  of  the  question. 

PROFITS    OF  VINE   CULTURE. 

According  to  situation  and  treatment,  the  vine  begins  to  become 
profitable  at  about  three  years,  and  is  in  full  bearing  at  six. 

Throughout  the  Venetian  provinces  in  strong  contrast  with  those  of 
Lombardy,  artificial  irrigation  is  little  developed ;  in  several  it  is  al- 
most unknown,  and  where  it  exists  is  much  more  in  request  for  meadow 
and  other  culture.  The  vine,  intermingled  with  other  crops,  may  re- 
ceive an  interloper's  share  of  the  common  benefit,  but  the  localities 
which  it  prefers,  as  well  as  the  nature  of  the  plant,  mostly  place  it 
without  the  scope  of  any  special  arrangement  for  the  purpose.  Occu- 
pying, besides,  no  special  place  in  the  apportionment  of  the  farm,  its 
balance  of  outlay  and  return  is  always  liable  to  be  confounded  with 
the  general  mass  of  operations  for  the  year,  while  the  selling  price  of  its 
product  differing  more  widely  with  slight  shades  of  real  merit,  and  often 
depending  on  an  artificial  or  fanciful  value  of  appreciation,  the  ordinary 
calculations  of  commerce  are  not  easily  adjusted  to  it.  Estimates  vary 
greatly  in  official  as  well  as  professional  publications.  The  following 
data,  however,  are  the  most  detailed  that  I  have  been  able  to  procure, 
and  may  represent  oue  of  the  most  successful  and  best-conducted  vine- 
yards of  Verona : 


846  FRUIT    CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

Expense  per  acre  for  harrowing,  hoeing,  etc - $4.80 

Expense  per  acre  for  manuring 3.20 

Expense  per  acre  for  pruning,  osiers  and  stakes 3. 60 

Expense  per  acre  for  leafing 40 

Expense  per  acre  for  sulphur 2.40 

Expense  per  acre  for  gathering 96 

Expense  per  acre  for  "bringing  in 40 

Total-..                                                                                                                  .  15.76 


Product,  1,200  kilograms  of  grapes,  at  .04 48.00 

To  illustrate  the  extraordinary  differences  of  return  to  which  the  in- 
dustry is  subject,  independently  of  outlay  or  treatment,  an  estimate 
purporting  to  represent  facts  may  be  cited  from  a  parliamentary  return 
on  the  subject.  The  comparison  is  limited  to  a  parcel  of  60  vines  mar- 
ried to  15  trees,  and  provided  each  with  5  additional  sustaining  stakes, 
and  the  expense  incurred,  in  each  case  the  same,  is : 

300  stakes,  at  2  cents  each _•_ $6.00 

Pruning  (6  days' work) 1.20 

Sulphur  (30  kilograms,  at  5  cents) 1.50 

Sulphnration  (2  days'  work) , 40 

Vintage  (10  days' work) 1.60 

Total..  .  10.79 


MAXIMUM  PRODUCT. 

3,532  pounds  of  grapes $46.40 

444  pounds  of  wood 1.19 

Total 47.59 

MINIMUM    PRODUCT. 

444  pounds  of  grapes $5.80 

222  pounds  of  wood 60 

Total 6.40 

MCWALTER  E.  NOTES, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Venice,  March  3, 1884. 


RUSSIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  STANTON,  OF  ST.  PETERSBURG. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  30.} 

Along  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  Sea  of  Azof,  and  on  both  sides  of 
the  Caucasian  Mountains,  Russia  possesses  a  vast  territory  devoted  to 
the  culture  of  the  grape.  Astrachau  may  be  considered  as  the  home 
of  JRussian  grape  culture,  since  the  first  vines  were  planted  there  at  the 


THE    VINE    IN    RUSSIA.  847 

beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  During  the  latter  half  of  the 
same  century  Kussiau  vintners  were  sent  to  the  river  Terek,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  present  grape  culture  in  that  district. 

In  Transcaucasia  the  culture  of  the  vine  dates  back  to  immemorial 
times,  and  the  opinion  prevails  that  the  diffusion  of  the  grape-vine  over 
Europe  proceeded  from  this  country. 

In  the  Taurida  peninsula  and  modern  Bessarabia  the  grape  culture 
owes  its  origin  to  the  Grecian  colonies  founded  there  some  six  centuries 
'before  the  Christian  era.  Old  Grecian  amphora,  which  have  been  found 
on  the  banks  of  the  Don,  justify  the  inference  that  the  Greeks  extended 
the  culture  of  the  grape  to  these  districts  also. 

In  the  Crimea,  grape  culture  attained  its  prime  between  the  eleventh 
and  fifteenth  centuries,  under  the  dominion  of  the  Genoese.  Under  the 
Tartars,  however,  it  fell  into  decay,  similar  to  that  of  the  Caucasian  dis- 
tricts under  the  rule  of  the  Turks  and  Persians.  With  the  accession  of 
the  Russians  the  grape  culture  began  to  flourish  again,  and  was  ex- 
tended by  them  to  the  Kuban  and  Terek  districts. 

In  the  following  short  review  of  the  grape  culture  in  the  various  dis- 
tricts of  Russia,  the  data  given  (with  the  exception  of  Bessarabia  and 
the  Don  districts)  refer  to  the  period  of  1870  and  1874. 

GEAPE  CULTURE  IN  EUROPEAN  RUSSIA. 

1.  In  Bessarabia  the  culture  of  the  vine  extends  over  the  whole  Gov- 
ernment and  into  the  bordering  districts  of  the  Governments  of  Kerson 
and  Podolia.    In  1870  the  yield  was  965,250  gallons  of  wine,  and,  accord- 
ing to  official  data,  in  1879  Bessarabia  alone  produced  18,756,000  gallons. 
The  wines  are  generally  light,  the  red  varieties  resembling  the  French, 
the  white  the  Rhine  wines.    The  wines  produced  in  Bessarabia  from 
French  and  Rhenish  vines  are  known  in  trade  as  Bordeaux,  Burgundy, 
Rhinewine,  Sauterne,  etc.,  the  label  indicating  also  the  district  in  which 
the  wine  was  grown.    The  best  known  are  the  Ackermann,  the  Odessa, 
and  those  of  the  Bulgarian  colony.    The  majority  of  the  grape-growers 
sell  young  and  unfermented  wines  to  dealers,  and  in  the  whole  district 
but  six  wine-growers  made  and  sold  a  finished  wine  under  their  own 
names. 

2.  In  the  Crimea  grapes  are  cultivated  throughout  the  whole  Taurida 
peninsula,  but  only  four  districts  are  of  importance,  viz,  Yalta,  JTiipa- 
toria,  Simferopol,  and  Feodosia. 

Compared  with  the  rest  of  Russia,  grape  culture  has  attained  its 
greatest  perfection  in  the  Crimea.  The  newest  methods  are  adopted, 
and  relatively  a  large  number  of  vine-growers,  particularly  those  on  the 
southern  shores,  make  and  sell  their  own  wine  under  their  own  names 
in  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow. 

The  Government  has  paid  the  greatest  attention  to  grape  culture  in 
the  Crimea.  In  1812  the  Imperial  Nikita  garden  was  laid  out  on  the 
southern  shores  in  the  vicinity  of  Yalta;  and  in  1828  the  Margaratsch 


848        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

school  of  vine  culture  was  established.  In  1868  the  above-mentioned 
garden  was  transformed  into  the  Nikita  vintage  and  gardening  school, 
but  Margaratsch  school  remained  unaltered,  in  order  that  the  students 
of  the  Nikita  institute  might  learn  grape  culture  practically. 

In  1870,  3,037,500  gallons  of  grape  juice  was  pressed  in  the  Crimea. 
The  yield  of  this  district  has  steadily  increased  since  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century,  viz,  in  1823,  466,154  gallons ;  1849,  2,119,000  gal- 
lons ;  1853,  650,000  gallons ;  1870,  3,037,500  gallons.  In  the  district  of 
Yalta  the  yield  has  increased  as  follows,  from  1861  to  1871,  viz : 

GallouB. 

1861-1863,  annual  average 298,854 

1864-1866,  annual  average 382,846 

1867-1869,  annual  average 506,557 

1870-1872,  annual  average 1,130,676 

The  Crimean  vintners  pass  the  grapes  through  a  kind  of  grater,  in 
order  to  separate  them  from  the  stems,  the  juice  flowing  into  double- 
bottomed  vats,  the  upper  one  being  perforated,  and  the  berries  are  then 
put  in  the  press.  Ordinarily  the  wine-presses  are  of  wood  and  of  the 
simplest  construction.  The  must  is  filled  into  casks,  in  which  it  re- 
mains 24  hours,  when  it  is  poured  into  other  casks,  where  it  remains 
fermenting  from  10  to  12  days,  being  kept  at  a  temperature  of  from  16° 
to  22°  Celsius.  When  fermentation  ceases  the  partially  empty  casks 
are  refilled.  The  first  transfusion  takes  place  in  December,  the 
second  and  third  in  March  and  September.  For  clarifying,  gelatine  and 
isinglass  are  used,  and  at  times,  for  red  wines,  albumen  also.  The  major- 
ity of  the  vine-growers  sell  their  wine  to  wine  dealers  in  unfermented 
and  unripe  condition,  by  whom  it  is  perfected  and  put  upon  the  market. 
In  the  main  the  Crimean  wines  are  known  by  the  name  of  the  estate  in 
whose  cellars  they  have  ripened,  sometimes  by  the  name  of  the  grape 
they  are  pressed  from.  They  are  consumed  throughout  Eussia  and 
also  abroad.  In  1872  and  1873  the  Yalta  district  exported  364,443  gal- 
lons and  212,904  pounds  of  wine. 

3.  The  Don  wine  district  lies  in  the  Government  of  the  Cossacks,  and 
owes  its  existence  to  Peter  the  Great.    Up  to  1820  the  annual  yield 
was  not  more  than  65,000  gallons,  while  in  1870  it  was  not  less  than 
4,875,000  gallons.     The  grape-growers  seldom  make  any  wine  them- 
selves, but  sell  their  crops  to  wine-makers  called  "  Vinniki."    Fresh 
and  dried  grapes  are  used  for  wine-making,  and  that  made  ¥rom  the 
latter  is  the  best  and  strongest.    The  wine  is  seldom  ripened  and  clari- 
fied by  the  "Vinniki,"  but  transferred  by  them  to  wine  dealers  for  this 
purpose.    Generally  the  Don  wines  are  light,  watery,  and  keep  badly. 
A  certain  quantity  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  "Don  cham- 
pagne."   Those  vine-growers  who  make  wine  for  their  own  consump- 
tion pay  the  greatest  attention  to  its  manufacture,  and  produce  an 
article  which  will  compare  favorably  with  many  a  European  wine. 
These  wines  are  not  in  the  market,  however,  but  only  the  very  inferior 
article  produced  by  the  "  Vinniki." 

4.  The  Astrachan  wine  district  embraces  the  lower  reaches  of  the 


THE    VINE    IN    RUSSIA.  849 

Volga  lying  in  this  district.  The  wine  production  is  unimportant,  since 
the  grapes,  which  enjoy  a  good  reputation,  are  sold  as  fruit.  In  1870 
not  more  than  48,750  gallons  were  produced,  and,  according  to  official 
data  in  1880,  one  firm  made  $15,000  worth  of  wine. 

CAUCASIAN  DISTRICTS. 

The  culture  of  the  grape  is  carried  on  north  of  the  Caucasian  Mount 
ain  chain  in  four  districts,  viz,  the  Kuban,  the  Kumaschia,  the  Terek, 
and  the  Daghestanian.  The  Terek-Kumyksian  district  produces  the 
greatest  quantity,  viz,  in  1870,  4,875,000  gallons;  in  1874,  9,750,000 
gallons.  These  wines  are  quite  celebrated  among  Caucasian  wines, 
about  1,625,000  gallons  being  sold  annually  at  the  Nischni-^ovgorod 
fair.  Grape-pressing  in  this  district  is  done  in  vats  and  troughs,  with 
the  hands  and  feet.  The  must  ferments  in  casks,  in  which  it  remains 
until  autumn,  when  it  is  clarified  and  put  on  the  market.  The  Kuma 
district  ranks  second,  and  produces  annually  from  812,000  to  975,000 
gallons.  The  wine  of  this  region  is  sold  after  the  first  fermentation,  is 
light  and  watery,  and  consumed  chiefly  in  the  Novgorod  arrul  Black  Sea 
districts.  In  Daghestan  about  487,500  gallons  of  a  wine  is  produced 
which  is  chiefly  consumed  by  Caucasian  Mussulmans.  In  the  Kuban 
district  grape  culture  is  of  recent  date,  and  the  wine  produced  is  con- 
sumed on  the  spot.  In  1870  the  production  was  about  18,200  gallons ; 
in  1873,  33,508  gallons. 

In  Transcaucasia  not  less  than  32,500,000  gallons  of  wine  are  annu- 
ally produced.  The  province  may  be  divided  into  five  districts,  viz : 

1.  The  Eion-Black  Sea  district,  which  yielded   in  1870  10,725,000 
gallons ; 

2.  Kachetian,  yielding  9,725,000  gallons ; 

3.  The  Kura  district,  with  an  annual  production  of  4,872,500  gallons ; 

4.  The  Arax  district,  yielding  3,250,000  gallons ;  and  the 

5.  Shemahka  district,  producing  325,000  gallons. 

The  Circassian  wines  are  for  the  most  part  consumed  in  that  province, 
but  latterly  the  better  varieties  are  finding  a  market  in  the  leading  cities 
of  Russia.  The  best  wines  are  round  in  the  Kachetian  and  Black  Sea 
districts,  where  red  wines  especially  are  of  good  quality.  The  Govern- 
ment of  Erivan  produces  the  strongest  wines.  Only  about  one-third  of 
the  annual  production  finds  its  way  into  the  markets,  the  larger  portion 
being  reserved  for  private  consumption. 

In  Kachetia  the  vintners  erect  a  peculiar  style  of  barn  called  "  ma- 
ralyen,"  in  which  are  placed  wooden  or  stone  presses,  whose  floors  slope 
to  an  opening  for  the  issue  of  the  wine.  Abpve  the  press  is  a  beam,  to 
which  the  laborers  cling  whilst  treading  out  the  grape  juice  with  their 
feet.  Earthen  jars  serve  as  receptacles.  The  must  first  issuing  is 
separated  from  that  resulting  from  an  increased  pressure.  The  former 
yields  a  poor  and  weak,  the  latter  a  better  and  stronger,  wine.  The  fer- 
mentation takes  place  in  jars.  White  wines  ferment  from  eight  to  ten, 


850        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

red  wines  from  three  to  seven,  days,  when  they  are  transferred  to  new 
jars.  The  lees  are  used  for  the  distillation  of  brandy.  The  wine  remains 
in  lightly  closed  jars,  which  are  buried  in  the  ground  until  December, 
when  they  are  hermetically  closed  and  covered  with  about  2  feet  of 
earth.  This  method  of  wine-making  prevails,  with  slight  alterations, 
throughout  the  Caucasian  wine  districts.  In  Transcaucasia  the  wine  is 
transported  in  goat-skin  bags,  and  generally  sold  in  them.  The  casks 
are  smeared  with  fat  or  kerosene,  which  gives  the  wine  a  disagreeable 
taste.  The  vine  is  also  cultivated  in  Turkestan,  and  to  some  extent 
brandy  and  wines  are  made. 

RUSSIAN  VS.  FOREIGN  WINES. 

The  great  drawback  to  Russian  wines  is  the  faulty  manner  of  pre- 
paring them,  which  leaves  much  to  be  desired,  especially  as  regards 
their  keeping  qualities.  There  is,  moreover,  a  great  deal  of  mixing  and 
adulteration  practiced  in  the  districts  where  the  wine  is  grown.  Wines 
of  various  vintages  are  constantly  mixed,  causing  a  great  variation  in 
the  quality  of  the  wines.  Dealers  are  also  in  the  habit  of  adding  various 
ingredients  to  the  unripe  wine  for  the  purpose  of  counterfeiting  the 
better  known  varieties  of  foreign  wines.  Laterally,  in  consequence  of 
the  depredations  of  the  phylloxera  in  France,  foreigners  have  appeared 
in  certain  districts  who  buy  up  the  new  wine  and  export  it  abroad, 
whence  it  returns  labeled  as  French  wine.  The  habit  prevailing  in  so 
many  lands  of  giving  the  foreign  product  the  preference  over  the  home- 
made article  is  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  development  of  the  Eussian 
wine  trade.  The  majority  of  Eussian  consumers  prefer  the  imitations 
sold  as  Madeira,  Sherry,  Bordeaux,  etc.,  to  the  natural  Crimean  wines. 

The  Crimean,  the  Kachetian,  the  Bessarabian,  Don,  and  Astrachan 
wines  are  better  than  the  others.  All  have  not  been  carefully  analyzed, 
but  in  1864  and  1870  many  of  the  better  varieties  were  analyzed  in 
Moscow  and  Odessa.  The  dessert  wines  have  the  greatest  specific 
weight,  the  table  wines  (vins  ordinaires)  the  least.  All  carefully-pre- 
pared and  well-fermented  Russian  wines  are  as  a  rule  stronger  than 
foreign  wines  made  from  the  same  variety  of  grapes. 

The  Eussian  wines,  classified  according  to  their  acidity,  rank  as  fol- 
lows, viz :  The  Bessarabian  red  wines  are  the  sourest;  thenVome  the 
Caucasian  and  Crimean  red  wines,  the  Caucasian  and  Bessarabian 
white  wines,  and  the  Crimean  dessert  wines.  Altogether  the  Eussian 
red  wines,  as  regards  acidity,  resemble  most  the  French  red  wines;  the 
white  wines  are  less  sour  than  the  German  wines.  The  Eussian  red 
wines  contain  more  tannin  than  the  French  ones,  while  the  white  wines 
have  little  or  none. 

TOTAL  WINE  PRODUCT. 

The  grape-growing  districts  of  Eussia  and  Caucasia  yield  annually 
not  less  than  48,750yOOO  gallons  of  grape  juice,  nearly  16,125,000  gallons 


THE    VINE    IN    DENIA.  851 

of  which  are  consumed  on  the  spot,  the  remainder  coming  into  the  gen- 
eral market.  The  following  table,  shows  the  relation  of  that  consumed, 
by  the  vintners  to  that  consumed  by  the  public. 

EDGAR  STANTON, 

Consul-  General. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

St.  Petersburg,  February  13,  1883. 


SPAIN. 
DENIA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ARQUIMBATT. 
[Eepnblished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41 J,  ] 

The  production  of  raisins  in  Denia  for  1883  amounted  to  2,800,000 
boxes,  of  28  pounds  net  each,  valued  at  $4,200,000 ;  the  crop  is  consid- 
ered to  be  about  the  same  as  that  of  last  year. 

These  raisins  are  principally  consumed  in  the  United  States  and  Eng- 
land ;  the  exports  to  the  former  amount  to  979,000  boxes  and  to  the 
latter  1,385,000  boxes,  leaving  a  stock  in  the  country  of  436,000  boxes. 

The  consumption  in  the  United  States  has  increased,  although  the 
price  has  been  $1  higher  for  each  112  pounds  during  the  past  two  years. 
I  also  observe  that  the  fine  qualities,  such  as  those  called  "  selected," 
have  been  in  much  request  of  late.  Previously  this  grade  was  mostly 
consumed  by  the  English  markets. 

All  raisins  are  prepared  here  by  scalding,  and  the  system  is  as  fol- 
lows :  They  construct  furnaces  of  feeble  draft,  in  which  wood  is  used  as 
fuel.  A  round  kettle,  varying  in  capacity  from  300  to  400  liters,  re- 
ceives a  lye  formed  from  the  residue  or  refuse  of  the  grape  after  press- 
ing. The  lye  used  is  either  that  obtained  from  the  present  year  or  that 
which  has  been  kept  from  the  previous  vintage.  Placed  in  wire  colan- 
ders, with  long  handles,  containing  20  pounds  each,  the  raisins  are 
plunged  in  this  lye,  boiling  at  a  temperature  of  about  212°  Fahr.  After 
this  immersion  the  workmen  examine  the  skins  to  note  if  they  are  suffi- 
ciently shriveled,  and  if  not  they  are  immersed  again.  Thus  scalded, 
they  are  carried  to  the  drying  place,  and,  after  a  space  of  seven  to  ten 
days,  from  thence  to  the  stores,  where  they  are  packed  in  boxes. 

The  process  of  immersion  is  a  very  delicate  one,  and  requires  skillful 
watching  and  great  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  workmen  who  conduct 
it.  In  reality,  according  to  the  quality  of  the  skin,  its  resistance,  which 
varies  with  the  fruit,  the  immersion  should  be  more  or  less  rapid,  at  the 
risk  of  having  the  grapes  burst ;  besides,  much  skill  is  necessary  to 
recognize  the  fissures  which  may  appear.  When  the  heat  has  been  too 
great,  the  raisins  too  rich  in  sugar  will  mold  shortly  after  having  been 
packed.  This  process  has  the  advantage  of  drying  the  fruit  more  rap- 


852        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

idly  than  when  only  exposed  to  the  sun,  and  avoiding  by  this  chances 
of  being  damaged  by  rain  while  drying. 

American  ships. — None  have  visited  this  port  for  many  years,  the  en- 
tire freight  business  between  this  port  and  the  United  States  being  done 
by  English  steamers,  which,  from  August  to  December,  average  three 
a  week,  loading  from  200  to  1,200  tons  each. 

Lumber  for  boxes. — Lumber  being  scarce  and  dear,  it  is  largely  im- 
ported into  this  district  from  Norway  and  Canada,  for  the  manufacture 
of  boxes  for  raisins  and  oranges.  The  last  transaction  I  have  informa- 
tion of  was  at  £8  10s.  lid.  for  spruce,  St.  Petersburg,  standard  3  by  9 
with  deal  ends.  It  seems  to  me  that  a  portion  of  this  business  could  be 
done,  if  well  looked  after,  by  dealers  in  the  United  States.  So  far  I 
understand  the  business  is  transacted  through  London  dealers  with  the 
said  mentioned  countries. 

JOHN  D.  ARQUIMBAU, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Denia,  December  31,  1883. 


MALAGA. 

BEPOET  BY  CONSUL  MARSTON. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41|.  ] 

Climate. — The  climate  of  Malaga  has  the  reputation  of  being  the  finest 
in  the  world  for  persons  suffering  from  consumption  and  all  diseases  of 
the  throat  and  chest,  and  many  invalids  are  ordered  by  their  physicians 
to  this  part  of  Spain,  their  only  hope  of  recovery,  or,  in  some  instances, 
to  extend  their  lives  for  a  few  short  months.  In  many  cases  they  die, 
away  from  family  and  friends,  from  the  lack  of  mauy  comforts  easily 
obtained  at  home,  but  which  a  stranger  never  finds  while  temporarily 
residing  in  Malaga. 

People  in  Malaga  during  the  winter  season  wear  as  heavy  clothing 
as  they  do  in  the  coldest  season  in  America,  but  instead  of  wearing  this 
heavy  clothing  in  the  open  air  they  wear  it  in  the  house.  Outside  the 
air  is  balmy  and  spring-like,  but  the  massive  stone-built  houses  are  cold 
with  their  marble  floors  (even  to  the  fifth  story),  and  in  your  walks 
along  the  promenades  you  will  find  the  residents  walking  dressed  in 
almost  spring-like  costume,  while  in  your  social  visits,  an  hour  after- 
wards, you  will  find  them  wrapped  in  shawls  and  cloaks  suffering  from 
the  damp  cold  which  a  small  fire  would  instantly  dispel.  One  day  of 
such  experience  would  affect  a  person  suffering  from  consumption  more 
than  a  whole  winter  in  a  colder  climate  where  home  comforts  could  be 
more  easily  obtained. 

The  hotels  or  boarding  houses  here  offer  no  comforts  to  invalids ;  they 


THE    VINE    IN    MALAGA.  853 

have  no  fire-places ;  the  floors,  of  marble  or  brick,  are  uncarpeted,  and 
the  porti6res  and  table-covers,  if  the  rooms  possess  any  at  all,  are  faded 
and  covered  with  the  dust  of  ages.  The  fare  of  the  table  is  generally 
of  Spanish  cookery,  which,  though  sometimes  not  bad  to  one  in  health, 
is  not  such  as  an  invalid  could  eat,  and  not  nourishment  in  any  sense  to 
one  of  feeble  digestion.  Unquestionably  the  climate  would  arrest  dis- 
ease if  its  hand  was  not  too  firmly  posed  ;  but  without  the  aids  of  com- 
forts, which  are  nowhere  to  be  found  in  Malaga— in  hostelries  I  mean — 
it  is  a  cruelty  to  the  invalid  to  be  ordered  here. 

There  is,  it  seems  to  me,  a  fortune  for  some  enterprising  American 
who  can  "  keep  a  hotel "  with  the  American  standard  of  comfort ;  but 
it  would  take  time  to  draw  the  winter  visitors  of  former  years,  who,  for 
the  reasons  I  have  given  above,  have  sought  cities  more  hospitable, 
though  less  gifted  in  climate. 

Situation. — The  relative  position  of  vineyards  is  about  80 per  cent,  of 
hill-side  lands  and  inland,  about  10  per  cent,  of  valley  and  plains,  and 
about  10  per  cent,  of  sea-coast.  Vines  are  said  to  grow  equally  well  on 
sea- coast  or  island. 

The  nearest  vineyards  to  the  sea-coast  are  about  one-fourth  of  a  mile. 

Sea  fogs  are  seldom  experienced  at  Malaga,  and  are  not  considered 
as  injurious  to  the  production  of  grapes ;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  bene- 
ficial. 

The  valleys  and  table-lands  when  especially  cultivated  produce  the 
best  grapes. 

Pruning.— :Pruning-scissors  with  a  spring  are  chiefly  used  here  for 
pruning  vines,  and  are  considered  in  the  best  conducted  vineyards  as 
superior  to  all  others,  although  the  old  custom  of  using  something  like 
a  chisel,  about  2  inches  wide,  very  sharp,  which  cuts  a  "  clean  cut,"  is 
still  used  by  many  in  this  province.  Vineyards  are  pruned  once  a  year, 
viz,  in  the  months  of  November  and  December. 

Soil. — The  nature  of  the  soil  on  the  mountains  is  clay  slate;  in  the 
vegas  or  plains  gravel,  clay,  and  ferruginous  earth. 

Planting. — The  vineyards  are  generally  planted  in  new  lauds  and  when 
the  soil  becomes  exhausted  fertilizers  are  employed.  Stable  manure  and 
street  sweepings  for  table-lands  have  been  found  to  be  productive  of 
fruitful  vineyards.  The  usual  distance  between  each  vine  is  about  7 
feet. 

Best  results  are  obtained  in  valleys,  table-lands,  and  plains  inland, 
much  better  than  on  the  hill-side,  where  the  rains  wash  away  all  the 
richness  from  the  soil  to  the  plains  beneath. 

Cultivation. — Lands  are  cultivated  in  the  vineyards  twice  a  year,  viz : 
First,  in  December,  cutting  the  branches  ( within  1£  or  2  inches)  from  the 
root,  where  it  protrudes  from  the  ground,  leaving  only  one  single 
sprout ;  then  they  clean  perfectly  the  knob  of  the  vine,  removing  all 
the  soil  to  the  depth  of  10  or  12  inches.  Second,  in  April,  when  they 
cover  again  the  root  with  the  earth,  cutting  away  all  grass  and  weeds, 


854 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 


which  draw  the  richness  from  the  soil.  Later  in  the  season,  if  there  are 
any  more  grass  or  weeds  they  are  pulled  by  hand. 

Maturity. — Vines  come  into  full  bearing  at  eight  years  old  and  last 
about  thirty  or  forty  years  in  fruitful  condition  if  the  land  is  good. 

Irrigation. — There  is  no  system  of  artificial  irrigation  in  practice  in 
this  province  for  grape  culture,  but  all  vines  receive  the  necessary  rains 
naturally  during  the  winter  and  spring. 

Yield. — An  estimated  average  yield  per  acre  per  annum  is  about  9,000 
pouods  of  grapes,  which  will  yield  about  one-third  that  amount  when 
prepared  as  raisins,  viz,  3,000  pounds,  or  120  arrobas,  at  an  average  value 
of  30  reals  veil  on  per  arroba  in  the  vineyard  as  they  run,  good  and 
ordinary  alike,  which  aggregates  3,600  reals  vellon,  or  $180.  From  this 
must  be  deducted  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  yield  for  all  kinds  of  Govern- 
ment taxes,  10  per  cent,  on  average  production  as  interest  on  capital  in- 
vested, and  about  30  per  cent,  for  cost  of  crop,  leaving  a  profit  to  the 
producer  of  about  40  per  cent,  on  the  total  yield. 

The  figures  are  given  for  vineyards  that  are  fruitful  and  healthy,  free 
from  phylloxera  and  other  plagues ;  but  it  would  be  impossible  to  at- 
tempt to  average  any  particular  crop,  as  years  differ,  from  many  unfore- 
seen causes. 

Picking. — The  vintage  season  for  raisins  commences  about  1st  of  Sep- 
tember each  year,  and  the  record  of  all  statistics  is  calculated  by  vint- 
ages. 

I  have  prepared  a  table,  annexed,  marked  A,  containing  a  comparative 
statement,  at  parallel  dates,  of  the  raisin  crop  of  Malaga,  for  each  vint- 
age, for  the  five  years  ending  August  31, 1883,  including  the  amount 
exported,  together  with  the  names  of  the  different  countries  to  which 
these  exportations  were  made. 

General  exports  of  box  raisins  up  to  end  of  crop  compared  with  other  vintages  at  parallel 

dates. 


Crop  of— 

1882. 

1881. 

1880. 

1879. 

1878. 

United  States    

967  571 

1  043  727 

1  115  101 

1  146  °28 

1  182  088 

British  North  American  colonies........ 

38  431 

31  730 

46  717 

30  598 

I       58,  242 

Great  Britain 

176  379 

141  415 

174  126 

237  659 

194  471 

277  253 

251,  382 

297  412 

368  420 

330,  767 

North  of  Europe  ... 

130  646 

101  828 

108  222 

107  888 

99  661 

West  ludies  and  South  America-  ......  . 

98  007 

81,  196 

75  456 

63  688 

98,  429 

76,  842 

72,746 

92,  735 

60,  330 

65,  107 

Coastwise  and  interior  

1,  765,  099 
102  901 

1,  724,  024 
75  976 

1,  909,  769 
105  231 

2,  023,  811 
101  189 

2,  028,  765 
151,  235 

Total  boxes  (22  ponnds  each)  

1,  868,  000 

1,  800,  000 

2,  015,  000 

2,  125,  000 

2,  180,  000 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Malaya,  March  28,  1884. 


H.  C.  MARSTON, 

Consul. 


THE    VINE    IN   MALAGA.  855 

MALAGA. 

THE  EXTENT  TO  WHICH  GRAPES  ARE  CULTIVATED,  AND  THE  MAN- 
NER OF  THEIR  PREPARATION  FOR  EXPORT. 

REPORT  BY  OOFSUL  MARSTON. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41|.] 

Notwithstanding  the  neglectful  condition  of  agriculture  in  Andalusia, 
and  the  primitive  processes  still  followed  in  many  ways,  the  marvelous 
fertility  of  the  soil  impresses  the  most  inattentive  and  indifferent  ob- 
server. But  among  all  the  natural  riches  that  abound  in  this  luxuriant 
country,  the  most  worthy  of  mention  are  the  vines,  so  justly  famous 
both  through  the  celebrated  wines  and  the  delicious  raisins,  of  which 
Malaga  is  the  principal  market  for  all  Europe  and  the  New  World. 

It  will,  perhaps,  be  instructive  to  make  some  remarks  on  the  produc- 
tion, preparation,  and  commerce  of  the  raisins,  which  seems  to  me, 
although  of  ancient  origin,  to  offer  an  attraction  of  novelty. 

There  are  two  distinct  vines,  the  muscatel  and  the  Pero-Ximenez,  the 
first  indigenous,  the  second  imported  from  the  borders  of  the  Ehine  two 
hundred  or  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago  by  a  German,  whose  name, 
corrupted  in  Andalusia,  was  given  to  the  vine.  Opinions  seem  divided 
as  to  the  respective  merits  of  these  two  vines ;  some  insist  that  they 
are  equally  good,  others  that  the  muscatel  are  much  the  best.  I  give 
the  decided  preference  to  the  muscatel.  A  box  of  raisins  made  from 
the  muscatel,  recently  sent  to  the  exposition  at  Moscow  by  a  firm  of 
Malaga,  contained  samples  presenting  the  appearance  of  large  prunes. 

The  cultivation  of  the  vine  requires  hard  labor.  The  soil  is  dug  out 
around  the  root,  leaving  a  circular  hole  about  1  foot  deep,  and,  owing 
to  the  firmness  of  the  soil,  the  digging  is  very  difficult.  Manure  of 
great  strength  is  us^ed  by  many  proprietors. 

Different  from  Meridional  Italy,  where  the  vine,  always  clinging  to 
the  elm,  throws  itself  from  the  soil  in  forms  of  graceful  arbor,  as  in  the 
time  of  Horace  and  of  Virgil,  in  this  country  it  stretches  itself  over  the 
ground  and  thus  gathers  all  atmospheric  heat.  Thus,  although  white, 
the  grape  has  a  golden  tint,  the  skin  resisting  and  slightly  tough.  The 
branch  appears  like  a  root. 

The  vintage  is  conducted  with  great  care ;  they  do  not  gather  all  the 
fruit  at  one  time,  but  mostly  go  over  the  same  piece  of  ground  thrice, 
in  order  that  the  grapes  may  have  the  necessary  ripeness. 

There  are  three  different  methods  of  preparing  the  raisins,  viz,  wash- 
ing, drying  by  steam,  and-the  simple  drying  in  the  sun.  The  drying 
1  >y  steam  is  more  particularly  followed  in  the  province  of  Denia,  because 
of  the  insufficiency  of  solar  heat.  It  is  also  employed  in  the  south  in 
case  the  season  is  wet  during  the  vintage. 

The  cut  grapes  are  put  in  baskets  and  carried  either  on  the  backs  of 
mules  or  donkeys  or  in  carts  to  the  places,  often  distant,  where  they 


856         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

are  prepared,  and  although  they  transport  the  fruit  with  great  care,  it 
suffers  naturally ;  the  skin  often  breaks,  which  renders  the  drying  diffi- 
cult, if  not  impossible. 

To  dry  the  grapes  by  the  washing  method  they  construct  furnaces  of 
feeble  draught,  in  which  wood  is  used  as  fuel.  A  round  kettle,  varying  in 
capacity  from  300  to  400  liters,  receives  a  lye  formed  from  the  residue  or 
refuse  of  the  grape  after  pressing.  The  lye  used  is  either  that  obtained 
from  the  present  year  or  that  which  has  been  kept  from' the  previous 
vintage. 

Placed  in  wire  colanders  with  long  handles,  containing  2  or  3  kilo- 
grains  each,  the  raisins  are  plunged  in  this  lye,  boiling  at  a  temperature 
of  about  212°  Fahr.  After  this  first  immersion,  the  workmen  examine 
if  the  skins  are  sufficiently  shriveled ;  if  not,  they  immerse  the  grapes  a 
second  time,  usually  the  last.  Thus  scalded,  the  grapes  are  carried  to 
the  drying  place,  and  from  thence  to  the  stores,  where  they  are  packed 
in  boxes.  It  is  not  difficult  to  imagine  that  the  process  of  immersion  is 
very  delicate  and  requires  skillful  watching,  and  great  judgment  on  the 
part  of  the  workman  who  conducts  it.  In  reality,  according  to  the 
quality  of  the  skin,  its  resistance,  which  varies  with  the  fruit,  the  im- 
mersion should  be  more  or  less  rapid,  at  the  risk  of  having  the  grapes 
burst  j  besides,  much  skill  is  necessary  to  recognize  the  fissures  which 
may  appear.  In  cases  where  the  heat  has  been  too  great,  the  raisins 
too  rich  in  sugar  will  mold  shortly  after  being  packed.  This  process 
offers,  among  others,  the  inconvenience  of  exposing  the  raisins  to  fer- 
mentation during  transportation,  necessitates  expense  for  the  construc- 
tion of  furnaces,  and  the  necessary  last  drying  in  the  sun ;  besides,  no 
matter  what  grapes  employed,  or  what  care  bestowed  in  the  preparation, 
the  results  will  always  be  relatively  inferior. 

The  method  of  preparing  raisins  by  steam  is  as  follows :  After  having 
been  exposed  nearly  twenty-four  hours  to  the  sun's  rays,  the  grapes  are 
carried  on  boards  under  cover  to  a  building  arranged  with  shelves  6  or 
7  feet  high.  A  heat  is  produced  by  steam  that  circulates  in  an  iron  tube 
7  or  8  inches  in  diameter  through  the  entire  building.  It  is  unnecessary 
to  submit  the  grapes  to  a  jet  of  steam,  which  would  injure  them  by  making 
them  damp,  but  to  a  veritable  heat  of  160°  Fahr.  Valves,  arranged  on 
the  floor,  cause  an  even  temperature.  At  the  end  of  twenty-fouV  hours, 
usually,  the  drying  is  finished,  but  as  the  immediate  transfer  from  a 
temperature  of  160°  Fahr.  to  the  open  air  would  injure  the  ultimate  re- 
sult, it  is  necessary  to  let  raisins  cool  gradually  in  a  room  constructed 
for  the  purpose  adjoining  the  heated  room,  and  only  when  the  raisins 
are  entirely  cool  are  they  carried  to  the  stores  for  packing. 

This  is  the  process  most  generally  employed  in  the  region  of  Malaga, 
a  process  they  are  trying  to  extend  to  other  less  favored  climates.  The 
sun  furnishes  all  the  heat  required ;  it  is  enough  to  construct  divisions, 
of  either  brick  or  stone,  exposed  to  its  rays,  in  an  inclined  position,  say 
10  yards  long  and  2  yards  wide;  the  divisions  or  apartments  are  built 


THE    VINE    IN    MALAGA.  857 

up  at  one  end  with  a  sort  of  triangular  masonry,  which  from  afar  gives 
them  the  aspect  of  a  range  of  uniform  tombs.  The  triangle  is  so  con- 
structed that  the  sun  never  fails  to  shine  upon  the  contents,  the  interior 
being  covered  with  fine  gravel,  which  attracts  the  heat.  Immediately 
after  gathering,  the  grapes  are  placed  in  three  divisions,  and  are  ex- 
posed to  the  heat  of  the  burning  Aiidaliisian  sun  of  August.  Never,  it 
appears,  have  they  dreamed  of  ascertaining  the  heat  thus  obtained,  but 
the  experienced  cultivators  affirm  that,  during  the  heat  in  August,  they 
attain  a  temperature  of  145°  Fahr.  At  nightfall  a  very  simple  method 
of  covering  is  applied  to  guard  the  fruit  from  the  heavy  dews  or  rain, 
either  of  sail-cloth  or  heavy  canvas  so  arranged  that  it  covers  entirely 
the  grapes  that  are  drying  within,  and,  being  supplied  with  rings  on 
two  sides,  slides  up  and  down  as  a  curtain  at  a  moment's  notice. 
In  many  places  boards  or  planks  are  used,  giving  the  appearance 
of  a  roof.  During  the  process  of  drying  they  carefully  remove  the 
grapes  that  remain  green  or  spoiled,  and  they  turn  each  grape  in  order 
that  they  may  darken  in  color  uniformly.  Competent  judges  give  the 
preference  to  this  simple  method  of  drying,  as  much  for  the  results  as 
for  the  simplicity  of  the  process.  The  raisins  that  have  been  prepared 
by  the  scalding  process  dry  in  four  days,  while  those  dried  by  the  sun 
take  ten  days,  but  this  loss  of  time  is  largely  compensated  by  the  econ- 
omy of  expenditure.  The  raisins  are  not  ready  for  packing  immediately 
after  being  dried,  but  have  to  be  kept  several  days  in  the  stores  on  the 
planks  on  which  they  are  carried. 

The  raisins  that  are  spoiled  or  defective  are  picked  out,  especially  any 
that  are  broken  or  bruised,  out  of  which  one  drop  of  moisture  would  be 
likely  to  damage  a  whole  box.  This  has  to  be  done  with  exceeding  great 
care.  Finally  they  are  classified,  which  is  a  task  exceedingly  difficult,  as 
cultivators  and  merchants  differ  greatly  in  their  opinions.  The  merchants 
nearly  always  remodel  the  boxes  packed  by  the  producers.  In  the 
demands  of  foreign  countries  for  Malaga  raisins  each  has  its  particular 
and  special  requirements  for  what  may  be  considered  first-class  fruit. 

For  France,  raisins  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

Sur-couches,  ordinaire,  sur-couches,  choix,  snr-choix,  royaux,  impe"- 
riaux.  The  first,  which  is  the  most  ordinary,  is  never  shipped,  except 
under  a  fictitious  name :  the  other  brands  bear  the  true  name  of  the 
merchant,  but  rarely  the  name  of  the  producer. 

For  England  the  raisins  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

1st.  Finest  Dehesa,  3  crowns. 

2d.  Finest  Dehesa,  2  crowns. 

3d.  Fine  Dehesa,  1  crown. 

4th.  Dehesa. 

5th.  Choice  layers. 

London  layers  (from  good  to  poor). 

For  the  American  market  the  following  brands  are  shipped : 

1st.  Imperial  finest  Dehesa  layers. 


858         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

2d.  Boyal  finest  Dehesa  layers. 

3d.  Finest  Dehesa  layers. 

4th.  Fine  Dehesa  layers. 

5th.  Dehesa  layers. 

6th.  London  (ordinary)  layers. 

London,  loose,  1,  2,  and  3  crowns,  the  last  being  in  three  qualities. 

The  boxes  are  mostly  made  by  contract  at  75  centimes  of  a  peseta 
(about  15  cents)  each.  I  think  the  best  boxes  are  made  of  fir  imported 
from  Portugal.  The  producer  almost  always  provides  the  boxes  and 
packs  them,  but  they  are  always  repacked  in  the  town  by  the  merchants, 
who  usually  employ  women  or  girls  for  this  labor.  All  raisins  are  packed 
iu  boxes,  except  those  shipped  in  barrels  and  frails,  and  are  divided  into 
four  layers  in  each  whole  box,  which,  if  of  full  size,  contains  22  pounds 
of  fruit,  the  total  weight  with  the  box  usually  being  28  or  29  pounds. 
The  first  or  top  layer  is  always  the  finest  and  largest,  being  selected 
with  great  care.  The  merchant  is  obliged  to  be  familiar  with  the  tastes 
and  demands  of  the  country  for  which  the  raisins  are  intended. 

Although  the  United  States  are  the  principal  buyers,  they  do  not 
purchase  the  finest  quality,  almost  all  the  best  going  to  England  and 
France. 

For  England  the  layers  are  not  presented  in  bunches,  but  are  all  sepa- 
rated from  the  stem  and  pressed  very  tightly  down  by  the  lid  of  the 
box,  which  has  the  effect  of  making  them,  in  show,  a  very  large  raisin. 

For  France  the  bunches  must  be  entire ;  this  difference  proves  that  in 
England  the  buyers  observe  the  appearance  of  the  fruit,  whilst  in  France 
they  examine  very  critically,  more  desirous  to  assure  themselves  of  the 
quality  rather  than  appearance.  In  this  regard,  and  contrary  to  their 
usual  habit,  the  English  show  themselves  less  practical  than  the  French. 

The  average  cost  in  Malaga  of  100  boxes  loose  muscated  raisins,  the 
staple  shipped  to  the  United  States  for  the  year  1880,  was  about — 

Raisins  (100  boxes) $126.10 

Boxes  (100  boxes) 14.55 

From  holder's  warehouse  to  ship,  including  examining,  marking,  cartage, 
lightering,  and  nailing  (100  boxes) 5.00 

145. 65 

In  the  choicest  raisins  sent  from  Malaga,  there  can  be  expended  in 
decorations  of  inside  papers  from  5  cents  to  $1  per  box,  at  the  option 
of  the  purchaser. 

Before  closing  my  report  upon  raisins,  I  would  allude  to  a  practice 
which  has  caused  much  dissatisfaction  between  American  purchasers 
and  Malaga  merchants  in  the  fruit  trade,  i.  e.,  in  the  shipping  of  light- 
weight boxes  of  raisins.  It  has  been  customary  to  make  the  boxes  of 
exceedingly  thick  wood,  which  weighed  more  than  the  amount  allowed 
for  tare.  Thus  the  New  York  purchasers  paid  for  one  or  two  pounds 
more  of  raisins  in  each  box  than  they  received,  and  great  trouble  was 
experienced  in  consequencef  lately,  however,  tbere  bas  been  a 


THE   VINE   IN   TURKEY.  859 

certed  agreement  upon  this  point,  in  which  the  New  York  buyers  have 
united,  and  they  have  issued  a  circular  laying  down  the  rule  that  all 
intend  to  follow  hereafter,  which  is,  that  all  boxes  of  raisins  that  do 
not  contain  1>J  pounds  net  will  not  be  received,  but  will  be  considered 
unmarketable,  and  will  be  sold  at  public  auction  for  account  of  shipper. 

Under  this  new  rule,  fear  is  expressed  by  some  that,  wood  being 
scarce  and  dear  in  Spain,  and  not  being  able  to  continue  to  profit  out 
of  the  thickness  of  the  box,  boxes  will  bo  made  so  thin  that  they  will 
lack  the  strength  to  bear  the  necessary  handling  in  transportation. 

The  crop  of  raisins  produced  in  the  Malaga  district  from  the  vintage 
of  1880  and  1881  is  estimated  at  between  2,000,000  and  2,050,000  boxes, 
not  nuicli  varying  from  the  previous  vintage. 

The  stock  of  raisins  in  the  province  of  Malaga  to-day  is  estimated  at 
about  150,000  boxes,  while  one  year  ago  it  was  estimated  at  only  about 
50,000  boxes.  At  the  commencement  of  the  present  vintage  prices  ruled 
about  40  per  cent,  higher  than  during  the  same  time  the  year  previous, 
and  since  the  1st  of  January  last  but  few  shipments  have  been  made  to 
the  United  States  as  compared  with  the  same  period  in  1880. 

H.  C.  MARSTON, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Malaga,  April  27, 1881. 


TURKEY. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  HEAP,  OF  CONSTANTINOPLE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  41$.] 

Situation. — In  this  district  and  throughout  the  Levant  there  are  vine 
yards  on  the  table-lauds,  on  the  hill-sides,  and  in  the  valleys— both 
inland  and  near  the  sea-coasts ;  but  the  positions  preferred  as  the  most 
suitable  for  growing  the  vine  are  on  the  slopes  of  elevated  and  sheltered 
undulating  lands,  or  on  the  sunny  sides  of  the  lower  hills  that  do  not 
lie  too  near  the  sea-coast,  or  are  naturally  protected  by  higher  lands 
from  the  cold  winds  and  fogs  that  arise  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  sea- 
shore at  certain  seasons. 

In  the  island  of  Cos,  which  is  called  the  "  Paradise  of  the  Sultana 
grape,"  and  in  many  other  places  in  the  Levant,  nature  has  protected 
the  vine  by  the  best  possible  shelter. 

The  steep  slopes  of  hills  are  often  planted  with  vines,  and  nothing  (ran 
be  more  suitable  than  situations  where  patches  of  good  soil  are  mingled 
with  bare  rocks,  nor  anything  more  beautiful  than  the  rocks  covered 
with  foliage  and  rich  fruits. 

In  some  places,  e.sp»M-::iIly  in  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  on  the 


860        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

shore  of  the  Marmora,  aud  on  the  coast  of  Caramania,  vineyards  extend 
down  to  within  50  yards  of  the  sea-shore. 

Near  the  sea-coast,  sea  fogs  and  mists,  especially  uhen  frequent  or  of 
long  duration,  are  very  apt  to  injure  the  vines,  particularly  those  grow- 
ing nearest  the  sea-shore;  but  to  check  and  counteract  their  injurious 
action  the  plants  and  fruit  are  sprinkled  lightly  with  powdered  sulphur, 
the  sprinkling  being  repeated  two  or  three  times  if  after  the  first  appli- 
cation the  rain  should  wash  the  sulphur  off  before  the  heat  of  the  sun 
has  had  time  to  complete  the  sulphuration  required. 

Pruning. — In  the  opinion  of  foreign  planters,  the  system  in  vogue  here 
of  pruning  and  "  backing  n  is  rather  the  carrying  out  of  a  hand-to-mouth 
principle  than  the  application  of  a  scientific  or  economic  idea,  because  the 
wholesale,  ruthless  pruning  is  often  done,  first,  to  get  a  second  crop ;  sec- 
ond, to  ripen  the  grape  quickly,  or  rather  prematurely ;  third,  to  allow  the 
sun  to  color  the  grape  a  rich  golden  hue ;  and,  fourth,  to  admit  of 
greater  facility  in  getting  around  the  plants. 

Vines  "  backed  n  and  pruned  in  the  native  fashion  in  summer,  unless 
they  are  planted  in  deep,  strong,  and  heavily  manured  soil,  become 
prematurely  old,  and  their  yield  diminishes  yearly,  until  at  last  they 
become  quite  unprofitable. 

But  in  the  best-managed  vineyards  extensive  pruning  in  summer, 
especially  of  the  foreign  vines,  is  regarded  by  foreign  vine- growers  as 
robbing  the  plant  of  its  lungs,  and  that,  too,  at  the  time  when  all  its 
breathing  powers  (leaves  and  branches)  are  mostly  wanted.  Happily, 
both  systems  have  been  tried  and  found  to  prosper  here. 

Soil. — A  cultivator  who  wishes  to  plant  a  vineyard  that  will  give 
profitable  results  should  have  considerable  scientific  as  well  as  practical 
experience  to  guide  him  in  the  selection  of  the  most  suitable  ground  for 
the  purpose,  as  any  defect  in  the  nature  of  the  soil  or  in  its  position, 
both  as  regards  exposure  to  the  sun  and  protection  from  cold  winds, 
might  render  the  enterprise  abortive. 

The  vine  dislikes  a  damp  soil,  but  will  thrive  in  almost  any  open 
ground  with  good  drainage.  In  rich,  deep  soils  it  grows  luxuriantly, 
but  on  shallow,  dry  soils  the  fruit,  though  less  abundant,  is  of  finer 
flavor,  especially  where  the  earth  is  ferruginous. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  from  vineyards  planted  in  good  soils  on 
the  hillsides,  the  next  best  being  those  situated  on  undulating  table- 
lands, and  afterwards  from  those  planted  in  the  valley,  especially  where 
the  vines  are  most  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  sun,  and  best  pro- 
tected by  nature  against  dry,  hot  winds  and  sudden  and  unseasonable 
currents  of  cold  air. 

Cultivation. — Lands  cultivated  by  native  farmers  are  first  turned  up 
about  the  end  of  June,  with  rude  plows  or  implements  of  husbandry  of 
the  most  primitive  description.  In  some  places  the  young  vines  receive 
little  care  beyond  being  occasionally  hoed  and  partially  cleaned  of  weeds 
and  couch-grass  (Triticum  repens).  In  other  places  they  require  and  re- 


THE    VINE    IN    TURKEY.  861 

ceive  more  care,  and  have  to  be  manured  once  iii  two  or  three  years. 
On  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  Constantinople,  cultivated  by  foreigners, 
many  of  the  local  methods  of  culture  have  been  retained,  to  which  the 
aid  of  the  most  economical  implements  has  been  added,  together  with 
the  science,  art,  and  practical  skill  that  have  brought  the  vines  of 
France,  Spain,  and  Italy  to  so  high  a  degree  of  perfection. 

When  about  to  lay  out  a  vineyard  on  virgin  lands,  foreigners  some- 
times plow  the  earth  first  for  wheat,  and  after  the  wheat  has  been  har- 
vested they  turn  the  soil  again,  so  as  to  allow  the  sun  to  get  at  the  roots 
of  the  couch-grass,  which  is  the  only  sure  method  of  destroying  this 
enemy  of  the  young  vine.  New  varieties  are  raised  from  seed,  but  the 
ordinary  modes  of  propagation  are  by  layers  and  cuttings.  Fine  varie- 
t  ies  are  sometimes  budded  or  grafted  on  less  valuable  ones. 

Besides  the  native  grapes  grown  for  the  purpose  of  making  raisins, 
native  wines,  and  for  food,  special  kinds  have  been  introduced  into  the 
country  especially  for  the  manufacture  of  wine  for  exportation.  Within 
the  last  ten  years  upwards  of  a  million  of  plants,  costing  from  $5  to 
$10  per  thousand,  and  embracing  thirty-seven  varieties  of  the  best 
French  vines,  have  been  introduced,  acclimatized,  and  successfully  cul- 
tivated. A  French  company,  with  a  capital  of  $500,000,  in  five  hun- 
dred shares,  has  purchased  estates  near  Heraclea,  on  the  Koumelian 
(European)  side  of  the  Marmora,  with  the  view  of  producing  wines  for 
the  French  market.  The  vines  are  cultivated  in  rows,  about  a  square 
meter  being  allowed  to  each  vine,  which  enables  the  numerous  processes 
of  cultivation  to  be  carried  out  promptly  and  efficiently,  and  permits 
the  cultivator  to  inspect  the  plantation  with  scrupulous  minuteness. 

The  planting  of  the  vines  in  rows  sufficiently  wide  apart  to  give  free 
passage  between  them  allows  the  sun  free  access  to  all  the  plants  alike, 
and  facilitates  the  carrying  out  of  certain  operations,  such  as  hoeing, 
pruning,  dressing,  powdering,  destruction  of  insects,  etc.,  upon  the 
proper  performance  of  which  the  quality  of  the  vintage  and  sometimes 
the  very  existence  of  the  vineyard  depends.  This  system,  besides  offer- 
ing these  palpable  advantages,  allows  the  whole  of  the  cluster  to  ripen 
equally,  and  precludes  the  possibility  of  unripe  grapes  getting  mixed 
up  with  the  ripe  ones.  The  fruit  can,  moreover,  be  more  promptly  got- 
ten in  than  in  the  case  of  vines  cultivated  on  the  system  known  in 
France  as  "enfoulef  where  they  are  allowed  to  grow  closely  together 
and  at  random.  Although  some  vine-growers  are  in  favor  of  this  sys- 
tem, common  practice  in  France  and  other  vine-growing  countries  has 
shown  that  its  disadvantages  outweigh  its  advantages.  The  vine  must 
have  equal  exposure  to  the  sun  on  every  side,  and  to  facilitate  the 
many  operations  which  promote  a  good  vintage  it  must  be  of  easy  access. 

When  the  ground  has  been  selected  on  which  a  new  vineyard  is  to  be 
planted,  it  should  be  carefully  trenched  by  digging  with  fork  and  spade 
to  a  depth  of  2J  to  3  feet,  the  earth  being  thrown  up  in  a  series  of  rows. 
This  long  and  expensive  operation  has  to  be  repeated  several  times. 


862        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

It  is  generally  done  late  in  the  fall  or  in  the  winter,  when  the  ground  is 
damp  and  soft.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  remove  all  stones,  roots, 
and  other  hard  substances.  The  ground  is  then  ready  to  receive  the 
tender  shoots,  which  are  generally  planted  3  feet  apart.  Then  begins 
the  long  and  unprofitable  period,  during  which  the  vines  must  be 
tended  with  unremitting  care  in  order  to  bring  them  to  maturity  and 
fruitfulness. 

Many  open  and  hidden  enemies  threaten  the  life  of  the  young  vine, 
and  it  is  only  by  resorting  to  methods  which  are  sometimes  elaborate 
and  expensive  that  it  can  be  safely  reared. 

While  the  grower  in  Turkey  has  no  such  pest  to  contend  against  as 
the  deadly  phylloxera,  he  has  several  species  of  vine-fretters,  including 
the  aphis  or  puveron,  the  vine  saw-fly,  the  grub,  and  numerous  other 
small  insects  which  infest  both  the  young  and  the  old  vines,  to  tax  his 
patience  and  science. 

The  most  dangerous  enemy  of  the  vine-grower  is  the  vine  mildew,  a 
fungus  of  the  genus  Oidium,  which  forms  a  white,  delicate,  cottony  layer 
upon  the  leaves,  young  shoots,  and  fruit  of  the  vine,  causing  brown  spots 
to  appear  on  the  green  parts,  and  finally  a  hardening,  and  the  destruc- 
tion first  of  the  surface,  and,  if  not  taken  in  time,  of  the  whole  vine, 
root  and  branch.  A  rusty  or  moldy  vine  if  left  to  itself  soon  becomes 
worse  than  useless,  because  it  not  only  cumbers  the  ground,  but  com- 
municates its  deadly  taint  to  its  healthy  neighbors.  The  Oidium,  how- 
ever, can  be  easily  kept  down,  and  if  taken  at  its  first  appearance  is 
generally  stamped  out  by  one  or  two  applications  of  sulphur. 

Concurrently  with  these  elaborate  precautions  against  the  numerous 
dangers  which  threaten  the  safety  of  the  whole  vineyard,  other  duties 
claim  the  constant  attention  of  the  grower.  The  growing  plants  must 
have  the  earth  continually  hoed  around  them,  special  care  being  taken 
not  to  disturb  their  feeble  roots ;  in  seasons  of  drought  each  plant  must 
be  carefully  watered,  and  when  its  leaves  and  tendrils  begin  to  shoot, 
the  vine  must  be  continually  trimmed,  dressed,  and  pruned,  so  as  to  in- 
duce a  strong  growth  without  reducing  its  productiveness. 

During  the  first  year  the  grower  does  not,  of  course,  expect  to  gather 
grapes,  nor  even  in  the  second  year,  but  he  considers  himself  fortunate 
if  at  the  end  of  that  time  all  has  gone  well.  He  may  hope  for  a  few 
grapes  the  third  year,  but  it  is  not  until  the  fourth  year  that  he  has  a 
real  crop  to  reward  him  for  all  his  pains  and  outlay. 

When  properly  cultivated,  the  vine  blossoms  from  about  the  25th  of 
May  to  the  5th  of  June.  The  flowers  are  small,  of  a  greenish-white 
hue,  and  fragrant.  Seventy  to  seventy-five  degrees  Fahrenheit  gen- 
erally suffices  to  ripen  the  grapes,  and  they  mellow  between  the  end  of 
August  and  middle  of  September.  The  vine  comes  into  full  bearing  in 
its  fourth  or  fifth  year,  after  which  it  continues  very  fruitful  up  to  its 
thirtieth  or  thirty-fifth  year.  Its  stem  sometimes  attains  a  diameter  of 
eighteen  inches,  and  it  is  said  that  in  certain  instances  the  vine  has 
lived  upwards  of  three  hundred  years. 


THE    VINE    IN    TURKEY.  863 

Irrigation. — When  any  system  of  irrigation  exists  at  all  in  this  coun- 
try it  is  generally  of  the  most  primitive  kind,  such  as  trenches  supplied 
with  water  by  the  aid  of  the  manganos,  or  water-wheels  of  the  natives. 
But  properly  speaking  there  is  no  system  of  artificial  irrigation  usually 
employed,  and  as  a  rule  the  cultivators  depend  mainly  on  the  showers 
and  dews,  which  generally  feed  and  refresh  the  vines  during  their 
growth.  Of  course  advantage  is  taken  of  springs  or  small  streams  that 
may  exist  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  vineyard  to  secure  as  long  as  pos- 
sible a  sufficient  supply  of  water  from  such  natural  sources,  and  where 
they  exist  the  vines  are  generally  well  watered,  and  as  often  as  they 
require  to  be. 

Yield. — The  crop  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  sea- 
sous,  the  position  of  the  vineyard,  and  the  degree  of  care  and  attention 
bestowed  on  the  vines.  An  acre  of  good  vine-growing  land  in  Turkey 
will,  as  has  been  proved  by  repeated  experiments,  give  from  616  to  880 
gallons  of  wine.  It  is  estimated  that  when  the  vineyards  held  by  French 
companies  at  Oinurtshed  and  Heraclea,  which  contain  about  10,000 
acres,  have  attained  full  maturity,  their  vintage  will  be  about  6,160,000 
gallons. 

The  following  is  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  laying  out  a  one-acre  vine- 
yard, with  the  working  expenses,  for  five  consecutive  years,  and  the 
probable  profits  during  the  first  five  years  if  cultivated  according  to  the 
French  system : 

Trenching,  etc $116.16 

Planting  4,000  vines,  hoeing,  etc.,  first  year 38.72 

Digging,  pruning,  hoeing,  etc.,  second  year 38.72 

193. 60 
Less  60  gallons  wine,  at  70  cents 42.00 

Loss 151.60 

Digging,  pruning,  hoeing,  etc.,  third  year 38.72 

190.32 
Less  140  gallons  wine,  at  70  cents 98.00 


Loss 92.32 

*  pruning,  hoeing,  etc.,  fourth  year 38.72 

131.04 
Less  300  gallons  wine,  at  70  cents 210.00 

Profit , 78.96 

To  be  placed  against  cost  of  plant,  cellar,  casks,  etc 78. 96 


Digging,  pruning,  hoeing,  etc.,  fifth  year 38.72 

Less  500  gallons  wine  at  70  cents 350. 00 


Profit  fifth  year 311.28 


864        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Varieties. — The  principal  varieties  of  grapes  grown  in  the  Levant  are 
the  following :  the  "  Sultaninas"  (without  kernels),  the  "  Tchaouche,"  the 
"  Amigdala"  (on  the  island  of  Scio),  the  "  Psilaroga,"  the  "Eobola,"  the 
"  Caramisali,"  the  "  Besaki,"  the  "Boditis,"  the  "  Koutoura,"  and  the 
"Mavreli." 

The  u  Sultaninas,"  u  Tchaouche,"  "Amigdala,"  "  Bobola,"  and  "  Eesaki " 
are  white;  the  " Psilaroga"  both  black  and  white;  the  " Boditis," red ; 
and  the  "  Saramisali,"  "Koutoura,"  and  "Mavreli"  are  black. 

The  finest  quality  grown  in  the  neighborhood  of  Constantinople  is  the 
"Tchaouche,"  which  is  remarkable  for  its  size  and  fine  flavor,  and  is  the 
most  esteemed  for  the  table.  The  French  growers  admit  that  for  the 
table  (and  unpreserved)  its  quality  is  unequaled,  with  the  exception  of 
the  "  Sultanina."  The  other  varieties,  especially  the  black,  are  used 
chiefly  for  the  manufacture  of  wine.  Besides  affording  a  wholesome 
article  of  food  to  the  local  population,  considerable  quantities  are  ex- 
ported to  Eussia  and  elsewhere. 

Process  of  drying  raisins. — The  raisins  of  commerce  are  dried  grapes, 
prepared  by  two  different  methods. 

One  method  consists  of  partially  cutting  through  the  stalk  of  the 
ripened  bunches  and  allowing  them  to  shrink  and  dry  upon  the  vine  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun. 

The  raisins  prepared  by  the  other  method  are  gathered  and  hung  on 
lines  or  laid  on  prepared  floors  to  dry  in  the  sun.  When  dried,  they  are 
dipped  in  a  hot  lye  made  from  wood  ashes  or  barilla  with  water  until 
the  filtered  fluid  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  1.1 ;  to  this  are  added, 
for  every  four  gallons  of  lye  one  pint  of  olive  oil  and  four  ounces  of 
salt.  After  dipping,  the  fruit  is  laid  on  hurdles  of  wicker-work  to 
drain,  and  is  exposed  to  the  sun  for  about  a  fortnight.  The  raisins  are 
then  pulled  from  the  stalks  and  packed  in  boxes  for  export. 

Distilled  spirit  from  grape  skins. — From  the  skins  of  the  grape  a  spirit 
is  distilled  called  "  mastic"  (the  gin  of  the  East),  which  is  largely  used 
by  the  natives,  both  Turk  and  Frank. 

Raisin  trade. — The  raisin  trade  much  exceeds  in  importance  that  of 
figs. 

The  three  principal  kinds  known  in  commerce  are  the  "  Small  Sul- 
tana," the  "  Large  Bed,"  and  the  "  Large  Black." 

The  "  Sultanas"  are  chiefly  taken  by  England  and  Germany;  about 
three-fourths  of  the  "  Large  Bed"  go  to  Trieste,  Germany,  and  Holland, 
and  the  "  Black"  were  until  lately  almost  entirely  for  Constantinople, 
Salonica,  and  the  Danubiau  provinces.  But  the  growing  manufacture 
of  raisin  wine  in  France  draws  an  increasing  quantity  of  raisins  to 
French  ports.  Vast  quantities  are  taken  by  distillers  in  all  European 
countries. 

Quantities  of  raisins  produced. — A  well-kept  vineyard  in  Asia  Minor 
ought,  it  is  calculated,  produce  an  average  of  7  tons  of  grapes  to  the  acre, 
in  the  Turkish  custom-house  returns  for  1880-'81  the  valuation  of  the 


THE   VINE   IN    TURKEY.  865 

raisins  exported  from  all  Turkey  was  $4,393,655,  but  this  sum  is  evi- 
dently incorrect,  as  trustworthy  statistics  give  the  exports  from  Smyrna 
and  the  neighboring  district  for  the  same  period  as  follows  : 

Value  in  Smyrna. 

Black,  528,278  kintals,  of  112  pounds  each $2,522,397.18 

Red,  185,754  kintals,  of  112  pounds  each 1,077,084.06 

Sultanas,  173,237  kintals,  of  112  pounds  each 1, 002, 907. 13 


Say  49,687  tons,  valued  at 4,602,388.37 

During  the  last  two  years  the  quantities  produced  have  increased, 
but  the  quantities  exported  have  not  been  published. 

Kaisins  come  principally  from  the  neighborhood  of  Smyrna,  the  shores 
of  its  gulf,  and  the  valleys  of  the  nearer  rivers.  Quite  three-fourths  of 
the  laboring  population  are  said  to  be  Greek  Christians  and  the  re- 
mainder Turks.  The  highest  prices  are  obtained  for  the  Karaburnu 
fruit,  which  was  recently  quoted  as  high  as  18  cents  per  pound  for  red 
raisins  and  24  cents  for  Sultanas.  The  black  raisin  ranges  as  low  as  3 
cents  per  pound  on  the  spot.  The  total  yield  of  raisins  in  the  Smyrna 
district,  which  was  48,OQO  tons  in  1871  and  only  31,000  tons  in  1872, 
had  risen  in  1879,  in  consequence  of  the  general  planting  of  new  vine- 
yards and  the  greater  facilities  of  transportation  from  the  interior,  to 
the  large  quantity  of  75,000  tons. 

While  the  quantity  produced  has  been  increasing  so  largely,  the 
prices,  instead  of  falling,  as  in  the  case  of  figs,  have  considerably  risen, 
principally,  no  do  ubt,  in  consequence  of  the  vine  diseases  in  Western 
Europe.  It  may  be  mentioned,  however,  that  the  removal  of  the  stalks 
adds  much  to  the  value  of  an  equal  bulk  of  fruit  and  forms  an  im- 
portant element  in  the  rise  of  prices.  About  fifteen  years  ago  the 
practice  of  stripping  the  red  raisins  from  their  stalks  commenced  at 
Tchesmi.  This  rendered  them  more  salable,  and  they  afterwards  were 
classed  with  "Eleine'"  (choice).  The  practice  also  applies  to  the  Sul- 
tanas and  the  black  fruit. 

Most  of  the  fruit  grown  in  the  immediate  districts  of  Smyrna  is  known 
as  u  Yerlis,"  and  in  the  island  of  Samos  a  red  u  Muscat77  grape  is  pro- 
duced, which  goes  in  barrels  to  Holland  and  Austria,  there  being  scarcely 
any  demand  for  it  in  England.  These  exports  for  1882  amounted  to 
$35,000.  About  Ai'din,  where  the  population  is  almost  entirely  Turkish, 
a  small  black  and  not  very  sweet  raisin  is  grown  in  large  quantities. 
Half  are  kept  in  the  country,  and  the  rest,  which  bring  a  low  price,  go, 
without  their  stalks,  and  packed  in  bags  or  barrels,  to  Russia,  Greece, 
France,  and  Trieste. 

Packing. — The  manner  of  packing  the  fruit  differs  according  to  its 
destination,  in  order  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  markets.  Tbe 
best  "  red  raisins,"  whether  with  or  without  stalks,  are  packed  in  boxes 
of  thirty  pounds,  except  for  Russia,  where  they  go  in  barrels  of  L'50 
pounds.  The  "Sultanas "for  Trieste  are  sent  in  boxes  of  12  pounds, 
and  they  go  to  England  in  larger  boxes  of  22  pounds.  To  Germany  and 


866        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Holland  they  go  in  cases  of  30  ami  60  pounds.  The  "Large  Black" 
raisins  are  generally  exported  in  barrels  of  about  370  pounds  each,  and 
the  Erl  Kara  of  Smyrna  are  shipped  in  sacks.' 

Freights. — The  freight  charged  by  steamers  for  raisins  is  at  present  $8 
to  $8.50  per  ton,  but  it  is  sometimes  as  high  as  $10.32  per  ton  to  Liver- 
pool for  small  lots.  Freights  are  not  quoted  to  the  United  States,  as 
there  is  no  direct  trade. 

Besides  the  foregoing,  some  five  or  six  thousand  tons  of  grapes  are 
converted  into  wine  exported  annually  from  Smyrna.  Considerable 
quantities  of  wine  are  also  exported  from  Rouraelia,  principally  through 
Constantinople  to  France,  where  it  is  converted  into  French  clarets,  but 
the  quantities  have  not  been  ascertained. 

Among  the  other  districts  which  produce  considerable  quantities  of 
grapes  may  be  mentioned  that  of  Broussa,  the  islands  of  the  Archipel- 
ago, and  Eoumelia.  During  the  season  1881-782  the  '.vine  produced  in 
the  Kirkillisia  region  alone  was  3,581,907  gallons.  The  vilayet  of  Trebi- 
zond  produced  in  1882,  3,790,300  pounds  of  grapes,  but  very  little  in 
any  shape  was  exported. 

G.  H.  HEAP, 
Consul- General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE  GENERAL, 

Constantinople,  April  10,  1884. 


SALONICA. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  LAZARO. 
[Repuhlished  from  Consular  Reports  No  41|.] 

Situation. — The  best  position  of  vineyards  is  the  hill-side  lands  of  the 
interior,  at  least  2  miles  from  the  sea-coast. 

There  are  some  places  on  the  plain  where  mist  and  fogs  occasion  mil- 
dew, for  which  sulphur  flour  is  used. 

Pruning. — The  vines  are  pruned  in  the  month  of  February. 

Soil. — The  soil  where  the  best  results  are  obtained  is  a  pebbly,  sandy 
loam,  and  on  warm,  south-side  positions. 

Cultivation. — The  ground  is  hoed  in  ridges  once  a  year,  and  is  after- 
wards weeded.  Before  the  grapes  are  ripe  the  ends  of  the  vine  are 
pruned  1  yard  from  the  root  to  give  strength  to  the  plant. 

Maturity. — Vines  bear  fruit  the  third  year  and  are  in  full  bearing  the 
fourth.  When  well  tended  they  remain  fruitful  for  fifty  years  and  over. 

Irrigation. — Irrigation  is  not  practiced  in  this  district. 

Yield. — The  yield  varies  With  the  position.  The  best  fruit  is  grown 
on  dry  soil,  but  it  is  less  abundant.  Generally  the  yield  is  from  3J  to 
10  tons  per  acse  per  annum.  Prices  vary  from  $15  to  $20  per  ton  of 
2,000  pounds.  The  cultivation  of  vineyards  costs  about  $28  per  acre 
per  annum. 


THE    VINE    IN    TURKEY.  867 

Climate. — As  to  the  climate  of  this  district,  it  is  mild ;  the  severest 
weather  is  limited  to  two  months  and  a  half;  snow  seldom  falls,  and 
ice  never  forms  over  half  an  inch  thick.  The  greatest  heat,  which 
occurs  in  July,  is  about  96°  Fahrenheit. 

The  total  yield  of  grapes  in  this  district  is  unknown,  for  want  of  any 
kind  of  statistics.  It  is  supposed,  however,  that  two- thirds  of  the  vint- 
age are  exported  in  the  shape  of  native  wine,  manufactured  simply  by 
extracting  the  juice  and  keeping  it  a  couple  of  months.  The  rest  is 
consumed  at  home  in  grapes  and  wine. 

Exportations  are  made  in  barrels  to  Constantinople,  Alexandria,  Eou- 
inauia,  and  Servia.  French  buyers  purchase  much  of  the  wine  of  this 
province  to  reinanufacture  it  in  France  and  convert  it  into  French  wines. 

P.  H.  LAZARO. 

Consular  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Salonica,  February  19,  1884. 


SUPPLEMENT. 


CRYSTALLIZATION  OF  FRUIT  IN  FRANCE. 

[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  60.J 


MARSEILLES. 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL  MASON. 

The  business  of  preserving  fruits  by  the  crystallizing  process  is 
peculiar  to  Southeastern  France,  and  is  practiced  on  a  large  scale  at 
Apt,  in  the  department  of  Vaucluse,  at  Clermont,  in  Auvergne,  as  well 
as  at  Marseilles,  Grasse,  Avignon,  and  other  places  of  less  importance. 

The  product  is  exported  largely  to  England,  the  United  States,  and 
various  other  countries,  including  Algiers,  the  East  and  West  Indies, 
and  even  South  America,  where  the  profusion  of  fresh  fruits  would 
seem,  at  first  thought,  to  render  such  an  expensive  import  almost 
superfluous. 

The  kinds  of  fruit  preserved  by  this  process  are  mainly  pears,  cher- 
ries, apricots,  pine-apples,  plums,  figs,  citrons,  oranges,  melons,  and  a 
kind  of  dwarf  orange  called  "chinois,"  which  grows  to  some  extent  in 
the  district  of  Nice,  but  is  imported  here  mainly  from  Italy  and  Cor- 
sica. Peaches  are  used  for  this  purpose  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  the 
region  of  Marseilles,  the  " free-stone"  varieties  being  too  costly  and  the 
supply  too  small  for  profitable  use  on  a  large  scale. 

The  crystallizing  process  is  in  principle  simple  and  nearly  uniform 
for  all  the  above  kinds  of  fruit,  but  it  requires  a  certain  skill  and  deli- 
cacy of  manipulation  which  can  only  be  obtained  by  experience,  and 
which  it  is  difficult  to  precisely  define. 

The  essential  thing  to  be  done  is  to  extract  the  juice  of  the  fruit  and 
replace  it  in  the  pulp  withliquid  sugar,  which,  upon  hardening,  not  only 
preserves  the  fruit  from  fermentation  and  decay,  but  retains  it  in  its 
original  form  and  consistency.  For  this  purpose  it  is  necessary  that  the 
fruit  should  be  fresh,  clear  of  all  decay  or  other  blemish,  and  of  precisely 
the  correct  degree  of  ripeness.  This  last  is  an  important  and  difficult 
requirement,  as  the  proper  degree  of  ripeness  for  crystallizing  varies 
with  the  different  varieties,  and  is  so  precise  as  to  exclude  from  use  for 
this  purpose  much  of  the  fruit  sold  during  the  season  in  open  market, 
and  which  has  not  been  gathered,  assorted,  and  transported  with  suffi- 
cient care. 

156A 31  871 


872  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

SUPPLY   OF  FRUIT. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Apt  and  Avignon,  where  this  method  of  pre- 
serving forms  a  leading  industry,  fruit-growers  are  carefully  instructed 
in  this  respect,  and  deliver  their  crop  to  the  confectioners  in  the  best 
condition.  Contrary  to  what  is  popularly  believed,  native  fruits  are 
rarely  or  never  really  cheap  in  Southern  France,  except  sometimes  for 
a  brief  period,  when,  by  reason  of  some  exigency  of  weather  or  sanitary 
trouble,  the  supply  of  apricots,  figs,  or  melons,  may  temporarily  exceed 
the  demand. 

Oranges,  which  come  from  Spain  and  Italy,  and  citrons,  from  Corsica 
and  Algiers,  are,  in  favorable  seasons,  plentiful  and  reasonably  cheap, 
but  apples,  pears,  cherries,  peaches,  plums,  and  berries  are  always 
costly  in  the  market  of"  Marseilles.  At  this  time,  the  end  of  October, 
ordinary  apples  command  at  retail  from  4  to  Scents  per  pound,  and  the 
average  price  paid  by  confectioners  for  the  various  fresh  fruits  used  in 
crystallizing  varies  from  8  to  10  cents  per  pound. 

At  Apt  and  Clermont,  which  are  small  towns  in  the  midst  of  fruit- 
growing districts,  prices  are  somewhat  less  than  this.  Refined  sugar, 
the  other  principal  material,  costs  $9.65  per  100  pounds.  If  moist  or 
inferior  sugars  are  used,  this  item  of  expense  may  be  slightly  reduced, 
but  the  saving  thus  effected  is  more  than  lost  by  the  inferior  quality  of 
the  product.  This  is  exemplified  by  the  Corsican  citron  preserved  at 
Leghorn. 

It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  preserved  fruits  under  consideration 
are  of  two  kinds,  "fruits  glaces?  glazed,  and  "fruits  crystallises?  but  this 
difference  relates  simply  to  the  exterior  coating  of  sugar,  which  results 
from  the  final  stage  of  the  process.  Until  that  finishing  process  is 
reached,  the  method  of  preparing  glazed  and  crystallized  fruits  is  iden- 
tical and  the  value  of  the  product  is  the  same. 

THE  PROCESS  OF  CRYSTALLIZING. 

The  fruit  is  first  carefully  assorted  in  respect  to  size  and  uniform 
degrees  of  ripeness. 

Pears,  pine-apples,  and  quinces  are  pared,  citrons  are  cut  into  quar- 
ters and  soaked  a  month  in  sea-water,  and  the  " pits"  of  apricots,i cher- 
ries, and  peaches  are  carefully  removed. 

Even  this  preparatory  process  requires  a  certain  degree  of  skill,  since 
the  stone  must  be  removed  with  as  little  injury  as  possible  to  the  form 
and  solidity  of  the  fruit.  This  work  is  done  mainly  by  women,  who 
earn  thereby  50  cents  per  day. 

Thus  prepared,  the  fruit  is  immersed  in  boiling  water,  which  quickly 
penetrates  the  pulp,  dissolving  and  diluting  the  juice,  which  is  thereby 
nearly  eliminated,  when  the  fruit  is  subsequently  taken  from  the  water 
and  drained,  leaving  only  the  solid  portion  of  the  pulp  intact. 

This  process  of  "  blanching  "  must  also  be  done  with  exact  nicety,  the 


CRYSTALLIZATION    Ul      FtfUIT    IN    TRANCE.  873 

period  of  immersion  in  the  hot  water  being  determined  by  the  si/.e  and 
ripeness  of  the  t'niit.  If  immersed  loo  long,  the  pulp  is  either  overcooked 
or  is  left  too  dry  and  woody.  If  taken  out  too  soon,  the.  juices  left  in  the 
pulp  prevent  perfect  absorption  of  the  sugar  afterwards,  and,  by  event- 
ually causing  fermentation,  destroy  the  value  of  the  product.  In 
this,  as  in  other  stages  of  the  process,  the  only  guide  is  experience.  A 
skillful  workman  can  tell  by  the  color  and  appearance  of  the  pulp  when 
it  is  properly  u  blanched,"  and  this  knowledge  in  variably  commands 
employment  and  liberal  compensation. 

After  being  thus  scalded  some  fruits,  apricots,  for  example,  are  again 
assorted  into  two  or  three  classes,  according  to  the  degree  of  softness 
that  has  been  produced,  for  the  reason  that  if  kept  together  they  would 
take  up  the  sugar  differently,  some  losing  their  form  entirely,  while 
others  would  remain  sufficiently  impregnated.  From  these  different 
grades,  sugar-sirups  of  different  degrees  of  density  are  required,  the 
softer  the  fruit  the  stronger  the  sirup  required  for  its  preservation. 

For  the  same  reason  each  of  the  different  varieties  of  fruit  requires  a 
sirup  of  corresponding  strength. 

Pears,  citrons,  and  pine-apples,  which  remain  hard  and  firm,  take 
best  a  sirup  having  a  density  of  from  18°  to  25°,  while  apricots,  plums, 
and  figs  are  treated  with  sirups  which  gauge  from  30°  to  42°  by  the 
aerometer. 

The  requisite  sirup  having  been  prepared  by  dissolving  the  sugar  in 
pure  water,  the  fruit  is  immersed  in  it  and  left  at  rest  for  a  certain 
period  in  large  earthenware  pans,  glazed  inside,  and  having  a  capacity 
of  about  8  gallons. 

The  sirup  penetrates  the  pulp,  and  gradually  withdraws  and  replaces 
the  remaining  fruity  juice,  which,  as  it  exudes  and  mingles  with  the 
transparent  liquid,  produces  a  certain  filmy  or  clouded  appearance, 
which  marks  the  commencement  of  fermentation.  When  this  has 
reached  a  certain  stage,  the  vessel  containing  the  sirup  and  fruit  is 
placed  over  the  fire  and  heated  to  212°  F.  This  corrects  the  fermenta- 
tion and  raises  all  impurities  to  the  surface,  whence,  if  necessary  they 
can  be  removed  by  skimming.  If  the  sirup  is  of  proper  density,  this 
process  of  impregnating  the  fruit  with  sugar  wilt  be  complete  in  about 
six  weeks,  during  which  time  it  is  usually  necessary  to  perform  this 
heating  process  as  above  described  three  times.  The  impregnation  of 
the  fruit  with  sugar  being  thus  complete,  it  is  taken  out,  washed  in  pure 
water  to  remove  the  flaky  particles  that  adhere,  and  is  then  submitted 
to  one  of  two  finishing  processes,  as  follows: 

If  the  fruit  is  to  be  "  glaced,"  that  is,  covered  with  an  ice  or  trans- 
parent coating,  it  is  dipped  in  a  thick,  viscid  sirup  of  sugar  and  left  to 
dry  and  harden  rapidly  in  the  open  air.  If  it  is  to  be  u cry stallized "  it 
is  dipped  into  the  same  sirup,  but  is  then  cooled  and  dried  slowly  in  a 
kiln  or  chamber  warmed  to  a  temperature  of  90°  Fahrenheit. 

This  slow  cooling  causes  the  thick  sirup  with  which  the  fruit  is  cov- 


874  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

ci ed  to  crystallize  and  assume  the  usual  granulated  appearance.  The 
work  is  now  finished.  If  properly  done,  the  fruit  thus  preserved  will 
bear  transportation  to  any  climate  and  will  keep,  firm  and  unchanged, 
i'or  years.  It  is  packed  in  light  wooden  or  card-board  boxes  and  may 
be  shipped  in  cases  containing  several  hundred  pounds  each. 

USES   OF   THE   SPENT   SJRUP. 

During  the  process  of  impregnating  the  fruit  with  sugar  the  sirup  in 
which  it.  is  immersed  is  gradually  deteriorated  by  losing  its  sugar  and 
absorbing  the  juices  of  the  fruit.  It  is  finally  utilized  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  "  confiture  d'Apt,"  which  is  made  of  the  soft  overcooked  and  ir- 
regular pieces  of  fruits  of  all  kinds  mixed  in  irregular  proportion  and 
preserved  in  the  spent  sirup,  which  is  boiled  down  to  the  required  con- 
sistency. This  branch  of  manufacture,  like  many  others,  gives  oppor- 
tunities for  sharp  practice,  particularly  in  the  use  of  glucose  in  place  of 
pure  sugar,  and  of  certain  chemicals,  notably  salicylic  acid,  which  there 
is  reason  to  believe  is  employed  to  some  extent  by  certain  confectioners 
to  shorten  and  thereby  cheapen  the  process  of  preservation. 

Salicine,  the  basis  of  this  acid,  is  a  flaky  substance  derived  from  the 
bark  of  certain  species  of  willow.  It  is  used  in  medicine  as  a  febrifuge, 
two  grains  per  day  being  regarded  a  safe  allowance  for  adults.  Sali- 
cylic acid  is  made  by  the  action  of  sulphuric  acid,  bichromate  of  pot- 
ash, and  water  upon  salicine.  In  just  what  degree  salicylic  acid  is  dele- 
terious to  health  I  am  not  informed,  but  it  is  the  opinion  of  good  judges 
that  its  use  in  the  preservation  of  fruits  and  wines  should  be  prohibited 
by  law.  It  is  a  powerful  antiseptic,  and  is  for  this  reason  used  in  the 
mixing  of  wines  and,  as  already  indicated,  in  the  fruit-crystallizing  pro- 
cess, to  arrest  and  prevent  the  acetous  fermentation  of  the  juice,  which 
would  otherwise  spoil  fruits  which  have  been  imperfectly  prepared. 

As  has  been  shown  above,  the  process  of  eliminating  the  natural  juices 
of  fruit  and  replacing  them  with  sugar  by  immersion  in  sirup  requires 
about  six  weeks.  By  the  use  of  salicylic  acid,  which  penetrates  the 
pulp  and  exerts  upon  the  juices  an  antiseptic  influence  which  prevents 
fermentation,  this  process  can  be  reduced  to  a  few  days  only.  Time, 
labor,  and  sugar  are  thereby  saved,  but  naturally  at  the  expense  of 
quality  in  the  finished  product. 

COST   AND  MARKET   VALUES. 

The  net  cost  of  preserving  fruit  by  this  process  varies,  of  course,  with 
the  price  of  sugar,  labor,  interest  on  investment,  etc.,  and  this  is  more- 
over a  point  upon  which  confectioners  are  not  disposed  to  be  communi- 
cative. 

But  with  the  facts  at  our  disposal,  the  question  of  costs  can  be  closely 
approximated.  Sugar  costs  lu-re  this  season,  as  already  stated,  9.65 
cents  per  pound,  and  fruit  in  condition  for  crystallizing  on  an  average 


CRYSTALLIZATION   OF    FRUIT   IN    FRANCE.  875 

8  cents  per  pound.  The  labor  of  women  to  pare,  stone,  and  otherwise 
prepare  the  fruit  costs  50  cents  per  day ;  that  of  men  sufficiently  skilled 
in  the  processes  of  scalding  and  preserving  to  work  under  the  direction 
of  a  foreman,  commands  from  80  cents  to  $1  per  day.  In  most  estab- 
lishments the  proprietor  or  a  member  of  the  firm  is  the  superintendent, 
who  personally  directs  the  work. 

Most  leading  confectioners  and  caterers  of  Marseilles  manufacture 
their  own  crystallized  and  "  glace*"  fruits,  which  they  sell  at  retail  from 
50  to  75  cents  per  pound. 

The  wholesale  trade  prices  of  quantities  for  export  are  much  less,  as 
will  be  shown  by  the  following  exhibit  of  the  average  values,  as  declared 
for  export  to  the  United  States  and  other  countries,  of  the  several 
fruits  during  the  season -of  1884,  which  was  a  year  of  abundant  fruit 
harvest,  and  the  present  summer  and  autumn,  when  all  fresh  fruits, 
except  cherries  and  figs,  have  been  more  expensive  by  reason  of  a  short 
and  interior  supply : 


Articles. 

1884. 

1885. 

Apricots           ......  .....            •....  ......  ..  ............. 

......      .  per  pound 

Cents. 
27* 

Cents. 
29 

Chiuois  : 
Green                      .           -                     

do 

24* 

23 

Ripe  

.     .  .  do.... 

a? 

25i 

Cherries 

do 

23 

23" 

Fi  "»  (Marseilles)               

do    . 

21 

20 

Pears: 
Ijf.(l                          .                           '     .. 

do... 

24 

25* 

White  

do.... 

24 

2? 

Plums  : 

24* 

29 

Yellow  mirabelles 

do 

25 

26 

Pine  apples  (from  West  Indies)         

....do.... 

33 

:>,3 

Citron 

do 

13 

22 

Melons                                                           

do    . 

24* 

25i 

S  t  Tawberries 

do 

Sf 

29 

Mixed  fruits 

do    . 

25* 

30 

This  would  give  an  average  of  about  24  cents  per  pound  for  1884,  and 
26  cents  for  1885. 

Deduct  from  these  values,  say,  20  per  cent,  for  manufacturer's  profit, 
and  we  reach  from  19  to  20  cents  per  pound  as  the  average  cost  of  pro- 
duction. 

Add  to  these  values  the  cost  of  importation  and  a  duty  of  35  per  cent, 
ad  valorem,  and  the  crystallized  fruits  of  Provence  become  a  rather  ex- 
pensive sweetmeat  to  American  consumers. 

THE   INDUSTRY   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES. 

But  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reason  why  this  dainty  and  profit- 
able industry  could  not  be  established  with  immediate  and  complete 
success  in  the  United  States,  where  most  ordinary  fruits  grow  in  pro- 
fuse abundance  and  with  finer  flavor  than  is  developed  by  the  same 
varieties  in  any  part  of  Europe.  Sugar  is  equally  cheap,  and  fuel  fa? 
less  expensive  in  our  country  than  it  is  here.  From  the  foregoing  ac 


876         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

count  it  will  be  seen  that  the  process  of  crystallizing  fruits,  as  well  as 
the  requisite  apparatus,  are  exceedingly  plain  and  simple.  But  the  most 
profusely  furnished  kitchen,  abundant  raw  material,  and  a  library  of 
books  on  cookery  will  not  enable  a  novice  to  prepare  a  well  cooked 
dinner. 

There  is  so  much  in  the  art  of  crystallizing  fruit,  which  can  only  be 
learned  by  experience,  that  in  order  to  begin  the  experiment  with  cer- 
tainty of  success,  American  pioneers  in  this  manufacture  should  employ 
competent  French  workmen  to  superintend  the  construction  of  their 
plant,  instruct  the  operatives,  and  superintend  the  whole  process  of  pre- 
serving and  papking  during  the  infancy  of  the  business. 

The  extent  to  which  the  crystallized  ff  uits  of  this  country  are  imported 
by  the  United  States  would  seem  to  indicate  that  here  is  an  opportu- 
nity for  a  new  and  profitable  enterprise. 

FRANK  H.  MASON, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Marseilles,  October  31,  1885. 


COGNAC. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  IRISH. 

I  have  extended  my  inquiries  as  far  as  practicable  for  this  portion  of 
France,  and  am  enabled  to  state  that  the  actual  processes  of  crystallizing 
fruits  have  been  generally  abandoned  throughout  the  country,  on  ac- 
count of  the  expense  attending  thereon  and  the  general  scarcity  and 
usually  high  price  of  fruit. 

However,  there  are,  in  all  the  towns  of  this  region  such  as  Cognac, 
Angouleme,  Saintes,  Eochefort,  La  Eochelle,  and  Limoges,  persons  who 
are  familiar  with  the  business,  who  deal  in  the  crystallized  fruit,  and  who 
have  formerly  engaged  in  its  manufacture.  The  testimony  on  the  sub- 
ject is  to  the  effect  that  the  process  of  crystallization  is  now  largely  and 
almost  entirely  confined  to  a  few  points,  namely  :  Clermont-Ferrand,  in 
the  department  of  Puy-de-Dome,  in  the  consular  district  of  St.  Etienne, 
and  Carcassonne,  department  of  Aude,  in  the  extreme  south  of  France, 
and  in  the  bounds  of  the  Cette  agency  of  Marseilles. 

A  reasonable  amount  of  manufacturing  is  dxme  at  Paris,  and  also  at 
Bar  le-Duc,  department  of  Meuse,  where  the  production  is  chiefly  con- 
fined to  the  preserving  of  currants,  gooseberries,  and  such  like  fruit. 

Clermont-Ferrand  is  the  most  important  place  for  this  industry  in 
France,  and  as  fruit  is  usually  abundant  and  cheap  in  that  locality,  they 
aro  enabled  to  fflrnish  the  dealers  throughout  all  this  region  to  much 
better  advantage  than  the  dealers  themselves  can  manufacture  it. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  confinement  of  the  work  to  localities  beyond 
my  bounds  it  will  be  seen  that  I  have  not  the  data  for  its  cost  and  extent 
of  production. 


CRYSTALLIZATION    OF   FRUIT    IN   FRANCE.  877 

Neither  are  the  manufacturers  usually  disposed  to  furnish  detailed 
information  concerning  their  business,  and  many  obstacles  lie  in  the 
way  of  an  investigation. 

I  am  enabled,  however,  to  furnish  a  tolerably  clear  statement  of  the 
various  processes  of  the  work,  which,  as  a  whole,  is  quite  uniformly 
practical  whenever  the  labor  is  performed. 

WHITENING  FRUITS. 

Mneh  precaution  is  necessary  to  be  taken  to  well  preserve  the  fruit, 
whether  it  be  dry  or  watery,  in  order  to  obtain  good  results. 

Success  depends  largely  upon  the  first  act  of  bleaching.  The  bleach- 
ing, or  whitening,  of  the  fruit  must  be  regulated  according  to  the  quality 
and  maturity  of  it ;  the  water  must  not  boil,  must  simmer  only. 

It  is  well  to  choose  each  kind  of  fruit  a  few  days  before  being  ripe ;  it 
should  be  hard  or  firm  and  gathered  in  dry  weather  in  the  morning,  and 
whitened  as  much  as  possible  the  same  day,  for  if  too  ripe  it  will  fall  in 
marmalade;  if  not  enough  it  can  not  be  properly  preserved,  the  pores  will 
become  closed,  and  the  sugar  can  not  penetrate.  The  fruit  will  become 
hard,  acid,  black,  and  moldy.  It  is  necessary  to  place  the  fruit  in  a 
considerable  quantity  of  water  to  whiten  it,  that  the  water  cover  it  at 
least  8  inches,  in  order  that  there  be  no  necessity  to  increase  the  quan- 
tity during  the  process.  In  such  a  caso  added  water  should  be  of  the 
same  temperature.  Cover  the  fruit  with  an  osier  screen  or  linen  cloth, 
and  put  about  4  inches  from  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  a  copper  colander, 
to  prevent  injury  from  the  fire.  Stir  the  fruit  from  time  to  time  lightly, 
with  a  skimmer,  to  aid  the  riper  portion  to  rise.  Usually  the  fruit  is 
whitened  with  the  naked  fire,  but  it  is  much  easier  to  do  it  with  steam, 
because  in  that  case  it  is  not  exposed  to  the  danger  of  scorching,  and 
the  degree  of  heat  for  the  various  kinds  of  fruit  is  easier  regulated. 

M.  Kangot,  confectioner,  4  Rue  de  la  Verrerie,  Paris,  has  invented  an 
apparatus,  called  a  confisoire,  very  convenient  for  preserving  fruit.  The 
use  of  this  is  to  avoid  the  necessity  ot  decanting,  and  25  gallons  or  more 
can  be  preserved  at  a  time  in  sixty  hours,  and  watery  fruit  in  72  hours. 

Bach  kind  of  fruit  is  whitened  in  a  different  manner.  Stone  fruit  is 
placed  in  cold  water  over  a  slow  fire,  and  removed  with  a  skimmer  as 
soon  as  it  rises  to  the  top  of  the  water.  The  condition  of  the  cooking 
is  ascertained  by  the  use  of  a  pin,  which  must  easily  penetrate,  or  by 
softly  pressing  with  the  fingers;  when  it  is  found  to  be  sufficiently  soft 
it  is  taken  out  and  put  in  cold  water.  If  there  is  a  great  quantity  of 
fruit  to  be  whitened,  the  same  water  may  be  used  again,  especially  for 
plums  and  green  fruit. 

Plums  that  are  whitened  in  the  first  water,  not  being  so  nice  and 
transparent  as  those  whitened  in  the  second,  the  poorest  and  ripest 
and  ill  turned  may  be  whitened  first  to  acidulate  the  water.  Some  con- 
fectioners employ  lemon  juice,  virjuice,  pyroligneous  acid,  alum,  marine 
salt,  epsom  salt,  etc.,  to  preserve  the,  whiteness  of  the  fruit,  and  blue 


878         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

vitriol,  vinegar,  or  salt,  to  turn  it  green.  It  is  dangerous,  however,  to 
use  the  blue  vitriol ;  too  great  a  quantity  causing  the  water  to  turn 
bluish,  the  fruit  will  then  become  black.  If  used,  put  not  more  than  3 
grains  to  a  quart  of  water,  and  when  the  fruit  is  whitened,  put  it  in 
water  for  twenty-four  hours,  changing  four  or  five  times. 

To  be  assured  the  water  or  fruit  does  not  contain  any  part  of  the 
vitriol,  plunge  a  well  polished  bar  of  iron  into  the  water ;  if  it  is  not 
covered  with  a  copper  tint  there  is  no  danger. 

When  plums  or  other  fruit  are  to  be  whitened,  if  the  water  is  to  be 
used  again,  let  it  cool  before  using  until  it  becomes  lukewarm,  and  leave 
the  fruit  in  it  awhile  before  heating ;  this  is  why  the  use  of  steam  is  so 
helpful. 

Fruit  with  a  tough  skin  requires  longer  to  whiten,  and  time,  according 
to  its  quality ;  hence  the  following  notices  of  the  time  required  to  pre- 
serve each  kind  of  fruit. 

SUGARING  FRUIT. 

After  the  whitening  process  is  completed,  great  care  is  still  required 
to  properly  preserve  them  in  sugar.  If  the  fruit  is  too  firm  or  hard,  or 
not  ripe  enough,  on  being  removed  from  the  whitening  process  it  must 
be  put  in  sugar  reduced  to  a  sirup  of  23°  5  the  water  contained  in  the 
fruit  will  be  eliminated  and  the  sirup  reduced  to  20°;  it  will  be  neces- 
sary the  next  day,  for  the  first  operation,  to  increase  it  to  25°.  Cover 
the  fruit  and  boil  it,  pour  it  out  gently  into  an  earthen  dish,  and  place 
it  in  the  cellar  in  a  cool  and  dry  spot  to  avoid  fermenting.  Continue 
cooking  it  from  day  to  day,  making  it  one  or  two  degrees  thicker. 
Covered  when  boiling. 

Ordinarily  this  process  is  repeated  from  five  to  eight  times,  thicken- 
ing to  36°,  or  more,  according  to  the  maturity  of  the  fruit.  If  the  fruit 
is  soft  or  too  ripe  it  will  be  necessary  to  cook  the  sugar  more  to  harden 
it  and  preserve  it  from  falling  into  marmalade.  Reduce  the  sugar  to 
28°  for  the  first  shape  or  condition,  increasing  2°  each  day  for  each 
shape.  It  is  sometimes  necessary  to  give  two  shapes  each  day,  morning 
and  evening.  In  that  case  increase  the  sugar  only  1°  each  time,  and 
only  simmer  the  fruit;  afterwards  put  it  in  the  cellar.  If  it  is  desired 
to  preserve  the  fruit  very  clear  and  white,  it  is  necessary  to  change  the 
sirup  in  the  middle  of  the  shape.  In  such  case  it  is  necessary  to  thicken 
the  sirup  with  apple  jelly  or  glucose,  to  prevent  its  candying.  When 
the  fruit  is  sufficiently  preserved,  it  is  left  in  a  cool  and  dry  place  from 
eight  to  fifteen  days,  in  order  that  all  the  water  may  escape  and  it  be- 
come impregnated  with  the  sugar. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  fruit  be  well  drained  at  each  shape  or  stage 
of  the  process,  because  if  reduced  sirup  remains  at  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel  into  which  the  fruit  has  been  poured,  and  a  covered  boiling  or 
simmering  has  been  neglected,  it  will  contribute  to  its  fermentation. 

A  spigot  at  the  base  of  the  vessel  -for  the  purpose  of  draining  the 


CRYSTALLIZATION    OP   FRUIT   IN   FRANCE.  879 

sirup  is  very  useful  in  the  case  of  apricots,  chestnuts,  strawberries, 
raspberries,  and  all  tender  fruit.  The  quantity  of  sugar  necessary  to 
preserve  each  sort  of  fruit  is  not  indicated,  as  the  fruit  will  take  only 
the  amount  of  sirup  necessary  for  it;  it  is  only  necessary  that  it  bathes 
in  the  sirup. 

PREPARING  PARTICULAR  FRUITS. 

I  present  herewith  instructions  for  preserving  a  number  of  the  more 
important  kinds  of  fruit: 

Apricots,  u-hole.—  Choose  the  white  apricots,  from  high  trees,  or  grown  in  a  garden, 
along  the  wall.  They  will  be  recognized  in  opening  by  the*  meat  forming  species  of 
rays  around  the  stone. 

It  is  necessary  to  take  them  some  days  before  their  maturity,  when  they  begin  to 
turn  yellow,  and  the  stone  is  easily  detached,  and  they  are  firm. 

Make  a  little  incision  at  the  head  with  the  point  of  a  knife.  Hold  the  fruit  in  the 
left  hand  with  the  thumb  and  fore-finger,  then  pushing  the  knife  at  the  place  of  the 
stem,  the  stone  goes  out  at  the  top  or  head.  Proportion  the  apricots  in  water  slightly 
alumed,  or  acidulated  with  lemon  juice.  Prick  them  in  the  green  parts  which  are  not 
ripe  enough,  then  whiten  them  on  a  slow  fire,  stir  them  from  time  to  time  to  aid  the 
ripest  to  rise  to  the  surface ;  try  them  on  the  skimmer  with  the  fingers  or  a  pin,  and 
put  them  in  fresh  water  as  soon  as  whitened.  When  they  have  become  cooled,  after, 
having  changed  the  water  several  times; put  them  in  sugar  warmed  to  20°,  and  make 
them  simmer  or  slightly  boil,  if  they  are  not  too  ripe.  The  next  day  put  them  in  su- 
gar at  22°,  boil  them,  covered,  if  the  fruit  is  firm,  or  simmer  them  if  it  is  tender; 
continue  thus  each  day  for  five  or  six  days  or  processes,  increasing  2°  each  time  until 
30°,  then  let  them  remain  for  fifteen  days,  as  heretofore  indicated. 

When  the  fruits  are  a  little  large,  turn  them  with  a  thin  and  suitable  knife  that  the 
sides  may  correspond ;  with  a  toothed  knife  the  sides  are  better  and  neater.  Cherries, 
oranges,  nuts,  pears,  etc.,  are  turned  in  the  same  manner. 

Stuffed  apricots. — Take  whole,  preserved  apricots,  and  introduce  in  each  plum  or 
other  small  preserved  fruit  separated  from  the  stone,  which  replace  by  lemon  or 
lime. 

They  are  equally  stuffed  with  the  marmalade  of  apricots,  pine-apples,  strawberries, 
apple-jelly,  currants,  cherries,  raspberries,  etc.,  and  a  peeled  almond  is  put  in  the 
middle. 

Apricots  in  quarters. — Choose  apricots  already  yellow,  without  being  ripe,  firm,  and 
with  the  stone  easily  detached.  Peel  them,  or  turn  them,  and  prick  them  lightly 
with  a  pin,  and  immediately  throw  them  in  fresh  fountain  water  lightly  alumed. 
Whiten  them  and  put  them  in  the  sirup  like  the  whole  ones.  When  they  are  pre- 
served, drain  them,  put  them  in  a  stewing  dish  with  sirup  at  20°,  and  add  the  juice 
of  a  fine  orange.  The  apricots  are  iced  and  candied,  drained,  and  placed  with  pre- 
served fruits  in  boxes.  Increase  the  sirup  at  each  process,  so  that  the  fruit  is  bathed 
in  it. 

Pine-apples. — Choose  the  pine-apples  before  they  are  entirely  ripe,  remove  with  care 
the  first  pellicle,  leaving  half  of  the  middle  of  the  crown,  prick  them  with  a  large 
n»'-  die  to  the  heart  in  several  places.  Whiten  and  preserve  them  like  the  apricot. 

flurries. — Take  fine  cherries  with  considerable  acidity,  takeoff  the  steins,  push  out 
tin-  stoiws  with  a  quill,  and  place  them  reversed  side  by  side  on  a  strainer.  After- 
wards put  them  in  an  earthen  dish  in  layers,  with  equal  parts  of  powdered  sugar, 
until  the  next  day.  It  is  n>  « ••  >- .iry  to  decant  them  several  times  to  dissolve  the 
sugar.  Heat,  them  slowly  and  proceed  as  with  simp. 

(jHiii'-.t*  in  quarter*.—  Choose  quinces  of  a  Hue  yellow,  and  well  ripe  and  sound.  Take 
oft'  the  down  with  a  linen  cloth,  prick  them  to  the  heart  with  a  large  needle,  put  them 
in  a  proportional  quantity  of  alumed  water,  place  them  afterwards  over  a  quick 


880        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

fire,  boil  for  time,  and  when  tender  throw  them  into  fresh  fountain  or  river  water 
in  preference  to  well  water  (as  such  contains  less  calcareous  salt  and  is  softer.) 
Fountain  water  is  preferable  for  preserving  all  fruit,  especially  white  fruit.  Peel 
them  and  take  out  the  cores,  cutting  them  in  equal  quarters ;  put  them  again  in 
alumed  water,  and  continue  whitening  them  until  the  head  of  a  pin  passes  easily 
through  the  quarters  and  the  hole  closes  up  again.  Quinces  are  also  whitened  in  the 
following  manner:  The  fruit  is  just  peeled,  and  a  lemon  rubbed  over  each  slice  to 
prevent  its  becoming  red ;  then  put  in  alumed  or  acidulated  water,  then  they  are 
whitened. 

The  former  process  is  preferable.  They  are  preserved  like  apricots,  having  care  to 
cover  them  with  a  white  linen  cloth  at  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  to  cover  each 
vessel  into  which  they  are  poured  with  linen  or  white  paper,  to  hinder  the  fruit  from 
reddening.  It  is  necessary  to  take  theseprecautions  for  all  white  fruit.  When  it  hap- 
pens that  water  reddens  in  whitening  them,  it  is  necessary  to  change  the  alumed  or 
acidulated  water. 

Lemons. — Choose  fine  lemons  well  united,  turn  them,  make  a  hole  with  a  punch  at 
the  right  of  the  stem,  put  them  successively  in  fresh  water.  Whiten  them,  empty 
them  like  oranges,  preserve  them,  and  ice  them  the  same. 

Quarters  of  lemons. — Take  fine  lemons,  well  ripened,  united,  and  without  spots ; 
separate  the  largest  part  of  the  white,  after  having  cut  them  in  equal  quarters. 
Whiten  these  skins  like  citrons,  and  preserve  them  and  ice  them  the  same. 

Citrons. — Choose  fine  citrons  uniformly  ripened.  Test  them  with  a  piece  of  glass  to 
raise  only  the  surface  of  the  rind.  Make  a  hole  with  a  punch  a  little  larger  than  for 
lemons.  Whiten  them  with  much  water.  When  they  are  half  whitened,  empty  them 
with  a  coffee  spoon,  put  them  in  fresh  water,  and  finish  them  and  whiten  them  like 
lemons,  and  preserve  them  the  same.  Citrons  in  quarters  are  emptied  only  when  they 
are  whitened.  Leave  them  forty-eight  hours  in  fresh  water,  changing  it  two  or  three 
times  a  day  to  remove  the  bitterness  of  the  rind. 

Raspberries.— Choose  fine  red  raspberries,  not  too  ripe,  that  you  examine  carefully. 
Put  them  in  an  earthen  dish;  about  9  pounds  in  each:  cook  with  an  equal  part  of 
sugar  aw  souffle' ;  empty,  decanting  four  or  five  times  during  an  hour,  into  a  similar 
dish ;  put  them  on  a  slow  fire,  bringing  them  to  a  boil  again ;  put  in  the  cellar  until  the 
next  day,  draining  slowly  so  as  not  to  crush  them  ;  and  cook  in  sugar  at  28°,  covered 
while  boiling.  The  next  day  cook  them  at  30°,  the  third  day  at  32°,  afterwards  drain 
them  so  as  to  dry  and  candy  them.  I  need  not  specify  their  numerous  uses. 

Straivberries. — Choose  them  firm,  without  being  quite  ripe,  and  preserve  them  the 
same  as  raspberries  and  cherries. 

Oranges. — Choose  very  fine  oranges,  very  firm,  and  with  a  thick  skin.  Turn  them, 
making  all  sorts  of  designs,  and  put  them  in  fresh  water.  Whiten  them,  and  empty 
like  lemons  and  citrons.  They  are  preserved  and  iced  the  same. 

Oranges  in  quarters.— Choose  similar  oranges.  Mark  four  separations  in  the  orange 
without  detaching  the  quarters.  Whiten  as  heretofore  shown,  and  when  they  are 
well  preserved  divide  the  quarters  for  the  various  uses.  The  skins  and  peels  are  pre- 
served and  iced  the  same,  and  are  used  to  perfume  sweetmeats,  etc. 

Plums. — Choose  fine  fresh  plums,  not  too  ripe,  but  commencing  to  turn  yellow.  The 
plums  of  Metz  are  superior  to  all  others  in  France  for  preserves.  They  are  very  trans- 
parent, and  once  preserved  have  a  very  delicious  taste.  Prick  them  to  the  stone  with 
five  or  six  pins  fastened  in  a  cork.  Put  them  in  a  proportional  quantity  of  fresh 
water  lightly  alnmed.  Let  me  here  refer  to  a  former  statement  about  using  water 
more  than  once  in  whitening  plums.  Care  must  be  taken  to  put  the  fruit  only  in 
lukewarm  water  to  commence  to  whiten  it,  and  to  leave  it  in  some  minutes  before 
increasing  the  heat.  The  plums  are  whitened  and  preserved  the  same  as  apricots. 

I' tars. — Choose  fine  pears,  like  the  butter  pears  of  England  or  Rheims  or  Bergamots, 
and  when  not  too  ripe,  when  the  pips  are  black,  and  when  in  paring  them  they  are 
white  under  the  skin.  Put  them,  with  a  good  deal  of  water,  on  a  quick  fire,  or  with 


CRYSTALLIZATION    OF    FRUIT    IN    FRANCE.  881 

steam,  until  they  are  softened,  then  remove  them  and  put  them  in  fresh,  cold  water. 
Pare  them  as  lightly  and  promptly  as  possible,  prick  them  from  the  head  to  the  core, 
cut  and  scrape  the  end  of  the  stem,  and  throw  them  into  a  quantity  of  fresh  w  ater, 
alumed  and  acidulated.  Put  them  again  on  the  tire,  cooking  them  until  the  hc:ul 
of  a  pin  enters  easily,  and  the  hole  closes  on  withdrawing  it ;  then  put  them  again 
into  fresh  water,  lightly  alumned  or  sharpened  with  lemon  juice.  Preserve  them 
with  the  same  precautions  as  quinces  and  apricots.  As  the  pears  are  easily  candied, 
the  sugar  must  be  thickened  with  apple  jelly  or  glucose. 

Peaches.— Choose  fine  peaches,  before  their  maturity,  and  quite  firm ;  whiten  them 
and  preserve  them  whole,  or  in  quarters,  like  apricots,  being  careful  not  to  boil  them, 
for  it  is  a  very  tender  fruit  and  liable  to  fall  into  marmalade. 

Green  gages. — Take  green  gages  of  a  good  size  without  being  ripe  or  colored,  of  a 
fine  green  rind,  firm,  the  stone  being  detached  easily.  Cut  the  end  of  the  stems,  and 
prick  them  in  divers  places,  notably  near  the  stem,  with  a  little  bodkin.  Put  them  in 
a  basin  full  of  water  on  the  fire,  or  with  steam,  so  that  they  may  have  ample  room. 
As  soon  as  they  become  yellow,  remove  them  from  the  fire,  and  throw  in  a  pinch  of 
salt,  vinegar,  and  spinach,  or  verjuice.  Blue  vitriol  is  also  employed,  but  in  small 
quantity ;  to  make  them  green  again  let  them  remain  quiet  for  some  hours,  then  put 
them  on  a  slow  fire  without  boiling,  stirring  them  from  time  to  time  until  they  again 
become  green  ;  then  increase  the  heat,  and  as  they  rise  to  the  top  of  the  water,  re- 
move them  and  put  them  in  fresh  water,  removing  it  several  times  until  they  become 
thoroughly  cool.  They  are  preserved  with  sugar  like  other  plums. 

Chestnuts. — Which  grow  very  large  in  this  country  and  are  much  sought  for  as  an 
article  of  food.  Take  the  fine  chestnuts  of  Lyons  or  Lucques,  rend  off  the  outside 
with  a  point  of  a  knife,  being  careful  not  to  touch  the  meats,  and  put  them  in  a 
proportional  quantity  of  fresh  water.  When  they  are  all  prepared,  put  them  on  a 
quick  fire,  or  with  steam,  with  a  large  quantity  of  water.  Boil  them  until  the  skin 
can  be  removed  and  they  become  tender,  of  which  assure  yourself  with  a  pin,  then 
remove  them  from  the  fire,  and  change  the  warm  water,  diluting  the  second  water 
with  a  little  flour  to  preserve  the  whiteness  of  the  chestnuts.  Peel  them  as  promptly 
as  possible  to  prevent  them  becoming  too  tender,  and  also  not  to  break  them,  for  this 
fruit  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  to  preserve,  and  all  possible  precautions  must  be 
taken.  Put  them  in  a  proportional  quantity  of  hot  sugar  reduced  to  20° ;  keep  them 
warm  over  a  slow  fire,  covering  each  dish  with  linen  or  white  paper.  The  dishes  must 
be  provided  with  faucets  to  drain  them  more  easily.  Proceed  to  preserve  them  with 
the  same  care  as  with  apricots;  they  may  be  iced  with  vanilla.  Some  confectioners 
do  not  give  them  the  shape  or  fashion  for  fear  of  spoiling  them,  for  they  separate  easily 
at  the  least  contact  with  too  strong  heat.  They  keep  them  continually  warm  in  a 
drying  stove  or  slow  oven.  With  steam  or  a  hot  water  bath,  they  decant  them  from 
time  to  time ;  or  stir  them,  the  sirup  can  be  reduced  to  32°.  This  means  ia  very  diffi- 
cult and  only  a  small  quantity  can  be  made  at  ft  time. 

ICED  FBUITS. 

The  preserved  frnits  are  iced  to  dry  them.  They  are  drained,  then 
passed  through  lukewarm  water  to  wash  them,  then  put  an  hour  or 
t'.vo  iii  a  drying  stove  in  an  earthen  dish.  Sugar  cooked  to  the  grade 
nu  petit  souffle  is  put  with  them,  and  they  are  made  to  take  a  covered 
boiling,  are  skimmed,  the  basin  taken  from  the  fire,  and  placed  on  a 
t;il>l«».  in  an  inclining  position,  where  the  sugar  is  massed  on  the  border 
of  the  basin  with  a  spatula.  When  the  sugar  commences  to  whiten, 
turn  one  or  several  of  the  fruits  in  the  whitened  portion,  remove  flu; in 
with  a  fork,  and  spread  them  on  a  grate  or  strainer  placed  ovejr  a  disU 
or  mold  to  candy. 


882  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

When  the  fruit  is  small  and  the  sugar  commences  to  grain,  mix  the 
whole  together,  raise  tbe  fruit  quickly  with  a  skimmer  and  put  it  on  a 
strainer.  When  the  fruits  are  soft  it  is  necessary  to  cook  a  little  harder 
and  mass  the  sugar  more  than  for  hard  or  dry  fruits  and  rinds. 

This  ice  is  now  kept  for  use,  and  when  wanted  a  little  sugar  is  added 
each  time.  When  thick  or  gelatinous,  it  is  cooked  and  massed  more, 
or  replaced. 

CANDIED  FRUITS. 

Drain  the  preserved  fruits,  wash  them  in  lukewarm  water,  and  put 
them  on  a  strainer  on  the  stove  to  dry.  When  they  are  dry  put  them 
side  by  side,  and  put  them  between  two  strainers  made  for  the  purpose, 
and  place  them  thus  in  a  mold  to  candy 

Take  sugar  cooked  au  petit  souffle  at  36°  to  37°,  and  pour  it  slowly 
over  the  fruits  from  above,  and  then  place  the  mold  in  a  drying  stove, 
heat  to  40°,  drain  when  sufficiently  candied,  ordinarily  at  the  end  of  five 
or  six  hours. 

Fruits  that  are  dry  and  firm  are  also  candied  cold,  the  candy  is  finer 
and  less  subject  to  mass,  in  that  case  the  sugar  is  cooked  1°  or  2°  less, 
is  put  to  candy  at  night  and  drained  the  next  morning. 

SUGARS. 

I  now,  perhaps,  have  sufficiently  presented  the  processes  required  by 
my  instructions,  but  it  seems  important,  to  make  matters  clear,  that 
something  be  said  concerning  the  various  forms  of  preparation  of  sugar 
that  are  used  in  the  business. 

Only  clarified  sugar  is  used,  and  this  is  reduced  to  sirups  of  various 
densities.  The  degree  of  density  is  ascertained  by  a  pdse  sirup,  an 
aerometer  invented  by  Beaume\  , 

The  first  condition  of  cooking  which  I  shall  mention  is  called  La  nappe",  and  the 
sugar  weighs  20°.  AVhen,  in  dipping  the  skimmer  into  boiling  sugar,  after  a  turn  of 
the  hand  the  sirup  spreads  along  the  skimmer,  it  has  reached  this  stage. 

Petit  lisse'.-The  sugar  weighs  25°.  Some  boilings  after  la  nappe,  pass  the  forefinger 
on  the  skimmer  charged  with  sirup,  and  apply  it  against  the  thumb.  If  in  spreading 
these  two  fingers  you  see  a  little  thread  which  breaks  immediately,  leaving  a  drop  on 
the  finger,  you  have  petit  Ussd. 

Grand  lisse". — The  sugar  weighs  30°.  When  the  thread  has  more  consistency,  and 
spreads  more,  you  have  grand  lisse". 

Petit  perle. — The  sugar  weighs  33°. 

Grand  perU. — The  sugar  weighs  34°  and  35°.  If  at  last  in  speading  the  two  fingers 
the  thread  sustains  itself  without  breaking,  you  have  the  grand  perU.  The  attentive 
workman  will  distinguish  these  two  cookings  by  the  aspect  of  the  liquid.  Jt  pro- 
ducers large,  high,  round  bubbles  going  out  from  the  boiling  in  the  form  of  pearls. 

Petit  souffle— The  sugar  weighs  37°.  It  will  be  recognized  when,  in  blowing  through 
the  holes  of  the  skimmer  after  it  has  been  shaken,  the  liquid  forms  little  bubbles  on 
the  Hide  opposite,  which  lightly  detach.  This  is  the  petit  souffle'  employed  in  icing 
fruit. 

Grand  souffle". — The  sugar  weighs  38°.  After  some  boilings  operate  as  in  petit  souffle". 
If  the  bubbles  are  larger,  reuembling  soap-bubbles  and  maintaining  themselves  a 
uiuujint,  it  is  the  grand  souffle.  Or  dip  your  finger  in  fresh  water,  plunge  it  in  the 


CRYSTALLIZATION    OF    FRUIT    IN    FRANCE.  883 

sugar  and  dip  it  again  in  tlm  water,  if  there  remains  a  little  compact  sugar  at  the 
end  of  your  finger  you  have  the  same  thing. 

The  same  means  are  rmployi'd  for  the  cooking  of  gros  candi. 

Petit  bouM. — The  sugar  weighs  39°.  Dip  your  finger  in  fresh  water,  then  in  the 
boiling  sugar,  and  then  again  in  the  water.  If  it  forms  a  soft  ball  which  one  can 
turn  in  the  tiiigers  you  have  the  cooking  for  bon  bons  with  liquors. 

Grand  bo*U—  The  sugar  weighs  40°.  After  some  boilings  more  renew  the  preceding 
operation.  If  the  ball  is  larger  and  harder  you  have  the  cooking  for  preserves  which 
are  not  clear. 

Petit  CO886. — After  some  boilings  operate  as  before.  If  in  cooling  the  sugar  it  breaks ; 
if  it  attaches  to  the  teeth,  it  is  a  petit \  casst. 

After  the  grand  bould,  the  degree  of  the  sugar  is  no  more  observed.  It  is  then  the 
cooking  of  the  twisted  sugars,  or  sucrestors. 

Grand  casse", — When  after  being  further  cooked  the  sugar  produces  a  little  simmer- 
ing in  water  and  adheres  no  longer  to  the  teeth,  it  is  a  grand  coast.  This  is  the  cook- 
ing of  barley  sugar,  caramels,  burnt  almonds,  etc.  An  experienced  workman  will 
readily  recognize  it  by  the  crackling  which  the  sugar  makes  in  the  fingers. 

J.  E.  IKISH, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Cognac,  November  25,  1885. 


RHEIMS. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  FR1SBIE. 

While  crystallized  fruits  (fruits  glaces)  are  kept  on  sale  by  all  first- 
class  grocers  and  confectioners,  and  quite  extensively  used  by  the  peo- 
ple, they  are  not  manufactured  to  any  extent  in  this  district,  for  the 
principal  reason  that  the  fruit  grown  here  is  not  of  sufficient  variety, 
quality,  and  quantity  for  the  purpose,  and  by  reason  of  its  scarcity  it 
usually  commands  too  high  a  price  to  make  the  business  profitable.  I 
have  found  that  the  industry  of  manufacturing  crystallized  fruits,  and 
other  preserving  methods,  is  carried  on  in  Southern  France,  the  great 
center  of  the  industry  being  at  Clermont-Ferrand,  in  the  department  of 
Puy-de-Dome,  about  100  miles  west  of  Lyons,  which  is  tke  greatest  fruit- 
produeiiig  section  of  France,  and  where  fruit  of  many  kinds  is  nearly  al- 
ways plentiful  and  of  the  best  quality.  The  dealers  in  this  section  usu- 
ally purchase  their  crystallized  and  other  preserved  fruits  from  the 
wholesale  houses  of  Paris,  who  receive  it  in  large  quantities  from  the 
section  named,  and  in  some  considerable  quantities  from  Nice,  where  it 
is  also  quite  largely  manufactured.  It  is  said  that  this  fruit  is  not  so 
finely  and  nicely  made  at  any  other  place  in  France  as  at  Clermont-Fer- 
rand and  at  Nice.  There  is  at  Eheims,  however,  an  occasional  confec- 
t  ioner  of  the  first  class,  who  finds  himself  in  a  position  to  advanta- 
geously manufacture  his  own  fruits,  but  this  is  always  done  on  a  small 
scale  and  only  for  the  needs  of  his  local  customers  and  never  for  whole- 
sale nor  for  export,  and  which  my  information  teaches  me  they  manu- 


884  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

factnre  according  to  the  following  methods,  and  which  are  said  to  be 
substantially  the  same  as  that  employed  in  the  large  establishments  in 
the  south  of  France : 

CRYSTALLIZED   FRUITS. 

Begin  the  operation  by  dipping  the  fruit  into  hot,  melted  sugar  for  a 
moment ;  let  it  drain  and  dry.  Then  wash  it  lightly  in  lukewarm  water, 
after  which  put  it  in  earthenware  pans  or  dishes  and  place  it  in  a  warm 
(not  hot)  oven  for  a  couple  of  hours.  Cook  some  sugar  over  a  slow  fire 
in  a  copper  dish  at  105°  of  heat;  put  the  fruit  in  the  boiling  sugar 
for  a  few  seconds ;  skim ;  remove  the  dish  from  the  fire  and  place  it  on 
a  table  in  an  inclined  position  and  collect  the  sugar  on  the  side  with  a 
spatula.  When  the  sugar  begins  to  whiten  roll  the  fruit  in  it,  one  or 
two  at  a  time;  remove  it  with  a  fork  and^ place  it  on  galvanized  or 
tinned-wire  sieves  or  grates,  over  earthenware  dishes  or  candy  molds. 
When  the  fruit  is  small,  as  soon  as  the  sugar  begins  to  granulate  mix 
the  whole,  fruit  and  sugar,  rapidly  together  and  remove  quickly  with  a 
coarse  skimmer,  placing  the  fruit  on  a  wire  sieve  as  above  described. 
If  the  fruit  is  soft  cook  it  a  little  more,  and  stir  the  sugar  longer  with 
the  spatula  than  if  it  be  hard,  dry,  or  of  the  rinds.  v 

Keep  the  glazing  (sugar)  for  future  use,  and,  if  necessary,  renew  it  by 
adding  more  sugar.  Should  the  sugar  become  pasty,  cook  and  stir  it 
longer,  or,  better  still,  replace  it  with  fresh  glazing. 

CANDIED  FRUITS. 

First  dip  the  fruit  in  hot  melted  sugar  for  a  moment,  let  it  drain  and 
dry.  after  which  wash  it  lightly  in  lukewarm  water ;  then  place  it  on  a 
sieve  to  dry  in  a  warm  (not  hot)  oven.  When  it  is  dry  cook  some  sugar 
over  a  slow  fire  to  95°  or  100°  of  heat.  Place  the  fruit  side  by  side 
between  two  galvanized-wire  sieves  or  grates  in  a  candy  mold ;  pour 
the  sugar  carefully  over  the  fruit  and  then  place  the  molds  in  an  oven 
heated  to  105°.  When  the  fruit  is  sufficiently  candied,  which  is  usually 
accomplished  in  five  or  six  hours,  remove  and  let  the  fruit  drain  and 
dry. 

Fruit  that  is  hard  or  dry  may  be  candied  by  the  cold  methdd,  the 
candy  being  finer  and  less  liable  to  granulate.  Cook  the  glazing  to 
between  95°  and  100°  of  heat.  Place  the  fruit  in  the  glazing  in  the 
evening  and  remove  it  the  following  morning,  when  it  is  allowed  to  drip 
and  dry. 

CARAMELED  FRUIT. 

Begin  by  preparing  each  kind  of  fruit,  according  to  its  nature,  to  be 
dipped  into  the  caramel,  a  substance  obtained  as  follows :  Cook  about 
2  pounds  of  clarified  sugar,  which  is  preferable  to  melted  sugar,  to 
which  add  a  spoonful  of  glucose  to  prevent  its  granulating,  and  cook 
it  until  it  becomes  hard  and  brittle  when  placed  in  cold  water.  Place 


CRYSTALLIZATION    OF    FRUIT    IN    FRANCE.  886 

aH  earthen  or  copper  dish  in  an  inclined  position  over  a  slow  fire  or 
over  hot  coals  lightly  covered  with  cinders  or  ashes  so  that  the  sugar 
does  not  get  cool.  Dip  the  fruit  in  the  sugar  and  then  place  it  on  a 
sieve  or  haug  it  on  strings  over  an  oiled  marble  slab ;  for  small  fruit ,  on 
wire  sieves  or  grates  made  for  the  purpose,  and  for  large  fruit,  such  as 
oranges,  chestnuts,  etc.,  simply  place  them  on  the  marble. 

If  the  fruit  has  been  prepared  on  strings,  cut  the  strings  and  pla<;e 
the  carameled  fruit  on  sieves  and  put  it  away  in  a  dry  place.  If  the 
fruit  has  been  done  on  skewers,  especially  oranges,  remove  the  skewers 
before  the  caramel  is  completely  cold,  as  otherwise  the  caramel  gets 
broken  and  the  juice  of  the  fruit  escapes.  When  removed  in  proper 
time  the  hole  made  in  the  fruit  by  the  skewer  is  easily  closed  up  by  the 
warm  caramel. 

Fruit  should  only  be  carameled  a  few  minutes  before  serving,  so  as  to 
be  nice,  fine,  and  fresh.  Carameled  fruit  can  be  either  served  up  in 
fancy  structures  and  forms  or  separately.  When  carameling  fruit  two 
or  more  persons  should  always  be  engaged  in  the  operation,  as  the  car- 
amel should  be  kept  hot  and  never  allowed  to  cool,  as  if  it  is  reheated 
it  will  granulate  and  redden.  To  caramel  fruit  wooden  skewers,  string, 
or  galvanized  or  tinned  wire  may  be  used. 

In  carameliug  cherries  there  are  three  things  to  be  considered,  viz : 
If  fresh  they  must  be  very  fresh  and  sound,  and  have  the  stems  cut 
short,  that  is,  about  half  length;  (2)  if  the  cherries  have  been  preserved 
they  must  be  dried  before  the  operation ;  (3)  if  brandy  cherries  are 
used  they  must  be  allowed  to  drip  and  be  left  a  few  minutes  in  a  warm 
oven.  They  are  either  tied  together  or  fastened  on  skewers,  then 
dipped  and  hung  up  to  dry. 

Chestnuts. — Eoast  the  chestnuts  slowly  so  as  not  to  scorch  them ;  re- 
move the  shell  and  inner  husk.  Put  them  on  skewers  and  dip  them  in 
the  caramel.  In  removing  them  give  them  a  twirl,  so  as  to  spread  the 
caramel  evenly  over  them  and  lay  them  on  a  slightly  oiled  marble  slab. 

Oranges. — Choose  the  finest  and  firmest  fruit,  remove  the  peel,  divide 
into  quarters,  remove  all  the  white  with  a  knife,  taking  care  not  to  cut 
the  skin,  as  the  juice  would  come  out  and  dissolve  the  caramel.  Put 
them  on  skewers  on  a  sieve  and  place  them  in  a  warm  (not  hot)  oven, 
to  be  slightly  dried  before  dipping.  Finish  as  with  chestnuts.  Oranges 
should  be  skewered  through  the  center  so  as  to  prevent  the  juice  from 
running  when  the  skewer  is  withdrawn. 

Preserved  fruits. — All  kinds  of  preserved  fruits,  such  as  apricots, 
small  oranges,  plums,  nuts,  pears,  dates,  prunes,  etc.,  can  be  carameled 
by  following  the  foregoing  instructions.  Only  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  fruit  be  first  washed  in  luke-warm  water  to  remove  the  sirup 
and  then  dried  in  a  warm  oven. 

Grapes. — Fresh  or  dry  Malaga  grapes  are  frequently  used  and  grapes 
of  the  country  in  their  season.  Several  grapes  are  fastened  on  galvan- 
ized wire,  and  the  bunches  thus  formed  are  fastened  to  a  wooden  skewer; 


886         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

they  are  then  dipped  into  the  caramel  and  then  placed  on  small  wire 
sieves,  of  which  the  meshes  are  made  of  proper  size  to  hold  the  grapes, 
and  placed  as  usual  above  a  marble  slab. 

Small  fruits,  such  as  currants,  raspberries,  strawberries,  almonds, 
filberts,  hazelnuts,  etc.,  can  be  carameled,  but  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  fruit  be  separated  when  removed  from  the  sugar. 

JOHN  L.  FKISBIE, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

y  November  11,  1885. 


BORDEAUX. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  ROOSEVELT. 

Having  carefully  examined  the  methods  employed  in  crystallizing 
fruits,  I  am  enabled  to  report  as  follows : 

All  fruits  indigenous  to  France,  and  a  few  select  fruits  from  other 
countries,  as  also  several  species  of  soft  shell-nuts  are  employed. 

The  kettles  used  are  generally  of  copper  (much  broader  than  deep, 
to  prevent  crushing  the  fruit),  provided  with  a  wire  frame  placed  1  or 
2  inches  from  the  bottom  to  protect  the  fruit  from  scorching.  When 
ready  for  use  they  are  three-fourths  filled  with  water,  which  is  heated 
to  boiling  point  (95°  centigrade)  and  covered  by  a  towel  or  straw  cover. 

The  fruit  should  be  gathered  several  days  before  maturity ;  and,  if 
possible,  early  in  the  morning  of  a  dry  day.  The  first  important  step 
is  the  bleaching,  or,  more  properly  speaking,  the  parboiling  of  such  fruits 
as  are  to  be  subjected  to  this  preliminary  process.  The  fruit  should  be 
picked  and  bleached  the  same  day  to  obtain  best  results.  The  pits  are 
carefully  removed  and  the  fruit  plunged  into  very  cold  water  before 
being  transferred  to  the  kettle.  During  the  process  of  boiling,  the  fruit 
is  occasionally  gently  stirred,  so  that  each  separate  piece  may  be  equally 
cooked.  When  the  fruit  begins  to  settle  at  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  the 
fire  is  reduced  for  ten  minutes,  then  gradually  increased  until  the  fruit 
again  rises  to  the  surface  and  becomes  sufficiently  tender  to  be  punct- 
ured with  a  straw.  They  are  then  carefully  removed  from  the* kettle 
with  a  skimmer  and  dropped  into  very  cold  water,  which  is  renewed 
several  times,  or  until  they  are  thoroughly  cold  j  they  are  then  placed 
upon  wire  frames  to  dry.  The  boiling  should  be  accomplished  quickly 
so  as  to  submit  the  fruit  to  as  rapid  and  sudden  change  of  temperature 
as  possible.  The  boiling  is  generally  done  over  an  open  fire,  but  the 
most  satisfactory  results  are  obtained  when  steam  is  employed,  as  it  is 
an  easier  matter  to  regulate  the  heat  from  steam  necessary  to  the  differ- 
ent kind  of  fruits. 

Great  care  must  be  taken  in  the  first  boiling,  since  the  fruit,  if  over- 
done, falls  to  pieces,  and  if  underdone  the  pores  are  compressed,  prevent- 


CRYSTALLIZATION    OF    FRUIT    IN    FRANCE.  887 

ing  a  thorough  permeation  of  the  sugar,  aud  in  consequence  the  fruit 
becomes  tough,  dark  in  color,  and  soon  grows  moldy.  When  the  same 
water  is  used  a  second  time  for  the  purpose  of  boiling,  it  is  thoroughly 
cooled  before  receiving  the  fresh  fruit ;  it  is  then  slowly  heated,  the 
temperature  being  maintained  at  a  low  point  for  a  considerable  time. 

When  the  fruits  are  not  sufficiently  soft  after  the  first  boiling,  they 
are  put  into  a  hot  sirup  (invariably  made  of  cane  sugar)  of  25°  of 
density,  the  water  remaining  in  the  fruit  is  absorbed  by  the  sirup  and 
is  gradually  reduced.  After  the  preliminary  boiling  in  water  the  fruit 
is  submitted  to  the  sirup  daily  for  five  or  ten  days,  or  until  the  sugar 
has  thoroughly  penetrated  the  pores.  After  each  boiling  the  fruit  is 
carefully  removed  from  the  sirup  and  put  into  a  cool  place  to  dry.  The 
sirup  for  the  first  boiling  is  always  25°  of  density,  and  is  increased  2° 
each  day  until  it  reaches  36°,  excepting  in  cases  where  it  is  necessary  to 
submit  the  fruit  to  the  sirup  twice  in  the  same  day,  then  it  is  only  in- 
creased 1°  and  is  not  allowed  to  boil,  but  only  to  scald  the  fruit. 

Fruits  are  crystallized  with  and  without  rind,  whole,  in  halves,  and  in 
quarters.  Pears,  apples,  quinces,  aud  oranges  are  generally  crystallized 
peeled.  To  retain  the  delicate  coloring  in  such  fruit  as  the  apricot, 
pear,  peach,  aud  chestnut,  it  is  necessary  to  add  to  every  hectoliter  of 
cold  water  40  or  50  grams  of  pulverized  alum. 

Some  confectioners  employ  lemon  juice,  verjuice,  salt,  sugar  of  milk, 
and  epsom  salts,  to  preserve  the  whiteness  of  the  fruit  after  boiling  and 
sulphate  of  copper,  vinegar  or  salt,  to  retain  the  green  color  natural  to 
certain  fruits. 

When  the  crystallized  fruit  is  destined  for  warm  countries  it  receives 
additional  cooking.  The  fruit  when  crystallized  is  packed  in  boxes  con- 
taining from  a  quarter  of  a  pound  to  two  pounds  each. 

There  are  several  establishments  in  Bordeaux  devoted  to  the  crystal- 
lization of  fruits.  The  most  important  of  which  is  that  of  Alexander 
Droz  &  Co.,  to  whom  I  am  under  obligations  for  much  valuable  infor- 
mation. Their  average  annual  sale  of  crystallized  fruits  is  160,000 
pounds,  t  he  half  of  which  is  consumed  in  France.  Their  annual  export- 
ation of  cherries  alone  to  England  and  Russia  is  24,000  pounds. 

It  is  estimated  that  very  nearly  700,000  pounds  of  fruit  is  crystallized 
at  Bordeaux  annually.  The  average  cost  per  pound  (not  including  the 
price  of  the  fruit)  to  the  producer  is  15  cents,  or  $15  per  cwt.  The  fruits 
in  greatest  demand  on  this  market  are  apricots,  cherries,  and  chestnuts. 
The  separate  preparation  of  each  I  give  in  full  below. 

APRICOTS. 

The  apricots  should  be  picked  several  days  before  maturity.  An  in- 
cision is  made  by  a  knife  at  the  head,  and  the  pit  gently  forced  out, 
the  unripe  parts  are  lightly  pricked,  and  the  fruit  is  then  plunged  into 
very  cold  water  containing  a  little  alum  or  lemon  juice.  The  water  is 
changed  frequently  before  the  fruit  is  transferred  to  hot  sirup  of  20°  of 
156A 32 


888        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

density,  preparatory  to  boiling.  After  boiling,  the  fruit  is  taken  from 
the  sirup  and  removed  to  a  cool  place  until  the  next  day.  This  process 
is  followed  for  five  or  six  days,  each  day  increasing  the  density  of  the 
sirup  2°  until  it  reaches  36°.  The  fruit  is  only  permitted  to  boil  after 
the  first  cooking  if  it  continues  too  firm  ;  if  soft,  it  only  simmers.  The 
kettle  containing  the  fruit  is  removed  from  the  fire,  and  as  the  sirup 
begins  to  whiten  the  fruit  is  carefully  turned  in  the  whitish  parts  and 
then  removed  from  the  kettle  and  placed  on  a  wire  frame  to  dry. 

CHERRIES. 

Large  cherries  should  be  chosen.  After  the  stems  are  removed  the 
pits  are  taken  out,  the  cherries  are  placed  on  a  dish  side  by  side,  with 
the  open  side  up,  and  covered  with  powdered  sugar ;  layer  after  layer  is 
thus  formed  until  the  dish  is  filled ;  it  is  then  set  aside  until  the  next 
day.  They  are  frequently  stirred,  and  finally  are  slowly  cooked  and 
crystallized. 

CHESTNUTS. 

The  large  chestnuts  of  Lyons,  France,  or  Lucques,  Italy,  are  preferred. 
The  outer  shell  is  removed,  care  being  taken  not  to  bruise  or  break  the 
nut.  They  are  immediately  put  into  cold  water,  from  which  they  are 
transferred  to  a  large  kettle  of  boiling  water,  where  they  remain  until 
they  become  tender ;  they  are  then  taken  from  the  boiling  water,  freed 
from  the  skin  surrounding  them,  which  is  a  delicate  operation  and  should 
be  accomplished  as  quickly  as  possible,  as  the  nut  is  liable  to  crumble, 
and  in  consequence  is  difficult  to  crystallize.  Once  peeled  they  are  put 
into  sirup  of  20°  of  density,  and  are  kept  hot  over  a  slow  fire.  The 
kettle  is  covered  with  a  towel  or  piece  of  white  paper  until  the  sirup 
begins  to  whiten.  The  kettle  is  then  removed  and  the  same  process 
followed  as  employed  in  crystallizing  apricots. 

GEO.  W.  EOOSEVELT, 

"Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Bordeaux,  November  19,  1885. 


NICE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  HATHEWAY,  OF  NICE. 

The  art  of  fruit  crystallization,  as  employed  in  France,  is,  in  theory, 
a  process  by  which  certain  fruits  are  preserved  by  withdrawing  their 
juices  which  lead  to  fermentation  and  substituting  a  thorough  satura- 
tion of  sugar. 

The  successful  practice  of  the  art  depends  largely  on  the  judgment 
and  experienced  skill  of  the  confectioner,  for  many  conditions,  inde- 
pendentv  of  any  formula,  may  operate  in  favor  of  or  adversely  to  the 
desired  results. 


CRYSTALLIZATION    OF    FRUIT    IN    FRANCE.  889 

The  nature  of  the  soil  from  which  the  fruits  have  been  produced  must 
first  be  carefully  considered.  Confectioners  here  prefer,  therefore,  to 
select  their  fruits  among  those  grown  on  a  dry  soil,  as  such  are  more 
palatable,  damp  land  producing  those  too  soft,  or  of  an  insufficient  firm- 
ness of  fiber  to  support  the  fabrication. 

The  process  also  is  modified  by  the  variety  of  fruit  used,  and  its  de- 
gree of  hardness  or  ripeness;  and  the  exact  adaptation  of  the  sirup 
thereto  is  also  a  requisite  to  complete  success.  For  instance,  pine-apple 
demands  a  density  of  sirup  of  only  18°,  while  other  fruits  of  less  consist- 
ence require  according  to  their  kind  a  sirup  up  to  a  maximum  of  42°. 

Again,  some  fruit  must  receive  a  special  preparation.  Thus  cedars, 
mandarin,  and  bitter  oranges  should  be  soaked  first  in  a  bath  of  sea- 
water,  often  changed,  which  gives  them  consistency  and  removes  a  dis- 
agreeable flavor  which  renders  them  otherwise  unfit  for  use. 

All  fruits  produced  here,  apples  excepted,  can  be  crystallized,  but  the 
more  "fat"  the  fruit  the  less  easily  the  sirup  penetrates  into  its  pulp; 
thus  oranges  admit  the  process  easily,  but  plums  much  less  readily. 

The  oranges  used  for  this  purpose  are  gathered  at  times  commencing 
when  the  fruit  is  hardly  formed,  and  has  simply  the  firmness  and  taste 
of  fruit,  and  continuing  until  when  nearly  ripe  and  of  full  size  it  be- 
gins to  be  somewhat  colored. 

PROCESS  OF   CRYSTALLIZING  FRUITS. 

The  fruit  is  plunged  into  very  hot  water  for  a  short  period,  or  until 
it  is  white  or  has  become  bleached. 

It  is  then  completely  drained  of  water  and  placed  in  a  sirup  of  white 
sugar  which  has  been  cooked  until  a  small  quantity  separated  between 
the  thumb  and  forefinger  forms  slight  filaments,  and  it  is  adapted  in 
strength  to  the  hardness,  softness,  and  degree  of  ripeness  of  the  fruit 
employed. 

In  this  sirup  the  fruit  remains  until  the  mixture  of  juice  and  sirup 
shows  a  white  clouded  appearance,  indicating  the  beginning  of  fermen- 
tation. The  whole  is  then  again  subjected  to  heat  and  raised  to  the 
boiling  point  and  then  removed. 

Such  alternate  fermentation  and  boiling  is  usually  three  times  under- 
gone, the  fruit  and  sirup  remaining  together  from  two  to  five  weeks, 
according  to  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  same. 

Eed  copper  boilers,  with  iron  handles  at  the  sides,  and  containing 
about  25  pounds,  are  used  -in  the  process. 

BEAUM£  AEROMETER. 

The  aerometer  employed  to  show  the  amount  of  sugar  which  the 
water  contains  is  •  about  8  inches  in  length,  formed  in  ordinary  glass, 
and  in  weight  the  same  as  the  volume  of  water  which,  when  used,  it  dis- 
places. 


890        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

One  end  of  this  is  heavy,  that  it  may  stand  upright  in  the  liquid,  the 
center  has  a  chamber  of  rarified  air,  and  the  other  extremity  is  a  slen- 
der tube,  on  which  is  marked  a  graduated  scale  from  the  top  toward 
the  center  of  its  length,  and  numbering  50°.  The  rising  of  this  tube 
above  the  liquid  shows  the  density  of  the  sirup. 

One  of  the  confections  made  from  this  preliminary  process  is  styled 
u  crystallize ; "  the  other  "  glace." 

To  crystallize  the  fruit  thus  prepared  (as  in  the  foregoing  description) 
it  is  taken  from  the  sirup  and  dried  in  a  room  at  a  heat  of  100°  F.,  when 
the  sugar  appears  in  small  crystals  on  its  surface.  "  Glace "  is  pre- 
pared by  removing  the  fruit  from  the  sirup  and  allowing  it  to  dry  grad- 
ually. The  sugar  thus  forms  a  glaze  on  the  fruit,  which  gives  it  its 
name. 

PRODUCTION  AND  COST. 

The  quantity  of  fruits  thus  preserved  in  this  consular  district  can  not 
be  accurately  determined,  as  there  are  no  statistics  of  these  products. 
The  following  data  per  year  may,  however,  be  received  as  nearly  cor- 
rect: 

Pounds. 

Nice 90,000 

Cannes 30,000 

Mentone 15,000 

Monaco 10,000 

Whole  amount 145,000 

The  expense  of  labor  and  sugar  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  them 
may  be  estimated  as  follows  :  (1)  1£  pounds  of  sugar  to  1  pound  of  fruit, 
cost  price  of  sugar,  14  cents ;  (2)  labor,  per  pound,  of  production,  5 
cents ;  entire  cost  of  sugar  and  labor,  19  cents. 

One  pound  of  crystallized  fruit  is  sold  here  at  the  manufacturers7 
wholesale  sales,  at  from  28  cents  to  50  cents,  according  to  its  kind  and 
quality. 

1  am  indebted  to  the  most  experienced  confectioners  of  this  district 
for  the  foregoing  information,  and  especially  to  the  courtesy  of  M.  Yog- 
gade,  of  Nice,  and  J.  Negree,  of  Cannes. 

ALBERT  N.  HATHEWAY, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Nice,  December  1,  1885. 


Consul  Dafais,  under  date  November  9,  1885,  sends  the  following 
translation  of  a  letter  of  the  mayor  of  Clermont-Ferrand  on  the  subject 
of  crystallized  fruits : 

CLERMONT-FERRAND,  November  7,  1885. 

In  answer  to  your  letter,  28tb  last  month,  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  to  you  the 
following  information  which  Mr.  Dionis,  confectioner,  has  been  pleased  to  give  me : 

"  The  candying  (glaceage)  of  fruit  is  an  operation  learned  entirely  by  practice,  ajid 
whujh  is  difficult  to  describe. 


THE    DATE-PALM    IN    PERSIA.  891 

"When  the  fruit  is  well  drained  boil  the  sugar  briskly,  pat  the  drained  fruit  in  it 
cover  up  yonr  pan  (a  large  one)  after  one  boiling,  then  withdraw  it  from  the  fire, 
work  your  sugar  until  entirely  melted.  Take  the  fruit  out  with  a  skimmer,  put  them 
on  gridirons  in  a  drying  stove.  The  price  of  candied  fruit  varies  according  to  qual- 
ity and  kind  from  2  to  4  francs  per  kilogram  (abont  2±  pounds)." 


THE  DATE-PALM  IN  PERSIA. 

REPORT  BY  MINISTER  PRATT. 
[Repnblishod  from  Consular  Reports  No.  86.] 

As  a  first  result  of  my  endeavors  to  obtain  practical  information  on 
the  subject  of  the  date-palm  (Phcenix  dactilifera),  with  a  view  to  its 
introduction  into  the  United  States  and  cultivation  along  our  South 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  and  in  Lower  California,  I  have  succeeded  in 
gathering  from  Persian  sources  the  following : 

The  date-palm  is  found  in  countries  situated  within  the  zone  of  16 
and  30  degrees  north  and  south  latitude.  Incept,  however,  in  rare 
instances  it  will  bear  no  fruit  in  localities  removed  120  or  135  miles 
from  the  sea. 

There  are  two  methods  employed  for  propagating  the  date- tree ;  one 
by  setting  the  date  stone,  the  other  by  transplanting  the  seedling 
(self-sown). 

When  it  is  desired  to  raise  a  plant  from  the  stone  of  the  date  one 
perfectly  ripe  and  faultless  is  selected  and  both  ends  are  either  filed, 
or  scraped  off  with  a  knife,  until  the  inner  kernel  is  laid  bare.  It  is 
then  planted  in  a  mixture  of  gravel,  sand,  and  camel  manure.  From 
twelve  to  forty  days  usually  elapse  before  it  makes  its  appearance 
above  ground.  It  will  then  put  forth  long,  narrow,  thin,  and  tender 
leaves,  somewhat  the  shape  of  a  saddler's  needle.  From  the  fourth  to 
the  seventh  year  it  produces  nothing  except  long,  rough,  reed-like 
leaves.  It  ist  however,  possible  that  during  this  period  the  tree  may, 
from  its  leaves,  which  resemble  the  shoots  of  the  oleander,  bring  forth 
other  leaves  j  but  owners  of  palm  gardens  pluck  off  these  in  order  to 
give  the  tree  a  graceful  appearance.  Under  no  circumstances,  how- 
ever, do  they  touch  the  leaves  that  shoot  out  from  the  crown  of  the 
tree.  If  its  head  is  severed  from  its  body  the  whole  tree  withers  and 
dies.  Each  individual  plant  is  either  male  or  female. 

When  the  tree  has  attained  its  full  stature  a  flowering  branch  is 
cut  from  the  male  palm  and  applied  to  the  half-open  flower  bowl  of 
the  female,  thus  giving  it  the  fecundating  principle  without  which 
it  can  not  mature  its  fruit  germs. 

In  no  instance  has  it  been  recorded  by  botanists  that  one  of  these  trees 
possessed  in  itself  the  different  natures  of  male  and  female,  and  for 
this  reason  was  it  that  the  Arab  ^avants  classed  the  palm  as  the  first 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom  and  the  last  of  the  animaL 


892  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  height  of  the  date-palm  varies  from  three  to  twelve  meters. 
The  tree  itself  will  indicate  the  time  of  fruit  bearing. 

When  it  has  arrived  at  its  maturity  it  will  cease  its  upward  growth 
and  throw  out  from  its  head  a  large  mass  of  long,  broad,  green, 
leaves,  which  protect  the  neck  from  the  glare  and  heat  of  the  sun. 
The  young  seedlings  must  be  removed  from  the  foot  of  the  parent 
tree  in  the  month  of  January,  and  planted  and  reared  according  to 
the  foregoing  instructions. 

In  Persia  the  palm  is  grown  near  the  ports  on  the  Persian  Gulf; 
also,  in  the  hot  districts  of  Kerman,  Khurzistan,  and  in  the  oasis  of 
Jandak. 

E.  SPENCER  PRATT. 

LEGATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

Teheran,  July  3,  1887. 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  ALMOND  TREE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  MATHEWS,  OF  TANGIER. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  4H.] 

Soils,  etc. — The  almond  is  a  tree  of  third  magnitude,  and  is  remark- 
able for  the  facilty  in  raising  it,  for  its  hardiness  in  standing  continued 
droughts  growing  in  the  poorest  soils,  in  the  sands,  gravels,  and  amongst 
rocks ;  and  finally  for  the  abundance  of  and  high  price  which  its  fruit 
commands.  In  fact,  the  almond-tree  being  the  easiest  and  cheapest  to 
rear  and  cultivate  is  the  most  useful  tree  to  industry,  medicine,  and  the 
arts. 

California  abounds  in  soils  which  are  considered,  owing  to  their 
locality,  lightness,  or  hilly  nature,  unprofitable  or  unfit  for  any  use  but 
pasturing  cattle  in  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  which,  if  planted  with 
almonds,  would  become  sources  of  great  wealth  and  utility.  The  cult- 
ure of  almonds  is  in  fact  the  easiest,  most  economical,  and  productive. 
At  the  sixth  year  the  almond  trees  commence  to  yield  by  far  greater 
product  than  the  expenses  incurred  in  their  raising  and  cultivation, 
owing  to  their  rustic  habit,  requiring  no  care  from  the  time  of  their 
planting  to  the  long  period  which  these  trees  live.  i 

The  many  varieties  of  almonds  are  variously  described  ;  they  are  di- 
vided in  two  groups,  the  sweet  and  the  bitter  almond.  l?he  most  prom- 
inent are  the  Princess  almond,  the  largest  and  most  superior  of  all ; 
others,  large,  soft-shell,  and  large,  sweet  almond,  very  much  sought ; 
the  common  almond,  with  a  small  fruit  5  sweet  almond,  with  a  tender 
shell  5  Jordan  almond,  with  a  tender  shell  and  a  large,  sweet  kernel. 
These  almonds  are  largely  exported.  The  Sultana  almond,  or  Ibiza  of 
the  Balearic  Islands,  with  a  small  fruit  and  tender  kernel ;  the  Pista- 
chio almond,  with  smaller  fruit  than* the  last  mentioned,  and  a  variety 
of  hard-shell  and  bitter  almonds. 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  ALMOND  TREE.         893 

Propagation. — The  only  and  usual  mode  of  propagating  the  aimoud  is 
troin  seed.  The  soil  preferred  by  almonds  is  a  light  sandy  soil;  excessive 
or  even  great  richness  is  to  be  avoided,  as  in  this  the  trees  will  produce 
large  and  luxuriant  branches  and  foliage,  but  no  fruit.  The  hardiest 
almond  is  the  bitter,  and  is  preferable  as  stock  for  budding  or  grafting  on 
a  given  variety.  The  next  hardiest  for  stocks  is  the  sweet,  hard-shell 
almond.  The  land  selected  should  be  plowed  or  worked  with  hoes  im- 
mediately after  the  first  rains.  In  the  month  of  November  or  December 
small  holes  are  dug,  as  if  for  sowing  water-melons,  and  distance  20  feet 
each  way.  Procure  the  nuts  of  the  last  season  and  those  which  have 
not  been  much  exposed  to  the  air.  In  procuring  almonds  for  seed  the 
best  quality  of  soft-shell  almond  must  be  used ;  then  they  will  grow  as 
standards,  requiring  no  budding  nor  grafting,  producing  fine  almonds 
even  if  some  issue  the  hard-shell  variety.  Plant  an  almond  in  each  hole 
from  1£  to  2  inches  deep,  but  not  deeper;  sow  them  with  the  sharp  point 
upwards,  without  breaking  their  shells.  They  will  come  up  in  about 
thirty- five  to  forty  days.  The  first  year  they  should  be  protected  against 
frost  and  snow  with  sticks  and  straw  around  them,  for,  hardy  as  they 
may  be  when  once  established,  they  would  be  in  some  danger  while 
young.  They  must  be  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  in  the  spring  the  sur- 
face of  the  soil  should  be  stirred.  On  the  second  year  trim  off  the  lower 
shoots  and  head  down  those  in  exposed  positions  or  intended  for  dwarfs. 
The  buds  that  are  pushing  on  the  main  stem  should  be  rubbed  off; 
branches,  where  they  are  wanted,  should  be  encouraged,  and  the  buds, 
where  shoots  are  not  wanted,  rubbed  off.  It  is  far  better  to  prevent  the 
waste  of  strength  in  wood  that  has  to  be  pruned  off;  then  the  almond 
will  require  no  pruning,  but  an  annual  removal  of  dry  branches. 

In  order  to  provide  and  replace  with  plants  those  holes  where  the 
seed  has  failed  to  come  up,  there  should  be  a  number  of  almonds  sown 
in  some  selected  place  near  at  hand ;  sow  them  as  you  would  walnuts,  or 
rather  plant  them  at  regular  distances  8  inches  or  a  foot  apart  every 
way,  and  2  inches  deep;  in  the  spring  they  may  be  transplanted  to  their 
definite  places,  and  well  watered. 

Fertilizing. — The  best  fertilizers  of  the  almond  trees  are  grass,  weeds, 
leaves,  etc.,  buried  around  them.  Almonds  are  grafted  or  budded  on 
pluin  stocks  when  it  is  desired  to  retard  their  bloom,  but  it  is  consid- 
ered more  certain,  in  order  to  avoid  the  only  defect  of  the  almond  tree, 
precocity  to  plant  the  trees  in  sites  exposed  to  the  north  winds,  in  cold 
places,  in  order  to  retard  flowering  as  much  as  possible,  and  escape  the 
spring  frosts. 

Maturity. — The  almond  tree  comes  into  full  bearing  in  the  eighth  or 
tenth  year,  according  to  soil  and  climate.  The  fruit  is  gathered  when 
quite  ripe  and  allowed  to  dry  before  it  is  cleaned  and  packed. 

Yield. — The  annual  product  of  the  almond  varies  according  to  the  age 
or  situation  of  the  plant ;  a  twelve-year-old  tree  may  produce  from  8 
to  16  pounds  of  unshelled  almonds — the  average  yield  is  12  pounds — 


894        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

which  sell  readily  at  10  cents  per  pound  in  France,  Italy,  Spain,  and 
even  Morocco,  the  above  being  the  lowest  wholesale  price ;  and  should 
the  trees  stand  20  feet  apart,  at  the  rate  of  a  hundred  trees  to  the  acre, 
the  yield  per  acre  will  be  1,200  pounds,  of  the  value  of  $120  per  acre. 
If  we  take  into  consideration  that  the  culture  of  almonds  in  a  favorable 
climate  is  carried  on  on  lands  which  are  often  useless  for  other  crops, 
and  the  expenses  of  cultivation  very  small,  often  absolutely  nil,  it  will 
be  seen  that  it  is  a  most  profitable  culture. 

FELIX  A.  MATHEWS, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Tangier,  April  2,  1884. 


GRAPE-VINE  FERTILIZER/ 

REPORT  BY  COMMERCIAL  AGENT  MALMROS  OF  ST.  ETIENNE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  117.] 

M.  George  Ville,  the  eminent  professor  of  vegetable  chemistry  at  the 
Paris  Museum  of  Natural  History,  writes  as  follows  : 

During  the  last  five  years  I  have  been  devoting  myself  to  the  study  of  new  formu- 
las of  chemical  fertilizers.  The  one  employed  for  the  grape-vine,  in  1889,  at  the  experi- 
mental vineyard  of  Vincennes,  has  yielded  20,000  kilograms  of  raisins  per  hectare, 

equal,  say,  to  180  hectoliters  of  wine.    The  receipe  is  as  follows : 

Kilograms. 

Superphosphate  of  lime,  at  15  per  cent 400 

Carbonate  of  potash,  refined,  at  90  per  cent 200 

Sulphate  of  lime 400 

Total 1,000 

The  manner  of  employing  this  fertilizer  is  very  simple.  A  little  cup-shaped  cavity 
is  made  with  the  spade  around  each  vine  and  into  this  cavity  one  pours  the  quantity  of 
fertilizer,  which  has  been  ascertained  by  dividing  the  1,000  kilograms  by  the  number 
of  vines  on  the  hectare.  A  common  water-tumbler  may  serve  as  a  measure  by  sur- 
rounding ths  tumbler  with  a  thread  at  the  height  of  the  dose  required.  After  the 
fertilizer  has  been  applied,  the  hole  is  filled  up  with  the  earth  removed  in  order  to 
make  the  hole.  In  case  the  vineyards  are  of  very  great  extent,  one  may  proceed  in 
a  still  simpler  manner— one  spreads  the  fertilizer  in  front  and  behind  the  vines  and 
covers  it  with  earth  by  plowing.  This  manure  ought,  as  far  as  practicabll,  to  be 
applied  in  autumn,  in  November  and  December,  or  in  case  this  can  not  be  done,  in 
January  and  February. 

The  above  recipe  is  applicable  to  every  variety  of  soil  on  which  vines  are  grown. 
I  have  only  experimented  on  French  vines,  but  am  convinced  that  the  above  fertil- 
izer will  have  the  same  effect  on  American  vines.  To  the  above  recipe  I  may  add 
that  it  is  desirable  to  trim  the  vine  stocks  but  little,  and  to  let  them  remain  tall,  very 
tall.  This  will  have  a  tendency  to  avoid  the  attacks  of  the  phylloxera,  for  it  is  a 
fact  well  demonstrated  to-day  that  vines  on  trellis- work  have  been  free  from  suoh 
attacks. 

The  Amie>,  ScientiQque,  indorsing  the  recipe  of  Professor  Ville,  says 
that,  in  view  of  the  fact  that  in  the  entire  south  of  France  short-cut 


THE    CITRON    OF    COMMERCE.  895 

vino  stocks  are  of  immemorial  tradition,  the  recommendation  to  keep 
them  very  tall  (taillr  it  Inny  hois)  constitutes  a  bold  i n no vation,  but  feels 
DO  hesitation  in  advising  viticulturists  to  reform  their  habits  in  this 
respecl  in  order  to  place  themselves  in  the  conditions  prescribed  by  the 
distinguished  chemist  for  the  application  of  his  recipe. 

I  am  informed  that  the  above-mentioned  large  production  of  the  ex- 
perimental  vineyard  at  Vincennes  can  not  exhaust  the  soil,  as  the  said 
fertilizer  fully  restores  to  the  soil  all  the  ingredients  consumed  by  the- 
production  of  the  crop  of  raisins.  I  am  also  informed  that  the  favora- 
ble consequences  of  keeping  the  vines  tall  may  be  attributed  to  the  cir- 
cumstance that  vines  kept  in  that  condition  are  provided  with  plenty  of 
leaves,  which  constitute  the  respiratory  as  well  as  digestive  organs  of 
the  plant,  and  that  an  abundance  of  leaves  are  required  in  order  to  give 
vigor  and  productiveness  to  the  vine;  that,  on  the  contrary,  a  de- 
ficiency of  leaves  causes  a  decrease  of  sugar  in  the  raisins  and,  in  course 
of  time,  probably,  a  tenderness  or  sponginess  in  the  roots. 

OSCAR  MALMROS, 

Commercial  Agent. 

UNITED  STATES  COMMERCIAL  AGENCY, 

St.  Etienne,  June  4,  1890. 


THE  CITRON  OF  COMMERCE. 

[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  61.] 

ITALY. 

ROME. 
REPORT  BY  CONSUL-GENERAL  ALDEN. 

As  citron  is  not  grown  within  the  limits  of  this  consular  district,  1 
have  been  able  to  obtain  but  a  limited  amount  of  information  in  regard 
to  it. 

The  citron  tree,  or  shrub,  will  grow  wherever  lemon  or  orange  trees 
grow.  It  nourishes,  however,  only  in  a  sandy  soil  and  in  the  immediate 
neighborhood  of  the  sea.  It  is  most  successful  in  sheltered  situations 
on  the  shores  of  bays.  As  might  therefore  be  expected  it  is  largely 
grown  on  the  Ligurian  coast,  which  is  sheltered  by  mountains  from  the 
north  wind,  and  also  in  the  Southern  Mediterranean  provinces  of  Italy, 
and  in  Sicily.  The  French  island  of  Corsica  is  probably  the  most  pro- 
lific citron-producing  district  of  the  Mediterranean  Basin.  The  present 
Corsican  crop  is  estimated  to  be  nearly  5,510,000  pounds.  Great  care 
is  needed  in  the  cultivation  of  citron.  The  fruit  when  full  grown  is 
large  and  weighs  from  1  to  3  pounds,  and  will,  unless  the  branches  are 
carefully  propped  up,  either  break  them  or  bend  them  to  the  ground. 


896  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

The  average  crop  per  acre  of  citron  can  hardly  be  ascertained,  as  the 
size  of  a  crop  depends  upon  so  many  conditions — such  as  the  climate 
and  soil.  If  we  assume  that  each  shrub  or  tree  is  planted  3  yards  from 
every  other,  which  by  many  growers  is  regarded  as  the  best  arrange- 
ment, we  should  have  1,110  shrubs  to  the  hectare.  If  the  average  prod- 
uct of  each  shrub  be  assumed  to  be  14  citrons,  we  should  have  a  total 
product  of  15,400  citrons  to  the  hectare,  equivalent  to  6,231  citrons  to 
the  acre ;  or,  assuming  the  average  weight  of  the  fruit  to  be  1 J  pounds, 
about  9,346  pounds  to  the  acre. 

The  cost  of  production  varies  so  greatly  in  different  localities  and  at 
different  times  that  no  trustworthy  and  generally  useful  answer  to  the 
question  of  cost  can  be  given.  In  the  neighborhood  of  Genoa,  how- 
ever, it  is  roughly  estimated  at  about  $68  per  acre. 

More  citron  is  imported  into  than  is  exported  from  Italy.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  imports  and  exports  of  citron  for  three  years : 


Year. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1882                                   .  ..               .  . 

Pounds. 
3  896  701 

Pounds. 
513  019 

1883 

3  996  791 

341  719 

1884 

2  713  454 

262  672 

The  greater  part  of  the  imports  of  citron  comes  from  France,  and 
nearly  all  from  the  island  of  Corsica. 

Citron  is  chiefly  prepared  for  the  market  at  Leghorn,  which  is  the 
most  important  citron  port  in  the  Mediterranean.  The  fruit  is  first  put 
into  a  salt  pickle,  in  which  it  is  allowed  to  lie  for  three  months.  This 
pickling  in  the  case  of  the  Corsican  fruit  is  done  to  a  limited  extent  by 
the  Corsican  citron  grower,  but  as  a  rule  it  is  done  after  the  Corsican 
fruit  reaches  Leghorn.  The  next  process  consists  in  dividing  the  fruit 
into  halves  and  quarters,  and  packing  them  into  sugar  sirup,  The 
sirup  when  first  used  is  weak,  but  its  strength  is  gradually  increased 
by  additions.  Four  weeks  is  the  ordinary  period  during  which  the 
fruit  remains  packed  in  sugar,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  the  market. 

The  market  price  everywhere  fluctuates  greatly.  During  the  present 
year  the  price  at  Leghorn  has  varied  from  $14.47  to  $22.19  per  50  kilo- 
grams, or  110.20  pounds.  To  some  extent,  so  it  is  said,  these  fluctua- 
tions were  due  to  the  speculative  condition  of  the  market  in  New  York, 
where  the  price  has  varied  greatly. 

WILLIAM  L.  ALDEN, 

Consul-  General. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Rome,  November  29, 1885* 


THE    CITRON    OF    COMMERCE.  897 

LEGHORN. 

REPORT  B\  CONSUL  SA.RTORI. 
CULTIVATION. 

The  citrons  which  are  subsequently  converted  into  the  candied  citron 
of  commerce  are  grown  chiefly  in  Greece,  Calabria,  and  the  islands  of 
Sicily  and  Corsica.  Most  of  those 'which  come  to  this  port,  Leghorn, 
are  from  Corsica,  where  it  is  claimed  the  finest  qualities  are  produced. 
The  citron  tree  is  of  the  same  family  as  the  orange  and  lemon,  and  is 
propagated  by  cuttings,  which  begin  to  bear  fruit  the  third  year  after 
being  planted.  It  bears  one  crop  of  fruit  yearly,  which  matures  and  is 
gathered  during  September  and  October.  The  trees  are  pruned  every 
year,  the  branches  being  made  to  grow  as  much  as  possible  in  the  shape 
of  a  hollow  circle.  They  are  also  manured  yearly,  generally  with  stable 
dung.  In  summer  it  is  essential  that  they  should  be  kept  well  watered  j 
otherwise,  if  there  should  be  a  drought,  the  trees  suffer,  and  the  fruit 
will  drop  off  or  will  not  attain  its  full  size.  The  citron  tree  is  more  sus- 
ceptible to  damage  from  frost  and  cold  winds  than  the  orange  or  lemon, 
hence  sheltered  situations  with  a  favorable  exposure  are  sought  for  plant- 
ing them,  and  hedges  of  brushwood  disposed  so  as  to  protect  them  from 
the  winds.  The  fruit  resembles  a  huge  lemon,  and  is  often  so  large  and 
heavy  that  it  must  be  supported  on  the  tree. 

They  are  shipped  to  the  factories  for  candying,  sometimes  in  sacks, 
but  usually  in  large  hogsheads  filled  with  brine.  On  being  taken  out 
of  these  hogsheads  or  sacks  they  are  placed  in  tubs  containing  fresh 
brine  and  left  for  about  a  month.  The  brine  is  then  renewed,  and  the 
fruit  may  remain  in  it  until  required  for  use,  even  for  a  period  of  four 
or  five  months. 

CANDYING  CITKON. 

When  the  citrons  are  to  be  candied  they  are  taken  out  of  these  tubs 
and  boiled  in  fresh  water  until  sufficiently  soft,  which  is  ascertained 
by  testing  them  with  a  fork.  This  usually  takes  about  one  and  one- 
quarter  hours,  and  they  are  then  cut  into-  pieces,  the  seeds  carefully 
removed,  and  they  are  immersed  in  cold  water  and  left  for  twenty-four 
hours,  and  become  a  green  color.  After  this  they  are  placed  in  large 
earthen  jars  with  hot  sirup,  which  should  entirely  cover  them,  and  re- 
main about  three  weeks.  During  this  time  the  proportion  of  sugar  in 
the  sirnp  is  gradually  increased.  They  are  then  put  into  boilers,  with 
crystallized  sugar  dissolved  in  a  little  water,  and  cooked ;  then  allowed 
to  cool  for  twenty-four  hours,  and  boiled  again  until  they  can  absorb 
no  more  sugar,  and  then  taken  out  of  the  boilers  and  placed  on  a  wire 
netting  to  dry.  They  are  now  ready  for  packing  and  are  placed  in 
small  wooden  boxes  containing  about  25  pounds  each,  and  these  in 
their  turn  are  packed  in  cases  (half  cases  they  are  termed  in  the  trade) 
which  contain  ten  of  them.  The  proportion  of  sugar  used  in  the  proc- 


898  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

ess  of  candying  is  SO  per  cent. — that  is,  80  pounds  of  sugar  to  100 
pounds  of  citron — and  the  kind  used  is  generally  Egyptian  crystallized 
sugar,  which  costs  at  the  factories  11.85  cents  per  pound.  The  Govern- 
ment allows  a  drawback  at  the  above  rate — that  is,  80  pounds  of  sugar 
to  100  pounds  of  fruit — on  such  as  is  subsequently  exported.  As  the 
duty  is  5.7  cents  per  pound,  it  being  returned  makes  the  cost  of  the 
sugar  used  in  candying  the  fruit  afterwards  exported  6.15  per  pound. 

There  are  nine  factories  for  candying  citrons  in  Leghorn,  employing 
about  300  men  and  producing  annually  4,400,000  pounds.  In  1884  the 
United  States  took  of  these  1,921,341  pounds,  valued  at  $214,652.23, 
and  up  to  the  present  date  in  1885  they  have  taken  1,819,764  pounds, 
valued  at  $261.566.61,  a  decrease  in  the  quantity  and  an  increase  in  the 
valuation.  The  remainder  is  sent  principally  to  Holland  for  distribu- 
tion through  northern  Europe  and  England. 

As  there  are  no  citrons  grown  in  this  consular  district,  it  is  difficult 
to  give  correct  figures  as  to  the  cost  of  producing  this  fruit.  The  price 
paid  by  tbe  merchants  here  varies  according  to  the  supply,  5J  to  6J 
cents  per  pound  being  about  the  average  cost  of  the  fruit  in  brine  at 
the  factories. 

The  article  is  handled  almost  entirely  by  speculators,  and  the  prices 
of  the  candied  fruit  show  great  variations.  While  during  the  early 
autumn  the  prices  ranged  from  16J  to  18 J  cents,  it  can  now  readily  be 
purchased  for  13  cents  per  pound. 

VICTOR  A.  SARTORI, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Leghorn,  December  21, 1885. 


MESSINA, 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL  JONES. 
THE  CITRON  TREE. 

Formerly  in  the  Province  of  Messina  the, citron  (Citrus  medico)  was 
extensively  grown  in  hedges,  as  dividing  lines  between  neighbors,  but 
within  the  last  twenty  years  this  tree  has  been  nearly  exterminated  in 
this  vicinity  by  the  diseases  known  as  (jomma  (bleeding)  and  cagna  (foot- 
rot). 

The  citron  was  the  first  of  the  citrus  family  introduced  into  Europe. 
In  its  bearing  and  general  appearance  it  is  the  most  strongly  character- 
ized of  the  genus.  The  tree  is  low,  with  a  full  head ;  it  is  strong-shooting ; 
its  shoots  are  tender  and  straggling;  its  leaf  is  large,  thick,  oblong, 
wingless,  and  toothed.  Changes  occur  at  short  intervals  in  the  vitality 
of  the  tree.  It  frequently  happens  that  healthy  shoots  live  but  one  or 
two  years;  hence  the  necessity  of  cutting  off  the  vertical  shoots  to 
prevent  sudden  disturbances  in  the  head  of  the  tree  that  would  exhaust 


THE    CITRON    OP    COMMERCE.  899 

its  strength.  The  diseases  of  the  citron  are  constitutional,  and  prema- 
turely destroy  its  life.  The  most  promising  subjects  suddenly  cease 
growing  and  became  chlorotic;  the  branches  gradually  turn  yellow,  and 
are  often  covered  with  scabs,  from  which  exudes  coagulated  sap  re- 
sembling gum ;  the  sores  assume  a  cankerous  appearance,  and  the  tree 
dies.  The  citron's  dying  out  to  such  a  great  extent  in  this  province 
was  due  principally  to  its  propagation  by  cuttings.  It  has  been  found 
that  where  the  citron  was  budding  on  an  orange  seedling,  and  more 
especially  on  a  sour  orange,  it  acquired  a  stronger  constitution  and  did 
not  grow  in  such  a  straggling  manner.  The  citron  blooms  at  all  sea- 
sons of  the  year.  The  flowers  are  white  inside  and  purplish  outside. 
Black  ants  destroy  many  of  the  blossoms.  Once  set,  the  fruit  grows 
rapidly.  Citrons  often  weigh  from  6  to  8  pounds.  The  fruit  presents  a 
bumpy  appearance;  its  base  is  full  and  flat;  its  perfume  is  delicious. 
It  is  necessary  to  prop  up  the  branches  of  vigorous  trees,  as  unassisted 
they  could  not  support  their  heavy  fruit.  Good  culture  doubtless  would 
improve  the  nature  of  the  citron  and  perfect  its  development,  but  it 
cannot  prolong  its  life,  which  is  very  short  compared  with  that  of  the 
citrus  family  generally.* 

Citron  trees  receive  the  same  attention  as  the  orange  and  lemon  trees 
among  which  they  grow.  From  March  to  October  these  trees  are  worked 
five  times.  Irrigation  is  found  indispensable.  During  the  summer,  the 
dry  season,  the  trees  are  watered  twice  a  week.  The  average  cost  of 
cultivating  an  acre  in  orange  or  lemon  trees  is  $50  a  year.  The  distance 
between  these  trees  is  from  14  to  20  feet,  according  to  the  soil  and  the 
location. 

SHIPMENT  OP   CITRONS. 

The  citrons  now  exported  from  Messina  are  brought  from  Eeggio, 
in  Calabria.  They  are  shipped  in  brine,  and  are  prepared  as  follows : 
The  citrons  are  cut  in  halves,  thrown  into  casks  and  salted — 100  pounds 
of  salt  to  the  cask.  The  casks  are  then  filled  up  with  sea- water,  and 
turned  on  their  side.  The  citrons  are  left  to  soak  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
days.  The  casks  are  then  opened  and  the  citrons  weighed — 770  pounds 
of  citron  are  allowed  to  the  cask ;  sea-water  and  a  little  salt  are  added, 
and  the  cask  is  ready  for  exportation.  A  small  auger-hole  in  the  bung 
permits  the  gas  produced  by  fermentation  to  escape.  The  casks  are 
of  chestnut.  They  cost  $3  apiece,  and  contain  105  gallons.  It  costs 
$1  a  cask  to  cut  and  salt  the  citrons,  and  $1  a  cask  to  pack  them, 
cooperage  included. 

PRICES  AND  EXPORTS. 

A  citron  tree  bears  from  35  to  50  citrous,  which  are  worth  to  the  grower 
fro»i  5  to  10  cents  apiece.  First  quality  citrons  weigh  1  pound  and 
upwards.  Last  year  citrons  on  the  tree  sold  for  $20  the  220  pounds. 

*  For  the  above  details  I  am  indebted  to  the  comprehensive  work  of  Prof.  F.  Alfonso 
"  Coltura  degli  Agrumi." 


900  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

November  1,  1885,  they  brought  $17  the  220  pounds ;  December  1, 
1885,  they  fell  to  $12.50.  Salted  citrons,  November  1,  1885,  were 
quoted  at  $64  the  cask;  December  1,  1885,  at  $59.  November  and 
December  are  the  great  shipping  months;  the  fruit  is  then  half  grown 
and  half  ripe. 

The  custom-house  statistics  show,  for  the  year  ending  December  31, 
1884,  that  455,400  pounds  of  citron  in  brine;  valued  at  $16,560,  were 
exported  from  Messina.  No  preserved  fruit  is  shipped  from  this  port. 
England,  France,  Genoa,  and  Leghorn  are  the  principal  markets  for 

the  "citron  of  commerce." 

WALLACE  S.  JONES, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Messina,  December  8,  1885. 


NAPLES. 
REPORT  OF  CONSUL  OAMPHAT7SEN. 

CULTIVATION. 

The  cultivation  of  the  citron  begins  with  the  sowing  of  the  seed  of 
the  bitter  orange,  being  the  same  seed  from  the  fruit  of  which  marma- 
lade is  made. 

After  four  or  five  years,  when  the  seed  has  produced  plants  or  small 
trees,  they  are  transplanted,  at  the  time  of  blossoming,  in  regular  rows, 
at  a  distance  of  25  centimeters. 

When  they  have  a  diameter  of  8  centimeters  they  are  grafted  with 
small  citron  branches.  The  grafting  is  indispensable  to  give  long  life 
to  the  trees  and  hasten  the  production  of  the  fruit. 

Three  years  after  the  grafting  the  tree  is  transplanted  into  a  ditch  1.25 
meters  wide  and  1.50  meters  deep,  at  a  distance  of  4  meters  from  one 
another.  In  planting  the  trees  in  the  ditch  particular  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  injure  any  part  of  the  roots. 

The  leaves  are  taken  from  the  trees  and  the  branches  cut  back  to  the 
length  of  20  centimeters.  The  ditch  is  filled  with  earth  to  a  depth  not 
exceeding  25  centimeters,  left  sufficiently  loose  to  allow  the  roots  to 
spread  with  ease,  and  prevent  smothering  the  plants.  If  the  plants  do 
not  sprout  at  once  the  earth  on  the  roots  is  loosened  and  moistened. 

For  fertilizing  old  horse-manure  or  other  old  manure  is  to  be  applied. 
No  fresh  manure  ought  to  be  used,  because  it  would  be  injurious  and 
have  a  tendency  to  kill  the  plants.  Manure  should  be  used  only  in  the 
winter,  between  October  and  March,  and  be  placed  at  a  distance  of  10 
or  15  centimeters  from  the  roots.  Around  the  tree  a  deepening  in  the 
shape  of  a  basin  should  be  formed,  and  unless  the  ground  be  moist  or 
damp  the  plants  require  frequent  applications  of  water  during  the 
summer. 


THE    CITRON    OF    COMMKRCT,.  (J01 

In  Sorrento  the  planting  is  done  from  March  to  June,  according  to 
the  state  of  the  temperature  ;  grafting  during  the  same  months.  The 
rest  of  the  cultivation  is  the  same  as  Cor  the  orange  and  lemon.  Hoeing 
and  pruning  of  useless  limbs  are  done  in  May.  The  tree  requires  great 
protection  against  severe  cold  or  very  warm  winds,  as  well  as  against 
hailstorms.  In  order  to  give  it  as  much  protection  as  possible  hedges 
are  planted  and  coverings  of  straw-matting  or  something  similar  pro- 
vided, having  regard  to  the  situation  of  the  tree  and  the  means  within 
reach  of  the  cultivators.  The  plant  is  much  more  tender  and  delicate 
than  the  lemon. 

The  tree  blossoms  between  March  and  May  and  up  to  the  months  of 
September  and  October,  at  which  time  the  fruit  is  ripe.  In  about  two 
years'  time  the  grafts  will  begin  to  bear  fruit,  and  after  six  years,  if  the 
ground  and  climate  suit,  the  tree  will  bear  from  40  to  50  kilograms  of 
fruit  a  year,  and  when  in  full  age  up  to  2  quintals,  and  perhaps  more. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  expense  in  the  cultivation  is  caused  by  cov- 
ering the  tree  to  protect  it  against  the  winds.  In  milder  climates  this 
expense  is  not  incurred,  and  the  only  outlay  is  for  manuring  and  hoe- 
ing. These  expenses  vary  according  to  the  price  of  labor  in  the  differ-, 
ent  localities.  When  the  ground  is  of  the  right  kind — that  is,  loose 
and  moist — the  climate  mild,  there  is  a  great  profit  made  in  the  culture 
of  the  citron. 

The  exact  amount  of  the  profit  can  not  be  given,  as  it  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  price  obtained  for  the  fruit,  which  is  subject  to  great  fluctua- 
tions, ranging  from  15  to  100  lire  per  quintal  on  the  ground.  This  year, 
for  instance,  garden  citrons  have  sold  at  from  30  to  70  francs  or  lire  a 
quintal  on  the  ground.  Some  years  when  Corsica,  where  the  citron  is 
cultivated  to  a  very  large  extent,  gave  large  crops,  the  fruit  sold  for  15 
lire  a  quintal,  while  at  other  times,  when  the  crop  was  small,  100  lire  a 
quintal  was  paid. 

PACKING   AND   PRESERVING. 

This  fruit  is  packed  the  same  as  lemons,  wrapped  in  paper  and  boxed 
or  barreled. 

The  fruit  is  not  candied  for  exportation  in  this  neighborhood,  but 
senj.  to  Leghorn  or  Genoa,  to  large  factories  for  this  industry. 

The  information  received  on  the  subject  of  preserving  the  fruit  is  as 
follows : 

The  citron  is  cut  in  two  or  four  pieces ;  it  is  then  placed  on  the  fire 
and  boiled  until  the  inside  can  be  easily  taken  out  with  a  spoon  then 
soaked  in  cold  water  for  4  or  5  days,  and  the  water  changed  twice  a  day, 
until  the  citron  has  lost  its  bitter  taste.  To  every  kilogram  of  fruit  1 
kilogram  of  sugar  and  1  liter  of  water  is  added,  and  placed  over  a  slow 
fire  and  left  standing  for  two  days. 

Then  100  grams  of  sugar  to  every  kilogram  of  fruit  is  added,  and  the 
boiling  process  repeated,  left  again  for  two  day 8,  and  then  again  repeated 


902        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

at  intervals  until  the  sirup  is  thick.     The  fruit  is  then  dried  in  an  oven 
or  before  the  fire,  and  can  be  exported  in  wooden  boxes. 

According  to  another  authority,  the  fresh  citron  is  divided,  the  pulp 
taken  out,  and  the  rinds  are  then  steeped  in  brine  for  several  weeks. 
They  are  then  boiled  in  sirup  until  the  rinds  are  quite  cooked ;  they  are 
next  dried  and  boxed,  as  above  described. 

Others  again,  after  taking  the  rind  out  of  the  brine,  boil  it  in  water 
for  two  days,  changing  the  water  two  or  three  times  per  day  and  begin- 
ning each  time  with  cold  water ;  then  1  kilogram  of  sugar  to  one-half 
kilogram  of  water  is  taken  ;  put  into  the  quantity  of  sirup  thus  made  1 
kilogram  of  the  rind  a*s  above  prepared.  Each  day  for  six  or  seven  days 
bring  the  fruit  now  in  the  sirup  to  a  heat  in  which  you  can  just  bear  your 
hand,  adding  50  grams  of  sugar  each  time.  Let  the  fruit  in  this  sirup 
become  cold,  and,  as  above,  add  50  grams.  Make  another  sirup  of  1 
kilogram  of  sugar  to  one-half  kilogram  of  water ;  boil  for  one-half  hour ; 
then  take  the  fruit  out  of  the  first  sirup  and  put  in  the  last  prepared, 
which  should  be  exceedingly  hot,  and  boil  the  fruit  ten  minutes,  stirring 
it  at  the  same  time.  Thus  the  last  sirup  is  absorbed  by  the  fruit,  and 
it  becomes  dry. 

The  citrons,  both  fresh  and  in  brine,  are  exported  in  immense  quan- 
tities from  Messina,  Palermo,  and  other  places  to  foreign  countries,  but 
chiefly  to  the  English  markets. 

EDWARD  OAMPHAUSEN, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Naples,  December  19,  1885. 


SICILY. 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL  WOODCOCK  OF  CATANIA. 

'  In  this  district,  comprising  the  southeast  third  of  Sicily,  the  land  rises 
gradually  from  the  sea- shore  to  the  summit  of  ^Etna.  The  mountain  is 
a  little  over  two  miles  high,  and  Sicily  is  in  a  semi-tropical  climate. 
The  slopes  of  ^Etna,  therefore,  have  every  variety  of  climate  fro^m  the 
semi  tropical  to  the  frigid,  according  to  altitude.  Citrus  groves  make 
beautiful  these  slopes  with  their  vivid  green ,  from  the  sea-shore  to  an 
altitude  of  about  1,000  feet.  At  this  higher  altitude  the  cultivation  of 
the  orange  and  lemon  is  not  so  profitable,  owing  to  the  uncertainty  of 
a  crop.  Heavy  frosts  at  such  an  altitude  are  liable  to  injure  the  buds. 
The  fruit,  however  (called  montegna),  is  of  the  best  quality. 

The  orchards  that  skirt  the  ^ea-shore  bear  abundantly,  and  seldom 
fail  in  producing  a  good  crop.  The  fruit  (called  marina),  is  inferior 
to  the  mountain  fruit,  and  both  trees  and  fruit  are  more  subject  to  dis- 
ease and  pests. 


THE    CITRON    OF    COMMERCE.  903 

The  most  desirable  locality  for  a  citrus  orchard  is  that  most  distant 
from  the  sea  and  not  of  such  an  altitude  as  to  lie  within  the  frost  line. 

PROPAGATING  THE  PLANT. 

There  are  four  methods  of  propagating  the  citrus  plant ;  by  the  seed, 
by  cuttings,  by  grafting,  and  by  budding. 

The  seeds  for  planting  are  taken  from  the  choicest  fruit  when  per- 
factly  ripe,  and  are  planted  in  the  spring  in  some  warm  sheltered  spot 
from  4  to  5  inches  apart.  The  soil  should  be  composed  of  loose  earth 
and  well-rotted  manure.  The  young  plants  should  be  sparingly  but 
frequently  watered.  The  plants  must  be  transplanted  to  the  orchard 
after  the  growth  of  a  year  or  two. 

To  propagate  by  cuttings,  young  healthy  shoots  that  are  straight  are 
selected.  They  should  be  about  1  foot  in  length,  and  must  be  planted 
in  the  ground  to  the  depth  of  4  or  5  inches  in  a  soil  similar  to  that  used 
for  the  seed.  Care  should  be  taken  to  plant  the  cutting  upright,  as  it 
grew  upon  the  tree.  When  the  cutting  becomes  well  rooted,  and  has 
had  a  healthy  growth  of  a  year  or  two,  it  may  be  removed  for  final 
planting  to  the  orchard. 

The  grafting  and  budding  methods,  which  are  so  commonly  practiced, 
need  not  be  described.  Citrus  plants  in  this  part  of  Sicily  are  propa- 
gated almost  entirely  by  the  budding  method. 

For  the  stock  upon  which  to  bud,  use  is  made  of  the  bitter-orange 
tree.  The  bitter  orange  is  indigenous  to  this  climate.  It  is  more  hardy 
and  less  liable  to  disease  than  those  that  bear  the  choicest  fruits.  Its 
natural  fruit  has  no  value,  but  the  Sicilians  sometimes  convert  it  into  a 
kind  of  preserves. 

For  the  purpose  of  propagating  the  choice  fruits,  the  bitter-orange 
plant  is  grown  in  nurseries  from  the  seed.  When  the  plant  is  a  year 
old  it  is  transplanted,  and  when  it  has  attained  a  growth  of  about  1  inch 
in  diameter  (being  three  or  four  years  old)  it  is  again  transplanted  to 
the  orchard. 

ORCHARD. 

The  distance  to  be  maintained  between  the  trees  in  the  orchard  de- 
pends much  upon  the  location  and  nature  of  the  soil.  When  the  locality 
is  warm  and  the  soil  is  naturally  rich,  mellow,  and  of  easy  culture,  the 
distance  between  the  trees  must  be  greater  than  when  the  soil  is  hard 
and  the  climate  colder,  because  the  trees  will  grow  more  luxuriantly 
and  form  larger  tops.  In  such  a  soil,  for  lemons  the  plants  should  be 
about  24  feet  apart,  and  for  oranges  about  17  feet.  When  the  soil  is 
naturally  hard  and  poor  and  the  climate  colder,  the  distance  between 
the  trees  ibr  lemons  may  be  about  20  feet,  and  for  oranges  about  13  feet. 
The  judgment  of  the  horticulturist  must  determine  this  matter. 

When  the  bitter-orange  plants  are  thus  transplanted  to  the  orchard 
the  tops  are  cut  off  about  4  feet  above  the  ground.  When  they  become 
156A 33 


904        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

well  rooted  and  of  healthy  growth,  they  are  budded  from  the  choicest 
varieties  of  orange  and  lemon.  Two  buds  are  generally  inserted  in  the 
stock  opposite  each  other. 

The  orchard  is  thoroughly  cultivated,  being  worked  over  with  the 
mattock  and  spade  at  least  five  times  during  the  season,  commencing 
in  March  and  ending  in  October.  The  ground  when  the  trees  are  young 
does  not  require  so  thorough  a  cultivation. 

The  plants  are  irrigated  whenever  they  require  it.  For  this  purpose 
the  streams  that  tumble  down  from  -/Etna  are  utilized.  Where  this  is 
impracticable,  water  is  elevated  from  wells  by  steam  or  mule  power. 

Some  grow  vegetables  between  the  trees,  but  this  practice  is  con- 
demned by  the  best  horticulturists. 

As  to  the  time  when  the  trees  begin  to  bear  a  full  crop  much  depends 
upon  the  climate,  cultivation,  and  fertility  of  the  soil.  Generally  they 
commence  to  bear  a  full  crop  when  fifteen  years  old. 

As  to  the  longevity  of  the  citrus  tree,  there  is  here  a  diversity  of 
opinion.  I  have  been  told  by  some  horticulturists  that  the  lemon  and 
orange  budded  upon  a  bitter-orange  stock  will  live  and  continue  fruit- 
ful from  one  to  two  centuries.  Doubtless  they  will  live  and  continue 
to  bear  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  years. 

Lemon  trees  are  healthy  and  vigorous,  bear  annually  on  the  average 
about  a  thousand  of  the  fruit,  and  oranges  about  six  hundred.  There 
are  instances  in  which  trees  have  borne  ten  times  the  number  specified. 

GATHERING  AND  BOXING  THE  FRUIT. 

The  time  for  gathering  the  fruit  for  export  is  here  in  the  month  of 
November.  For  export  to  so  distant  a  country  as  America,  the  best 
and  soundest  fruit  is  generally  selected.  It  is  plucked  when  not  fully 
mature,  and  is  yet  of  a  greenish  color. 

In  gathering  the  crop  great  care  is  taken  not  to  bruise  the  fruit.  It 
is  plucked  by  hand,  and  gently  deposited  in  a  basket  that  is  lined  with 
cloth.  The  stem  is  not  removed  from  the  fruit,  but  is  cut  off  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  from  its  base. 

Great  care  is  taken  in  preparing  the  fruit  for  market.  Each  indi- 
vidual fruit  is  carefully  cleaned  of  all  insects,  or  injurious  matter,  with 
a  sponge  and  cold  water,  and  is  wiped  perfectly  dry  before  boxing.  The 
fruits  are  carefully  assorted.  Those  that  are  large,  plump,  and  healthy 
in  appearance,  without  marks  or  spots  upon  the  surface,  are  boxed  by 
themselves,  and  denominated  "  first  class."  Those  whose  skins  bear 
any  blemish  or  otherwise  are  not  fine  in  appearance  are  boxed  by 
themselves  and  denominated  "  second  class." 

The  boxes  for  the  fruit  are  so  constructed  that  they  will  hold  from 
250  to  360  of  the  fruit.  Each  box  is  inspected  to  see  that  no  nail  or 
sliver  protrudes  to  injure  the  fruit.  It  is  then  lined  with  common  silk 
paper.  Each  individual  lemon  is  enveloped  in  the  same  kind  of  paper 


THE    CITRON    OF    COMMERCE  905 

prior  to  being  deposited  in  the  box.  The  boxes  ar  3  frequently  opened, 
inspected,  and  all  infected  fruit  removed.  Especially  is  this  done  just 
prior  to  shipment. 

Laborers  in  citrus  orchards  reciveas  wages  from  30  to  40  cents  a  day, 
without  food  being'  furnished  to  them.  In  summer  they  are  required  to 
work  ten  hours  a  day,  and  in  winter  eight  hours. 

The  cost  per  annum  of  cultivation  in  the  best  orchards  per  hectare 
(H.471  acres),  as  estimated  by  a  practical  grower,  Mr.  Augustus  Pera- 
toner,  United  States  vice-consul,  is  on  the  average  650  lire  ($125.45). 

DISEASES  AND  PESTS. 

The  diseases  and  pests  attacking  the  citrus  trees  in  this  part  of  Sicily 
are  as  follows  : 

A  disease  called  the  "  colla "  (glue)  sometimes  (though  not  often  in 
this  district)  affects  the  citrus.  It  is  said  to  be  caused  by  a  sudden 
change  from  a  high  to  a  low  temperature ;  this  checks  the  exhalation 
of  the  tree,  and  the  matter  to  be  exhaled  accumulates  within  until  it 
bursts  the  passages  and  forces  its  way  out  through  the  bark.  On  com- 
ing in  contact  with  the  air  it  condenses  in  drops  of  a  light-yellow  gum. 
The  only  remedy  for  this  disease  is  to  cut  off  the  branches  infected. 

A  parasitic  growth  of  a  fungus  nature  frequently  gathers  upon  the 
bark  of  the  trees.  The  lemon  tree  is  more  subject  to  this  than  the 
orange.  It  is  removed  after  a  heavy  rain,  or  after  thoroughly  soaking 
the  parts  affected,  by  scraping. 

An  insect  called  the  pidocchio  nero  (black  louse)  infests  the  bark, 
leaves,  and  fruit  of  both  the  orange  and  lemon  j  also,  an  insect  called 
thepidocch'io  bianco  \ white  louse)  infests  in  a  similar  manner  the  lemon 
tree.  In  appearance  it  is  like  a  minute  scale  or  scab,  of  oval  form,  and 
attaches  itself  with  great  tenacity  to  the  bark,  leaves,  and  fruit.  This 
insect  prevails  to  a  large  extent  in  our  orchards.  As  a  remedy,  a  wash 
of  lime-water  is  used ;  also,  water  slightly  tinctured  with  kerosene. 

The  fruit  of  both  orange  and  lemon  is  sometimes  injured  by  an  insect 
called  the  fly.  It  makes  its  appearance  in  the  beginning  of  summer, 
and  commences  its  devastation  by  stinging  the  fruit  and  depositing 
therein  its  eggs.  These  eggs  develop  into  grubs,  which  destroy  the  fruit. 
When  the  fly  tirst  appears  the  fruit  on  the  tree  should  be  frequently 
washed.  The  water  should  be  applied  with  a  sponge.  Some  slightly 
tincture  the  water  with  kerosene  or  soda.  Fumigating  the  trees  with 
the  smoke  of  sulphur  has  also  been  tried.  No  remedy  has  yet  been  dis- 
covered that  effectually  destroys  the  noxious  pests.  Good  ventilation, 
thorough  culture,  and  plenty  of  sunlight  are  the  best  preventives. 

EXPORTS  TO  UNITED  STATES. 

In  the  export  of  citrus  fruits  from  Catania  to  the  United  States  dur- 
ing the  past  three  years  tUere  has  been  a  gradual  decline.  This  is  prob- 


906         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

ably  owing  to  the  decline  in  prices.    There  were  exported  from  Catania 
to  the  United  States  of  lemons  and  citrons— 


Years. 

Boxes. 

Value. 

1882           1  

241,  107 

$441,  227.  72 

1883  

228,  857 

324,  284.  84 

18*84             

168,  575 

391,  068.  20 

ALBERT  WOODCOCK, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Catawia,  November  25, 1885. 


CUBA. 

REPORT  OF  CONSUL  PIERCE  OF  MATANZA8. 

In  the  district  of  Matanzas  the  citron,  though  not  indigenous  to  Cuba, 
is  to  some  extent  cultivated  here,  but  not  as  an  article  of  commerce. 
Scarcely  any  attention  is  paid  to  its  cultivation,  and,  like  a  great  many 
other  useful  products,  it  is  almost  entirely  neglected,  owing  to  the  prior 
preference  for  the  staple  product,  which  up  to  this  day  is  the  sugar- 
cane. 

It  may  be  surprising  that  an  article  so  universally  growing  in  the 
island  should  not  appear  as  an  article  of  export,  but  to  one  well  and 
thoroughly  informed  as  to  the  tendency  of  the  agricultural  class  here  it 
is  not  surprising.  Nearly  every  farm-house  garden  or  plantation  has 
a  few  citron  trees  growing.  The  soil  is  eminently  adapted  to  its  culti- 
vation, and,  in  the  production  of  it,  it  is  flourishing  and  florescent,  but 
as  small  cultivations  have  been  entirely  abandoned  in  preference  to  the 
sugar-cane,  there  has  been  neither  foreign  exportation  nor  an  interior 
commerce  in  the  article — at  least  in  this  district. 

The  citron  is  used  to  a  limited  extent  here  as  a  tonic  and  for  pre- 
serves. In  its  use  as  a  tonic  or  a  medicinal  article  only  the  outside 
bark  or  peel  is  used.  The  interior  is  used  as  a  refreshment  and  fofc  pre- 
serves. 

The  citron  is  grown  on  a  bush  about  three  yards  high.  From  the  time 
of  planting,  in  about  two  years,  fruit  may  be  expected. 

It  will  grow  in  any  ground,  but  rich  earth  is  naturally  preferable. 
As  the  fruit  has  never  been  attentively  cultivated  here,  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  digest  the  many  opinions  given  by  the  isolated  cultivators 
who  have  given  it  any  attention  ;  but  I  have  given  what  I  deem  a  fair 
synopsis  of  the  various  data  obtained,  and  will  add  that  it  is  deemed 
and  classified  as  hardy  as  the  orange, 


FRUIT-TREE  CULTURE  IN  COGNAC.  907 

Propogation  may  be  done  by  planting  the  seeds  (but  production  is 
later  in  this  way),  or  by  catting,  or,  as  in  the  case  of  the  banyan  tree, 
by  intertwining  branches  which  readily  take  root. 

FRANK  H.  PIERCE, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Matanzas,  November  17,  1885. 


MADEIRA. 

Acting  Consul  J.  Hutchinsou  writes  from  Funchal  under  date  Decem- 
ber 3,  1883— 

The  cultivation  of  the  fruit  on  the  island  is  on  so  small  a  scale  that  it 
is  impossible  to  obtain  any  definite  information.  There  are  a  few  trees 
in  two  or  three  districts,  on  the  lands  of  small  holders  who  never  think 
of  making  any  calculation  as  to  the  cost  of  culture,  yield,  or  profits. 

The  fruit  is  sent  into  town  in  small  parcels  for  sale  to  the  shippers. 
The.present  prices  range  from  $1  to  $2  per  hundred,  according  to  size. 
The  buyer  places  the  fruit  in  a  cask  with  sea  water  for  shipment.  It 
all  goes  to  London,  the  average  annual  shipment  being  about  50  casks 
of  1,000  citrons  each. 


MEXICO. 

Consul  James  Viosca,  of  La  Paz,  Mexico,  reports,  under  date  Novem- 
ber 24,  1885,  that,  while  the  citron  has  never  attained  a  commercial 
importance  in  Lower  California,  the  tree  thrives  luxuriantly,  bearing 
yearly  an  abundant  crop  of  very  deliciously-flavored  fruit,  weighing 
from  1  to  5  pounds  each,  thus  proving  the  fitness  of  the  soil  did  a 
market  exist  for  the  produce.  A  small  quantity  of  the  green  or  seasoned 
fruit  is  yearly  exported  to  the  ports  of  Mazatlan  and  San  Bias,  for 
domestic  uses  in  making  sweet  preserves,  or  what  is  known  as  fruta 
enbuelta  en  azucar.  Otherwise  it  has  no  commercial  importance. 


FRUIT-TREE  CULTURE  IN  COGNAC.* 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  EARLE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  10Q.] 

There  seems  to  be  several  reasons  for  dwarfing  fruit  trees,  distort- 
ing them  out  of  their  usual  shapes,  and  planting  tnem  in  queer  and 
unusual  places  and  positions.  These  reasons  may  be  stated,  according 
to  my  observations,  as  follows  : 

(1)  For  economy  of  space. 

0 

*  As  carried  on  in  the  Billardiiie,  a  garden  near  Cognac,  belonging  to  Mr.  Hennesy. 


908        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

(2)  For  protection  against  weather. 

(3)  For  facility  of  making  medical  applications  when  the  tree  shows 
signs  of  disease. 

(4)  The  facility  with  which  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  may  be  acceler- 
ated or  forced. 

(5)  For  ornament. 

Let  us  glance  a  moment  at  these  various  objects,  and  how  they  are 
accomplished. 

(1)  Economy  of  space. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  land  holdings  here  are  small — very  many  of 
them  very  small — and  as  grapes  for  brandy  making  was  the  great,  the 
all-absorbing  crop,  every  rood  of  available  land  was  concentrated  to  that 
to  the  exclusion  of  everything  else  whatever.  And  after  the  prosperity 
of  the  country  was  gone,  through  the  death  of  the  vines  by  the  phyl- 
loxera, the  farmer  required  all  his  land  for  food  crops  to  support  his 
family.  So  in  both  cases,  avarice  and  poverty,  the  fruit  tree,  a  luxury, 
had  to  take  the  wall 

Again,  in  close  built  quarters  in  town  there  was  naturally  no  space 
for  fruit  or  vines.  There  is  almost  always  a  court  yard,  however,"  and 
along  the  walls  of  this  the  thrifty  Frenchman  has  strung  his  fruit  trees. 
On  the  outside  he  takes  up  a  flag-stone  from  the  pavement  of  the  side- 
walk, prepares  a  place,  plants  a  vine,  and  replaces  the  stone  so  as  to 
conform  to  the  new  conditions.  The  vine  grows,  its  stem  is  supported 
against  the  wall  to  a  height,  say,  of  from  10  to  12  feet,  when  it  is  trained 
out  laterally  between  the  upper  and  lower  windows  on  a  sort  of  a  horse- 
rack  shaped  frame  of  iron  rods.  Thus  it  forms  a  beautiful  ornament  to 
the  dead  white  house  front  and  furnishes  many  a  welcome  cluster  of 
juicy  grapes  to  the  breakfast  table  at  no  cost. 

(2)  Protection  against  the  weather. 

This  is  by  no  means  a  rigorous  climate,  measured  by  Few  York  stan- 
dards, although  by  reference  to  a  map  it  may  be  seen  that  Cognac  is 
about  the  latitude  of  Montreal,  Canada.  The  Gulf  stream  has  so  modi- 
fied the  climate,  however,  that  the  u  winter  isotherm,"  so  to  speak, 
would  fall  about  Macon,  Ga.,  Montgomery,  Ala.,  or  Columbus,  Miss. 
It  was  not  colder  here  last  winter — an  average  season — than  in  any  of 
the  three  southern  cities.  But,  remembering  the  latitude,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  shortest  winter  days  are  only  about  eight  hours  long,  and  after 
that  the  long,  cold  night.  Then  the  wind  blows  chill  and  cold,  piercing 
even  to  the  joints,  and  on  still  nights  the  frost  lies  like  snow  on  the 
ground.  As  to  snow  itself,  other  than  as  a  feathery  shower,  melting 
almost  as  soon  as  it  falls',  it  is  rare.  So  with  sleet — that  sleet  which 
even  in  the  far  south  thickly  glazes  all  out-doors,  from  leaf,  twig,  and 
stem  of  tree  and  plant  to  roof  of  house  and  bed  of  road — here  it  is  al- 
most unknown.  Still,  as  this  climate  is  ill  adapted  to  such  delicate 
fruits  as  peaches,  apricots,  etc.,  some  sort  of  artificial  protection  against 
cold  and  frost  is  necessary  for  theui,  and  they  obtain  the  best  protection 


FRUIT-TREE    CULTURE    IN   COGNAC.  909 

from  the  wall  itself.  The  body  of  the  wall  protects  against  the  wind 
and  driving  cold,  and  the  screens  and  sheds,  which  can  be  readily 
adapted  to  the  wall,  against  frost  and  snow.  These  screens  are  made 
thus :  The  walls  are  almost  invariably  capped  with  a  coping  or  fluted 
tiles  projecting  several  inches;  under  the  little  shed  thus  formed  a 
slanting  frame  of  iron  rods  and  wires  is  adapted,  supported  below  by 
braces  of  the  same  metal.  Upon  this  frame  and  overhanging  the  trees 
is  placed  a  blanket  of  straw  made  by  the  gardener  himself  at  a  nominal 
cost ;  if  this  is  not  enough,  it  is  very  easy  to  hang  similar  mats  of  straw 
or  old  rugs,  etc.,  against  the  wall  and  in  front  of  the  trees. 

(3)  For  the  facility  of  making  medical  applications  to  the  tree  when 
it  shows  signs  of  disease. 

The  trees  here  are  subject  to  many  ailments,  some  affecting  the  present 
or  prospective  crop  of  fruit  only,  and  others  touching  the  life  of  the 
tiv»*  itself.  French  horticultural  therapeutics  seems  to  limit  itself  to  a 
solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  and  quicklime  (tbebouiUie  bordelaise),  or 
a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  and  aqua  ammonia  (the  eau  celeste). 
The  solutions  are  applied  by  means  of  a  spray  apparatus,  or  an  atom- 
izer, and  when  the  tree  is  fairly  spread  out  against  the  wall,  as  in  the 
methods  of  cultivation  now  under  consideration,  these  applications  are 
a  very  simple  matter. 

(4)  The  facility  with  which  the  ripening  of  the  fruit  may  be  acceler- 
ated or  forced. 

From  what  has  been  said  under  the  second  heading  it  needs  no  further 
argument  to  show  how  the  early  heat  of  the  sun  may  be  utilized  for  the 
ripening  of  the  fruit  and  what  measures  should  be  taken  to  protect  the 
tree  and  its  fruit  against  sudden  loweriugs  of  the  temperature  in  the 
late  spring.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  thrifty  gardener,  by  making  use 
of  the  means  above  indicated,  can  get  his  apricots  early  into  market 
when  they  bring  him  5  to  6  cents  apiece. 

Lastly,  for  ornament.  All  the  gardens  here  are  surrounded  by  high 
stone  walls,  and,  of  course,  no  gardener  of  taste  or  feeling  could  permit 
his  wall  to  remain  white,  bare,  and  naked.  Hence  many  of  the  designs 
used  are  merely  to  hide  the  nakedness  of  the  wall.  They  have  but  little 
practical  utility  so  far  as  bearing  fruit  is  concerned,  and  are  maintained 
in  the  forms  in  which  they  are  drawn  with  infinite  difficulty.  Some- 
times, after  several  years  of  careful  management,  tb«rtree  is  gotten  into 
the  desired  elaborate  form,  when  suddenly,  to  the  great  disgust  of  all 
concerned,  half  of  it  dies  and  its  symmetrical  beauty  is  gone. 

With  this  style  of  tree  culture,  however,  I  have  but  little  sympathy, 
since  it  is  much  easier  to  get  vigorous,  hardy  trees,  bearing  fruit,  whose 
forms  are  more  graceful  to  my  eye  than  those  intended  merely  for  orna- 
ment. 

So  much,  then,  for  the  raison  d?ttre  of  this  method  of  tree  culture. 
Let  us  glance  now  at  how  the  results  are  obtained. 

(1)  The  first  requisite  is,  of  course,  the  wall.     This  should  be  from  9 


910  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

to  12  feet  high,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  garden  or  inclosed  space. 
It  should  be  covered  with  some  sort  of  slightly  projecting  coping,  as 
tiles  or  slate,  and  should  be  of  sufficient  thickness  to  insure  its  stability. 
Here,  where  the  whole  soil  is  nearly  underlaid  with  soft  chalk-stone, 
the  cost  of  the  wall  is  a  mere  trifle — the  trench  for  the  foundation  and 
that  for  the  trees  furnish  nearly  enough  stone  for  the  purpose. 

(2)  After  the  wall  is  built  some  sort  of  trellis  should  be  attached  to 
it  upon  which  to  tie  and  train  the  trees.    The  poorer  gardeners  employ 
a  plain  wooden  diamond-shaped  trellis,  made  of  slats  nailed  against 
the  wall.    The  walls  of  the  best  gardens,  however,  are  provided  with 
trellises  of  iron  wire,  and  each  strand  is  furnished  here  and  there  with 
thumb-screw  swivels  so  that  they  may  be  drawn  taut  when  required. 
This  is  much  the  neater,  more  desirable,  and,  in  the  long  run,  more 
economical  system. 

(3)  A  trench  should  be  dug  at  some  slight  distance  from  the  wall  for 
the  reception  of  the  new  plantation.     The  distance  from  the  wall  and 
the  dimensions  of  the  trench  will  depend  on  the  height  of  the  wall  as 
regulating  the  height  of  the  tree  arid  the  kind  of  fruit-tree  to  be  planted, 
say,  ordinarily,  1J  feet  from  the  wall  and  2  feet  deep  by  3  or  even  2J 
feet  wide.    This  trench  should  DOW  be  filled  with  carefully  prepared 
upper  soil,  or  loam,  mixed  with  a  suitable  quantity  of  stable  manure. 
The  tree,  or  vine,  is  now  planted,  in  the  month  of  November  or  Febru- 
ary, with  the  stem  slanted  through  the  side  of  the  trench  and  towards 
the  wall,  and,  its  first  bent  being  given  it,  attached  to  the  trellis. 

Here  let  me  stop  a  moment  to  say  that  the  consensus  of  opinion 
among  gardeners  here  seemed  to  be  decidedly  in  favor  of  seedling  trees 
in  preference  to  budded  or  grafted  stocks.  Of  course,  if  a  bough  can 
not  be  gotten  where  it  is  desired  to  have  it  by  natural  means,  that  is, 
if  a  wood  bud  can  not  be  found  at  a  point  where  a  limb  is  required, 
this  want  may  be  supplied  by  a  bud  artificially  introduced,  or  by  a  graft. 
Still,  the  French  gardener  prefers  to  deal  with  a  seedling  in  the  first 
instance,  holding  that  it  is  easier  to  give  it  the  desired  shape,  and  that 
the  buds  for  the  production  of  lateral  and  other  boughs  may  be  more 
certainly  counted  on  than  is  the  case  with  grafted  or  budded  stocks. 

Having  now  arranged  the  preliminaries  it  becomes  a  question  of  what 
shape  shall  be  given  to  the  trees.  For  my  own  part,  I  much  prefer  the 
rather  simpler  forms,  say  the  U  forms  and  their  modifications,  or  the 
candelabra  forms.  The  best  of  all  the  forms,  however,  both  as  to  beauty 
and  utility,  I  regard  the  palm-shape  and  its  modifications.  There  are 
other  very  good  shapes,  the  names  of  which  I  have  been  unable  to  get. 
My  distinct  preference,  also,  is  for  the  forms  which  have  vertical  or  ob- 
lique branches,  for  these  reasons :  The  sap  of  a  tree  has  always  a  tend- 
ency to  mount,  and  under  ordinary  conditions  the  best  fruit  will  be 
found  oi)  the  ends  of  the  branches  or  the  periphery  of  the  tree.  There- 
fore, the  oblique  forms  follow  more  nearly  untrammeled  nature,  and 
thus  yield  better  general  results.  As  a  proof  of  the  foregoing  may  be 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  MENTONE.  911 

cited  this  fact :  If  a  horizontal  form  is  sought  after,  and  one  side  of  the 
tree  (that  is,  tin*  boughs  forming  one  side)  develops  at  the  expense  of 
the  other,  or  if  any  one  bough  on  the  one  side  is  weaker  and  smaller 
than  the  corresponding  branch  on  the  other,  the  condition  is  easily 
remedied  by  bending  the  overdeveloped  branch  downwards  or  the  atro- 
phied branch  temporarily  upwards.  In  either  case  the  sap  quits  the 
dependent  for  the  elevated  branch,  and  soon  they  are  brought  to  an 
equal  development,  when  the  restraints  may  be  removed.  Whatever 
form  is  selected,  however,  the  trunk  of  the  tree  should  not  be  allowed 
to  grow  higher  than  12  or  15  inches.  At  this  height  it  should  be  made 
to  branch  or  bifurcate,  and  the  branches  then  arranged  in  such  forms 
as  may  be  desired.  I  can  not  here  go  into  the  various  methods  of  prun- 
ing and  training.  These  will  vary,  naturally,  with  the  sorts  of  trees 
with  which  we  have  to  deal.  Suffice  us  to  say  that  all  redundant 
growths  are  to  be  cut  away,  and  even  the  bearing  branches  pinched 
back  from  time  to  time  as  the  exigencies  of  the  tree  and  its  crop  require. 

One  word  as  to  the  results  obtained  here  by  this  method  of  fruit-tree 
culture.  In  my  judgment  it  is  the  only  system  practicable  in  this 
climate,  but  with  the  protection  which  the  trees  thus  obtain  even 
peaches  and  apricots  do  fairly  well.  I  have  counted,  for  example,  a 
hundred  well  formed,  beautifully  colored  peaches  on  a  single  U-shaped 
tree  whereof  the  stem  was  no  larger  than  my  wrist. 

EDWARD  P.  BARLE, 

Consul. 

UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Cognac,  August  21, 1889. 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  MENTONE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  VIALE,  OF  MENTONE;    TRANSLATED  BY  CONSUL 

WILSON,  OF  NICE. 

[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  54.] 

Two  promontories  of  the  Maritime  Alps,  Cape  Martin  and  Cape  Mar- 
tola,  descending  to  the  Lear,  form  in  the  Mediterranean,  at  the  gates 
of  Italy,  the  beautiful  gulf  which  the  ancient  geographers  called  Sinus 
Pacts.  From  the  midst  of  the  semicircle,  protected  from  the  winds  of 
the  north,  the  east,  and  the  west,  another  promontory  advances,  less 
important,  which  finishes  in  low  hills  at  the  edge  of  the  sea.  In  this 
delicious  corner  of  the  world  was  formerly  found  a  little  village,  sur- 
rounded by  olive  and  lemon  trees,  which  were  reflected  in  the  azure  sea 
— this  was  Men  tone. 

One  day  some  travelers,  wandering  on  the  Corniche  road,  perceived 
its  picturesque  situation  and  learned  of  its  mild  climate.  It  required 
but  few  years  to  bring  to  it  renown,  and  the  little  village  has  become 


912         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

n  town,  where  the  valetudinarian  and  the  chilly  people  from  all  the 
countries  of  the  world  meet' during  tbe  winter  season.  During  the 
season  of  18S2-'83,  2,500  families  from  a  distance  came  to  warm  them- 
selves under  our  sun.  There  were  87  American  families,  making  about 
350  individuals.  The  reports  of  subsequent  years  will  doubtless  sho\\ 
an  increase. 

Mentone  an<)  its  environs  was  the  ancient  station  "  Lumone"  of  the 
Roman  road  of  Julia  Augusta.  In  this  small  territory  are  cultivated 
the  lemon,  the  vine,  and  some  fruit  «trees. 

THE  LEMON. 

The  lemon  tree  is  propagated  by  sowing  the  seed.  Generally  it  is  pref- 
erable to  sow  the  seed  of  the  bitter  orange,  and  graft  the  lemon  on  the 
plant  when  it  shall  have  acquired  a  certain  strength.  It  requires  about 
ten  years7  growth  to  obtain  a  productive  tree.  The  lemon  is  cultivated 
on  the  plain,  and  on  the  sides  of  ^the  hills,  or  wherever  it  can  be  irri 
gated.  For  this  culture,  as  well  as  that  of  the  olive  and  the  vine,  the 
hills  are  terraced  with  stone  walls.  One  are  (4  square  rods)  of  ground 
contains  ten  lemon  trees. 

According  to  the  strength  of  the  tree  it  yields  during  the  year  from 
100  to  500  lemons,  and  even  more.  The  tree  requires  much  care.  It. 
must  be  manured.  For  this  they  use  the  common  farm  manure,  the 
scraping  and  refuse  of  horn,  and  old  woolen  rags. 

In  summer  the  trees  must  be  watered  at  least  every  two  days;  must 
be  dug  about  in  winter,  and  the  soil  loosened  every  year.  The  lemon 
tree  nowers  all  the  year,  and  the  fruit  is  gathered  every  day. 

The  harvest  is  divided  into  three  grand  epochs.  The  first  and  second 
blossoms,  produced  by  the  nowers  of  spring,  are  harvested  from  Novem- 
ber to  February  and  March.  Then  follows  the  Grandtte  (second  grade) 
harvested  from  March  to  September,  at  which  time  the  Verdamie  (third 
grade)  begins  to  ripen. 

In  a  good  season  the  harvest  amounts  to  30,000,000  lemons. 

The  culture  of  the  lemon  is  diminishing  for  two  reasons :  First,  because 
much  of  the  land  is  now  being  occupied  by  hotels  and  villas ;  and  second, 
the  workmen  have  become  scarce  and  the  price  of  labor  high,  so  that 
the  culture  has  become  an  remunerative.  % 

The  lemons  from  Mentone,  though  not  so  fine  as  those  of  Messina, 
were  formerly  much  preferred  for  exportation  during  the  months  of 
March  and  April  because  they  could  be  sent  fresh  from  the  trees,  while 
those  from  Messina,  having  been  harvested  in  the  previous  November 
(their  harvest  is  but  once  a  year)  were  already  five  months  in  boxes. 

One  can  scarcely  form  an  idea  of  the  care  necessary  in  picking  and 
handling  the  lemons  and  in  packing  them  for  exportation.  Formerly 
one-half  the  population  of  Mentone  were  thus  employed. 

The  merchants  had  their  chosen  laborers  of  much  experience  to  gather 
the  fruit,  make  the  boxes,  and  do  the  packing. 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  MENTONE.  913 

Since  this  pretty  village  lias  become  a  winter  resort,  the  habits  of 
the  villagers,  in  respect  of  their  \vork  and  their  wages,  have  changed 
greatly.  The  picturesque  capellina  which  shaded  the  face  of  the  young 
Mentonaise  has  been  replaced  by  fashionable  hats,  veils,  and  parasols 
from  Paris.  The  young  men  have  become  valets,  chef*  de  cuisine,  wait- 
ers, etc.,  and  thus  the  cultivation  of  the  lemon  is  left  to  strange  and 
ignorant  laborers. 

This  has  lost  to  Mentone  its  export  to  the  United  States,  for  fruit 
badly  gathered  or  poorly  packed  arrives  at  its  destination  in  a  pitiable 
state. 

The  first  choice  lemons  are  usually  sent  to  the  North  and  to  America ; 
the  second  quality  are  used  in  France  and  Italy.  The  first  quality  are 
those  having  no  blemish,  are  large  and  fine,  and  not  too  ripe  to  stand 
the  long  voyage. 

The  lemon  and  orange  trees  are  subject  to  divers  maladies: 

La  Morfea. — A  sort  of  louse  which  eats  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  and  also 
covers  the  tree  in  its  worst  stages  with  a  ^disgusting  white  mildew. 
When  this  malady  attacks  a  garden  the  trees  are  unproductive  for 
years. 

La  Fumie  is  another  malady,  which  turns  the  branches  and  leaves  of 
the  tree  as  black  as  though  they  oaiue  from  a  chimney. 

For  some  time  past  they  complain  of  a  little  worm  which  attacks  the 
center  of  the  flower,  eating  the  pistils. 

Hail  will  also  destroy  the  fruit,  but  happily  this  rarely  occurs  in 
Mentone. 

The  changes  of  weather,  such  as  a  prolonged  spell  of  damp  weather, 
predispose  the  fruit  to  certain  maladies  which  may  develop  in  the 
packed  fruit  if  not  well  guarded  by  an  experienced  packer,  and  even 
with  the  best  care  in  choice  of  fruit  and  packing  the  fruit  of  certain 
years  is  more  likely  to  spoil  and  rot. 

The  exportation  of  lemons  to  the  United  States,  as  taken  from  the 
books  of  the  agency,  has  been  as  follows : 


Year. 

Invoices. 

Cases. 

• 
1873 

51 

42  016 

1874                                                 ...                        

70 

48  710 

1875 

12 

15  612 

1876                                                                             

29 

47  339 

1877                  .             

17 

15,909 

i878                                                                                                 

3 

4  059 

1879                                  

13 

10,726 

1880                                                                                            

1881  1882,  1883  1884 

None 

None 

Ca.ses  packed  for  the  United  States  contain  360  lemons. 

THE  ORANGE  TKEE. 


The  oranges  of  Mentone  have  but  little  commercial  value.  The  trees 
ornament  and  perfume  the  gardens  and  furnish  a  passable  fruit  for  the 
table.  Very  few,  if  any,  are  sent  away. 


914  FRUIT   CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

The  culture  is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  lemon  tree.  It  flowers 
but  oiiee  a  year,  in  the  spring,  and  the  fruit  is  perfected  about  every 
other  year.  It  resists  the  cold  better  than  the  lemon  tree.  It  flourishes 
at  Mce  and  Cannes,  where  the  lemon  does  nofc  grow  successfully. 

THE  GRAPE  VINE. 

The  grape  loves  the  hills.  It  prospers  at  some  distance  from  the  sea 
and  200  or  300  meters  from  its  level.  All  land  seems  to  agree  with  it, 
but  especially  that  which  is  stony. 

The  vine  is  propagated  by  branches  or  shoots,  having  6  or  7  buds, 
and  about  50  to  60  centimeters  long,  which  are  buried  in  the  ground 
with  the  aid  of  a  piece  of  iron,  leaving  only  one  bud,  or  eye,  out. 

Before  planting  the  vines  the  land  is  dug  up  about  1  meter  in  depth, 
the  vines  are  planted  from  80  centimeters  to  1  meter  distance,  and  1J 
meters  is  better. 

At  the  end  of  four  years  the  vines  commence  to  produce.  A  vine  in 
good  condition,  well  cared  for,  ought  to  produce  at  least  1  kilo  of 
grapes  for  each  stock.  At  the  third  year  they  commence  to  tie  up  the 
loose  branches  to  stakes  or  trellises.  The  vines  are  manured  with 
woolen  rags,  bone  shavings,  and  stable  manure. 

The  soil  must  be  worked  two  or  three  times  per  year,  for  the  vine  will 
permit  no  other  to  partake  at  her  table.  It  must  be  white  and  light,  into 
which  the  vine  roots  may  push  at  will  and  receive  all  the  nourishment 
possible. 

The  pruning  is  done  in  January  and  February,  and  two  or  three  times 
a  year  the  straggling  and  useless  branches  are  trimmed  off  to  prevent 
the  sap  being  wasted  on  branches  not  destined  to  bear  fruit.  The  best 
means  of  pruning  is  to  leave  one  large  branch  at  the  bottom  of  the  vine 
with  two  buds,  or  eyes,  only,  which  will  produce  two  new  branches  for 
the  next  year,  and  to  leave  at  the  top  of  the  vine  a  fine  branch  with 
several  eyes.  Every  eye  will  produce  a  branch  with  at  least  one  bunch 
of  grapes ;  and  the  year  following,  this  branch  will  be  cut  away  to  per- 
form the  same  operation  with  the  two  new  branches  which  will  have 
been  left  at  the  bottom  of  the  vine. 

The  vines  are  never  watered,  as  that  would  injure  the  quality  of  the 
wine.  i 

The  country  of  Men  tone  produces  scarcely  enough  wine  for  a  month's 
use.  Italy  and  the  center  of  France  furnish  the  rest. 

The  wine  of  Mentone  is  somewhat  strong  and  heady.  We  class  it 
between  the  wines  of  Burgundy  and  Spain.  It  is  the  type  Maruverno. 
The  grapes  are  sweet-black,  with  round  seeds. 

Other  varieties  are  the  Varlentin,  the  Rossese,  the  Salerno,  and  the 
Tobacco;  but  all  are  in  such  small  qic-antities  that  they  are  mixed  in  the 
cellars  and  are  known  only  as  a  Maruverno. 

Latterly  some  proprietors  have  brought  Blips  from  Alicante.     The 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  MENTONE.  915 

wine,  in  small  quantities,  is  good,  and  is  distinguished  from  the  Maru- 
verno. 

The  maladies  which  attack  the  vine  are  the  oidium  and  phylloxera. 
The  first  shrivels  the  leaves,  destroys  the  grapes,  and  puts  the  vine  in 
danger.  Happily  the  flour  of  sulphur  is  a  sufficient  remedy.  The  sec- 
ond, much  more  terrible,  are  microscopic  worms  attacking  and  covering 
the  roots  of  the  vine.  Its  ravages  have  extended  more  or  less  over  all 
France.  Happily  Mentoue  has  thus  far  escaped,  though  the  scourge 
has  appeared  within  the  department. 

THE  OLIVE  TREE. 
/ 

The  olive  trees  of  Men  tone  are  several  centuries  old ;  they  are  said  to 
have  been  planted  in  the  twelfth  century  by  the  Crusaders. 

They  are  propagated  by  means  of  young  plants  which  are  detached 
from  the  parent  tree  with  some  roots.  This  is  the  theory.  Actually 
none  are  propagated  in  late  years.  The  same  reasons  mentioned 
as  affecting  the  lemon,  to  which  must  be  added  the  slow  growth  of  the 
olive,  have  conspired  to  turn  trade  into  other  channels,  and  the  propa- 
gation of  the  olive  tree  has  nearly  ceased. 

Ten  or  twelve  years  are  necessary  for  the  growth  of  a  small  tree 
commencing  to  yield  fruit.  The  life-time  of  a  man,  fifty  or  sixty  years, 
or  even  a  hundred,  is  necessary  for  a  full-grown  tree.  They  grow  in 
the  plain  and  on  the  hills. 

A  full  grown  tree  in  a  good  season  will  yield  60  to  80  liters  of  oil. 
One  can  never  have  two  good  harvests  in  two  consecutive  years  j  for- 
tunate if  you  have  one.  A  fruit  which  remains  a  year  on  the  tree  is 
mbject  to  many  dangers.  Sometimes  the  early  heat  burns  the  flower, 
ir  the  wind  blows  it  or  the  fruit  off  the  tree ;  a  prolonged  rain  prevents 
the  gathering,  or  destroys  the  fallen  fruit,  or  the  dryness  of  the  season 
may  blight  it,  etc. 

But  the  greatest  enemy  of  the  olive  is  the  worm.  Myriads  of  small 
tlu  s  (Musca  oleavia)  sting  the  olives  and  deposit  their  eggs,  which  in  a 
short  time  attack  the  pulp  of  the  fruit.  These  worms  go  around  the 
fruit  and  then  go  out  in  the  form  of  a  new  fly.  These  in  turn  attack 
the  remaining  olives,  so  that  the  entire  harvest  can  be  destroyed  in  less 
than  a  month. 

The  ground  must  be  worked  once  a  year  ;  useless  or  dead  branches 
lopped  off  every  two  or  three  years. 

The  olive  is  never  watered  here,  as  water  is  almost  always  scarce  and 
sometimes  insufficient  for  the  lemon  trees. 

The  olive  oil  of  Mentcne  and  its  neighborhood  is  good,  and  is  used 
here  and  sent  to  other  parts  of  Fran  je. 

Including  the  surrounding  country,  the  product  of  a  very  good  sea- 
son has  been  from  15,000,000  to  20,000,000  quintals  of  oil  (a  quintal  is 
100  kilograms;  Ji  kilogram  is  2.20469  pounds  avoirdupois).  The  olive 
tree  flowers  in  March  and  April.  The  fruit  is  gathered  from  Novem- 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

her  to  April.     The  best  oil  is  made  from  that  gathered  in  March  and 
April  when  the  fruit  is  most  mature. 

MISCELLANEOUS  FRUITS. 

The  fig,  the  peach,  and  the  plum  are  grown  in  Mentoue,  but  only  for 
home  consumption  and  in  small  quantities.  They  have  no  place  in 
commerce. 

PERFUMERY. 

Perfumery  is  made  from  the  lemon  and  orange  rinds  and  from  the 
leaves  of  the  bitter  orange ;  but  there  is  only  one  establishment, 
its  exports  are  principally  to  Germany  and  Eussia. 

N.  YlALE, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

Mentone,  April  1,  1885. 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  ZANTE. 

REPORT  BY  CONSULAR  AGENT  CROWE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  44.] 

In  accordance  with  the  instructions  contained  in  the  circular  ad- 
dressed by  the  Department  to  this  agency,  in  date  of  December  4,  1883, 
requesting  information  on  the  fruit  culture  of  this  island,  I  have  the 
honor  to  furnish  the  following  particulars,  derived  partly  from  personal 
observation  during  my  long  residence  in  Greece,  and  partly  from  data 
kindly  imparted  to  me  by  some  of  the  best  and  most  practical  cul- 
tivators. 

CURRANT-GRAPE  VINEYARDS. 

Raisins,  such  as  are  generally  known  by  this  term,  are  not  prepared 
here,  though  many  varieties  of  the  grape  grow  in  profusion  in  this  isl- 
and. The  currant-grape  was  originally  imported  here  by  refugees  from 
Corinth  in  the  year  1530  A.  D.  It  is  a  small,  purple  grape,  free  from 
seeds,  and  now  forms  the  staple  production  of  this  island,  the  adjacent 
island  of  Cephalonia,  the  Morea  (Peloponnesus),  and  is  also  cultivated 
to  a  certain  extent  near  Missolonghi,  Lepauto,  and  the  islands  of  Ithaca 
and  Santa  Maura. 

The  position  of  these  vineyards  is  mostly  on  the  plains  bordering  the 
sea-coast  j  the  foot  of  a  wooded  hill,  the  deposits  from  which  enrich  the 
soil  below  it,  with  a  sunny  aspect  and  good  circulation  of  air,  is  con- 
sidered the  best  position.  Although  many  vineyards  extend  right  down 
to  the  sea,  the  plants  within  500  or  1,000  yards  of  it  are  liable  to  suffer. 

Sea  fogs  and  mists  are  not  considered  injurious.     The>mildew  ( Oidium 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  ZANTE.  917 

tuckeri)  which  first  appeared  amongst  the  vines  in  1 852,  is  most  effica- 
ciously combated  by  sprinkling  finely-powdered  sulphur  (imported  from 
Sicily)  over  the  shoots  and  leaves,  say,  just  before  the  flowering,  and  if 
required  to  be  repeated,  at  intervals  before  the  ripening  of  the  fruit,  it 
is  either  applied  with  a  small  perforated  hand  dredger  or  by  means  of 
a  bellows  with  a  recipient  made  of  tin  attached  to  it  which  contains  the 
sulphur ;  the  latter  is  more  generally  in  use. 

The  mode  of  pruning,  in  principle,  is  much  the  same  everywhere,  but 
the  height  of  the  stem,  and  other  peculiarities  in  the  form  given  to  the 
plant,  is  somewhat  different  here  to  what  it  is  in  the  Morea. 

The  best  results  are  mostly  obtained  on  a  rich,  light  soil,  with  an  ad- 
mixture of  sand  in  it ;  but  it  is  a  singular  fact  with  the  currant-grape 
that,  however  carefully  it  may  be  cultivated,  it  will  not  give  the  same 
results  as  to  size  of  berry,  color,  saccharine  substance,  or  aroma  in  all 
districts.  For  instance,  the  Zante  currants  (as  indeed  all  the  island 
currants)  are  much  smaller  in  the  berry  than  those  produced  on  the 
mainland,  but  they  have  more  aroma  and  sweetness  than  perhaps  any 
other  currants  grown.  Then,  again,  commencing  from  the  top  of  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth,  southward  all  along  the  sea-coast  of  the  Morea,  right 
down  to  Calamata,  in  Messenia,  the  quality  gradually  deteriorates ;  thus 
Corinth,  Fostizza,  and  Patras,  all  within  the  gulf,  producing  the  first 
quality,  then  Gastouni  and  Pirgos,  in  Elis ;  after  this,  Filiatra  and 
Gargaliano,  in  Trifyllia,  and  finally  the  produce  of  Pylia  and  Messenia. 
To  a  connoisseur  there  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  average  quality  of 
these  various  grades  ;  the  market  value  confirms  this. 

Whereas  Gulf,  Vostizza,  or  Patras  may  be  worth  25s.  per  hundred- 
weight, Calamata  or  Pylos  would  not  fetch  over  15*.  or  16*.  per  hundred- 
weight, the  redeeming  point  for  the  grower  being  that  in  the  southern 
districts  the  vines  are  more  prolific,  frequently  doubling  the  production 
of  other  vineyards. 

The  best  results,  as  mentioned  above,  are  generally  obtained  at  the 
foot  of  the  hills ;  but  this  is  not  always  the  case.  The  great  point  is 
that  no  trees  of  any  kind  be  planted  in  a  vineyard  j  that  it  should  get 
plenty  of  sun,  and  that  the  air  should  circulate  freely  in  it.  Some- 
times during  its  infancy  a  vineyard  is  planted  with  tomatoes,  melons, 
and  such  like ;  but  this  is  strongly  deprecated  by  all  good  cultivators 
as  tending  to  weaken  the  soil,  and  if  planted  at  all,  it  should  be  done 
sparsely. 

Planting  and  cultivation. — Cuttings  which  have  been  buried  since 
January  are  planted  out  in  March,  if  the  soil  is  dry  enough,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  4  feet  from  each  other,  and  should  commence  bearing  in 
the  third  or  fourth  year,  but  the  seventh  or  eighth  is  reached  before 
full  bearing.  I  have  seen  plants  over  100  years  old,  but  they  naturally 
produce  very  little ;  if  carefully  attended  to,  a  vineyard  should  continue 
to  be  fruitful  up  to  the  fiftieth  year,  though  the  system  of  u  ring-cut' 
ting n  or  making  an  incision  all  round  the  stem  or  principal  branched 


918  FRUIT   CULTURE   IN   FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

has  tended  to  weaken  the  plants,  and  in  poor  soils  tkey  have  to  be  re- 
newed every  thirty  or  forty  years. 

The  incision  is  made  after  the  fruit  has  set,  to  keep  the  sap  up  and 
produce  a  larger  berry,  or  what  is  known  in  commerce  as  a  bold  fruit," 
and  as  this  is  in  vogue  in  most  consuming  markets,  by  far  the  greater 
portion  of  the  crop  is  thus  treated,  the  result  being  that  the  keeping 
properties  of  the  fruit  are  sacrificed  to  the  fashion  of  trade. 

Irrigation. — There  is  no  system  of  artificial  irrigation,  but  if  the  winter 
has  been  a  dry  one  every  means  are  resorted  to  to  try  and  irrigate  as 
best  one  can. 

Yield. — The  yield,  value,  and  cost  of  the  crop  per  acre  varies  according 
to  the  soil,  cultivation,  and  other  circumstances.  The  wages  of  laborers 
are  an  important  item  5  as  a  rule  they  are  much  lower  in  the  islands  than 
on  the  main-land  ;  here  50  cents  per  diem  is  considered  high,  whereas  in 
the  Morea  it  sometimes  exceeds  75  cents  and  even  $1  per  diem.  A  good 
average  in  this  island  is  260  pounds  net  fruit  per  uaxinari,"or  2,OS3J 
pounds  per  acre,  since  8J  "  axinarias"  form  an  acre ;  the  average  value 
of  late  years  has  been  $62.40  per  acre  ;  the  cost  of  the  crop  as  far  as 
cultivation  goes,  from  beginning  to  end,  including  sulphuring  (about  80 
pounds  per  acre  being  under  ordinary  circumstances  consumed),  is  $22 
per  acre.  The  cost  of  a  good  vineyard  would  be  about  $450  per  acre. 

This  island's  annual  yield  of  currants  is  now,  on  an  average,  nearly 
7,000  tons,  the  acreage  under  cultivation  being  over  10,000  acres,  but 
this  is  going  on  increasing,  as  many  fine  olive  groves  are  being  rooted 
up  to  make  room  for  the  currant  plant. 

I  hope  I  may  prove  a  false  prophet,  but  this  tendency  to  trust  all  one's 
eggs  in  one  basket,  I  fear,  will  in  the  end  prove  disastrous  to  the  interests 
of  this  beautiful  island,  where  the  olive  flourishes,  and  the  produce  can 
be  collected  without  much  expense,  and  showing  a  value,  one  year  with 
another,  of  over  $300,000,  and  this  whilst  large  tracts  of  virgin  soil  in 
the  Morea  are  annually  being  brought  under  cultivation,  threatening 
before  very  long  to  bring  the  total  production  of  currants  in  excess  of 
the  requirements  of  the  world,  especially  if  the  condition  of  the  vine- 
yards in  France  improves  since,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera 
in  that  country,  some  30,000  tons  of  dried  currants  have  in  recent  years 
been  annually  imported  direct,  or  via  other  countries,  for  wine-making 
purposes. 

The  annual  total  production  of  currants  of  late  has  exceeded  120,000 
tons — indeed,  had  not  rain  damaged  a  considerable  portion  of  this  last 
year's  crop  the  yield  would  have  been  over  130,000  tons — and  the  pro- 
duction could  be  increased  to  an  almost  unlimited  extent  should  an 
unforeseen  demand  require  it. 

The  old  English  firm  of  Barff  &  Co.,  established  in  this  trade  since 
the  early  part  of  this  century,  gives  a  table  showing  the  production  and 
distribution  of  the  whole  currant  crop  from  1820  to  1883,  of  which  I 
inclose  a  copy, 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  ZANTE.  919 

WINE  GRAPES. 

Besides  the  "currant"  grape,  there  are  probably  sixty  or  seventy 
varieties  of  the  grape  grown  in  this  island,  of  which  only  some  seven  or 
eight  are  cultivated  for  making  wine,  the  remainder  being  for  eating  pur- 
poses ;  amongst  the  latter,  one  occasionally  meets  with  a  very  luscious 
black  American  grape  (the  Susquehanna,  1  believe),  known  here  as  the 
"  Isabella,"  in  flavor  something  between  a  strawberry  and  a  raspberry ; 
a  peculiar  feature  about  it  is,  that  the  "  oidium,"  or  mildew  disease, 
has  no  effect  upon  it,  and  consequently  sulphuring  is  dispensed  with, 
although  often  grown  in  the  midst  of  a  vineyard  of  other  grapes  subject 
to  the  disease;  the  conclusion  is  that  its  resistance  is  owing  to  its 
belonging  to  a  much  younger  stock,  and  is  consequently  hardier. 

The  vineyards  producing  the  best  wines  are  mostly  on  hill-side,  with 
sunny  aspect,  or  on  light  shallow  and  rather  stony  soil.  I  have  heard 
of  grapes  grown  in  a  soil  entirely  of  sand,  near  the  sea,  producing  excel- 
lent wine,  though  the  yield  is  small.  A  very  superior  quality  ftf  both 
white  and  red  wine  is  made  here,  resembling  the  best  full-bodied  Sicil- 
ian, and  in  the  cellars  of  careful  viticulturists  a  capital  imitation  of 
Sherry,  and  even  Port,  is  to  be  occasionally  met  with. 

Mode  of  cultivation. — The  cultivation  of  both  the  currant  and  wine 
grape  is  very  similar  to  the  French  method,  only  that  the  system  of  low 
cultivation  prevails,  no  plant  exceeding  4  feet  in  height;  only  eating 
grapes,  especially  winter  species,  are  trailed  up. 

Owing  to  the  difference  of  climate  the  various  processes  are  somewhat 
earlier  in  these  latitudes  than  in  France,  and  the  currant  has  the  atten- 
tion of  the  grower  before  the  other  vines.  The  fruit  of  the  former  is 
ready  the  latter  part  of  July  or  beginning  of  August,  when  the  bunches 
are  gathered  and  laid  out  on  carefully  prepared  drying  grounds  which 
have  been  previously  besmeared  with  a  coating  of  cow's  dung  liquified 
in  water,  or  in  wooden  trays,  and  remain  exposed  for  eight,  ten,  or  more 
days,  according  to  the  power  of  the  sun's  rays.  They  are  then  cleared 
by  a  light  twig-broom  from  the  stalks,  heaped  together  for  about  twenty- 
four  hours,  and  finally  passed  through  a  winnowing  machine,  and  are 
then  ready  for  market. 

The  vintage  of  the  wine  grape  commences  the  latter  part  of  Septem- 
ber. If  an  extra  sweet  wine  is  required  the  grapes  are  exposed  to  the 
sun  for  three  or  four  days  after  being  gathered,  before  they  are  pressed 
out. 

ORANGES  AND  LEMONS. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  both,  including  the  egg-shaped,  the  blood, 
the  mandarin  or  tangerine  orange,  and  splendid  lemons,  some  without 
pips,  the  bergamot,  etc.;  in  fact,  I  should  say  that  they  are  as  tine  as 
those  of  anj  country.  Trees  begin  to  bear  fairly  well  after  the  sixth  or 
seventh  year,  and  may  remain  fruitful  upwards  of  one  hundred  years- 
Much  depends  upon  the  soil  and  care  bestowed  upon  them/  They  are 
reared  from  seedlings,  grafts,  and  buddings, 
156A 34 


920         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Budding  is  preferred  to  grafting.  Another  method  pursued  here  is  to 
cut  a  healthy,  smooth  branch  of  about  1J  inches  in  diameter  into  lengths 
of  about  J  foot ;  they  are  then  buried  in  the  ground  in  January  at  a 
depth  of  rather  over  a  foot,  and  in  the  following  April  are  planted  out, 
slightly  inclining,  leaving  only  an  inch  or  so  above  the  surface.  Another 
plan  is  clasping  a  pot  or  box  round  a  young  branch  of  a  tree,  keeping 
it  well  filled  with  earth,  and  after  the  third  year,  when  it  will  have 
formed  strong  roots,  severing  it  from  the  parent  stem,  and  planting  it  in 
January  or  February. 

As  a  rule  the  trees  here  have  not  been  troubled  with  any  serious 
malady.  Although  in  some  parts  of  Greece,  notably  in  Poros,  whole 
orchards  have  gradually  dried  up,  no  remedy  has  so  far  been  discovered. 
The  trees  are  planted  15  to  18  feet  apart.  Here  the  orchards  succeed 
best  in  a  sheltered  part  of  the  plain  or  valley,  at  some  distance  from 
the  sea ;  the  best  results  are  on  a  light,  sandy  soil,  though  on  some  rich 
boggy  soil  I  have  seen  some  marvelous  specimens  of  both  orange  and 
lemon.  The  best  orchards,  as  a  rule,  are  at  least  a  mile  away  from  the 
sea. 

In  very  hot  weather  the  trees  are  irrigated  at  night  from  wells  or  cis- 
terns, but  there  is  no  regular  system  in  use,  and  in  certain  localities  it 
is  not  necessary.  The  ground  is  dug  thrice  a  year,  in  March,  May,  and 
October.  Very  little  pruning  is  required  beyond  keeping  the  trees  in 
good  shape,  and  free  from  dead  twigs  or  branches.  Manure  is  laid  on 
every  two  or  three  years  if  the  soil  is  poor.  No  crops  are  grown  under 
the  trees  in  properly  cultivated  orchards,  and  only  the  peach  tree  is  in 
some  orchards  planted,  as  it.  does  not  last  many  years,  and  the  soil  is 
not  weakened  by  it. 

A  first-class  orchard  yields  about  $400  per  acre  annually,  expenses 
being  about  $35,  including  manure. 

OLIVES. 

There  are  two  varieties  here,  the  indigenous  and  a  variety  introduced 
from  Corone,  in  Messenia;  the  latter  is  the  most  prolific.  Both  bear  a 
small,  greenish -black  fruit. 

Process  of  cultivation  much  the  same  as  the  orange  tree.  The  ground 
is  plowed  regularly  twice  a  year,  in  March  and  December,  and  every 
fourth  year  during  the  summer  manure  is  sown,  resulting  in  a  crop  of 
hay  in  the  following  spring. 

The  Queen  olive  is  not  produced  here. 

The  trees  come  into  full  bearing  after  the  twentieth  5~ear.  There  are 
fruitful  trees  several  centuries  old.  The  average  annual  yield  per  acre 
of  mature  trees  is  33  gallons  of  liquid  oil ;  325  pounds'  weight  of  olives 
yield  4  gallons  of  oil  ;  much  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  soil  and 
the  season. 

The  trees  are  planted  about  20  to  24  feet  apart,    Ojlives  intended  for 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  ZANTE.  921 

pickling,  are  picked  when  they  are  barely  ripe,  but  these  are  few  and  only 
for  local  wants. 

The  olives  for  oil-making  are  picked,  or  rather  knocked,  off  the  trees 
when  ripe.  The  process  of  preparing  them  for  table  use  is  simply  salt- 
ing them,  putting  them  in  oil  or  vinegar  ;  in  the  latter  case  they  are 
generally  slit  on  the  sides.  The  process  for  extracting  oil  is  very  prim- 
itive. The  olives  are  generally  crushed  between  millstones,  the  upper 
stone  being  turned  by  a  horse.  Another  process  is  to  put  the  olives 
between  goat-hair  sacks,  throw  boiling  water  over  them,  and  then  press 
them  as  one  would  grapes.  Such  oil  is  never  good.  The  peasantry  fre- 
quently keep  a  portion  of  their  crops  of  olives  for  a  couple  of  years  with- 
out crushing  them.  To  do  this  they  are  thoroughly  sprinkled  with  salt, 
and  simply  left  in  a  corner  of  their  room.  It  is  said  that  they  do  not 
lose  either  in  weight  or  liquid,  but  such  oil  when  extracted  is  liable  to  be 
rancid.  The  process  of  knocking  off  the  fruit  with  sticks  is  much  to  be 
deprecated,  since  many  fine  shoots  are  thus  destroyed. 

Valley,  hill-side,  or  table-land  are  all  adapted  to  olive  trees.  Much 
depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  A  hard  clay  is  bad.  The  best  oil 
is  from  trees  grown  on  a  stony  hill-side,  but  the  yield  is  small. 

There  is  no  system  of  artificial  irrigation,  but  copious  rain-falls  in 
winter  are  indispensable  to  insure  a  good  crop ;  even  then  the  olive 
seldom  bears  a  full  one  except  every  second  year. 

Orchards  come  right  down  to  the  sea-coast.  The  olive  requires  plenty 
of  air,  and  a  high  wind  is  indispensable  to  insure  the  proper  setting  of 
the  fruit.  Close,  sultry  weather  during  the  flowering  prevents  the 
flower  from  falling,  and  a  worm  is  then  generated.  Of  late  years  many 
orchards  have  been  attacked  by  blight,  which  causes  much  of  the  fruit 
to  drop  off  when  approaching  maturity.  The  cause  is  unknown,  and  on 
remedy  found  so  far  to  combat  it. 

The  cost  of  cultivation  is  not  over  $12  to  $14  per  acre,  and  $6  to  $8 
more  for  collecting  the  fruit,  cost  of  manure  not  included.  As  a  rule 
the  proprietor  of  an  orchard  is  satisfied  with  the  benefit  derived  from 
the  manure,  and  the  person  who  provides  it  has  the  hay  in  return. 

No  meteorological  observations  are  taken  here.  I  am  indebted  to 
Mr.  W.  G.  Foster,  superintendent  of  the  Eastern  Telegraph  Company, 
for  the  inclosed  table  showing  the  temperature  during  the  summers  of 
1882  and  1883. 

FIGS. 

No  figs  of  commerce  are  grown  here.  Four  or  five  varieties  are  pro- 
duced in  abundance,  both  green  and  black,  but  they  are  eaten  fresh, 
the  large  orchards  bearing  fruit  after  the  middle  of  May  and  all  June. 
A  smaller  and  sweeter  fig  ripens  in  August  and  September,  but  these 
are  not  grown  in  orchards,  only  a  tree  here  and  there  in  gardens. 

The  cultivation  resembles  that  of  the  orange  and  lemon,  only  that 
less  attention  is  bestowed  on  the  orchards,  and  crops  of  beans  and  such 


922         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

like  are  frequently  grown  under  the  trees.     If  tigs  are  grown  on  a  rich 
soil  they  are  liable  to  suffer  from  worm  disease. 

No  figs  are  dried  in  this  island;  an  attempt  was  once  made,  but  it 
did  not  succeed.  The  only  part  of  Greece  where  figs  are  cured  is  at  Cala- 
mata,  in  Messenia,  but  they  are  very  inferior  to  the  Smyrna  fig  ;  they  are 
principally  exported  to  Southern  Kussia  or  to  Trieste,  and  thence  for- 
warded to  the  interior  of  Germany,  where  the  refuse  lots  are  baked  or 
burnt  and  then  ground  and  used  as  a  substitute  for  coffee. 

A.  L.  CROWE, 

Consular  Agent. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULAR  AGENCY, 

,     Zante,  March  15,  1884. 


FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  THE  ALPS  MARITIME. 

REPORT  BY  CONSUL  WILSON,  OF  NICE. 
[Republished  from  Consular  Reports  No.  47.] 

The  Alps,  projected  southwards  from  Lake  Geneva,  come  to  an  abrupt 
termination  at  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  in  the  department  of  the  Alps 
Maritime.  On  the  one  side  high  mountains,  on  the  other  deep  water. 
The  mountains  are  seamed  with  small  rivers,  and  their  banks  and  the 
sea-coast  proper  are  fringed  with  narrow  valleys,  which,  with  the  some- 
times sloping  hill-sides,  are  the  only  agricultural  lands  in  the  region. 

These  mountains  shelter  the  valleys  from  the  cold  north  winds  of  the 
Alps,  while  the  sea  tempers  the  sultry  south  winds  of  the  Great  Sahara, 
producing  a  soft  and  equable  climate,  which  the  fashionable  world  has 
declared  to  be  the  most  delicious  in  all  Europe. 

In  the  public  gardens,  and  in  many  private  ones,  too,  the  palm  trees, 
the  cocoa,  the  cacti,  and  the  aloe  flourish.  Flowers  bloom  in  banks  of 
loveliness  of  color  and  fragrance  on  either  side  of  the  highways  ;  hedges 
of  rose  trees  and  geraniums  guard  the  orchards  of  orange  and  lemon 
trees,  which,  bearing  both  fruit  and  blossom,  make  for  them  a  ceaseless 
round  of  seed  time  and  harvest,  while  violets  and  jessamine  are  as  plenty 
as  dog  daisies  on  a  village  common.  I  saw  the  other  day  a  h%ap  of 
violets  which  had  just  been  brought  to  the  mill  and  were  on  the  floor, 
a  pile  20  feet  across.  They  were  to  be  ground  up  and  their  fragrance 
transmitted  into  the  essences  and  pomades  of  commerce. 

I  visited  this  winter  the  gardens  of  the  enthusiastic  amateur,  Monsieur 
Doquin,  at  Cannes,  covering  near  20  acres.  They  were  filled  with  all 
sorts  of  tropical  fruits,  growing  at  all  seasons  in  the  open  air.  He  has 
no  plant  under  glass,  yet  on  my  way  home  I  saw  plainly,  in  the  near 
neighborhood,  the  snow-covered  mountains.  This,  with  the  fact  that 
Nice  is  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  Portland,  Me.,  was  to  me  a  matter 
of  astonishment,  and  would  afford  thought  and  study  for  the  meteor- 
ologist. 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    THE    ALPS    MAJRITIME. 
CLIMATE. 


923 


During  the  thirty  years  from  1840  to  1878,  inclusive,  the  wind  blew 
at  Nice  as  follows  : 

Days. 

Feeble  or  moderate 7, 373 

More  or  less  strong t 2(  397 

Calm 608 

Averages  and  extremes  of  temperature  at  Nice  during  thirty  years,  from  1849  to  1878  (ther- 
mometer centigrade). 


Temperature  daring  the  day. 


Month. 

Daily 
average. 

Highest  tem- 
perature. 

Lowest  tem- 
perature. 

Number  of 
times  over 
30°. 

Day. 

Year. 

Day. 

Tear. 

December  

0 

11.69 
1L19 
12.36 
14.33 
17.74 

o 
18.5 
19.2 
18.9 

•J1.4 
27  8 

1872 
1855 
1866 
1871 
1871 
1870 
1877 
1865 
1869 
1853 
1870 
1849 

0 

1.1 
3.0 
3.2 
5.2 

7.0 
8.7 
17.4 
20.7 
19.2 
17.2 
11.0 
4.2 

1867 
1862 
1854 
1860 
1849 
1861 
1855 
1851 
1857 
1852 
1869 
1851 

rubruarv                  -  .... 

M  in  h    ' 

April 

M-'v    • 

21.83 
24.53 
27.47 
26.90 
23.83 
19.85 
14.86 

29.6 
31.6 
33.7 
33.2 
33.9 
31.2 
26.7 

Jii'U' 

15 
144 
99 
6 
1 

Jiilv                    

September           .                                   ... 

October 

.November                                     .       .   . 

• 
Month. 

Temperature  during  the  night. 

Daily 
average. 

Highest  tem- 
perature. 

Lowest  tem- 
perature. 

Number  of 
times  below 
zero. 

Night. 

Tear. 

Night. 

Year. 

December                               ... 

0 

5.15 
4.59 
5.13 
6.52 
9.50 
13.32 
17.24 
18.73 
18.97 
1«.59 
12.79 
7.96 

o 
14.8 
15.5 
13.5 
13.3 
17.8 
21.3 
25.0 
26.2 
26.0 
22.6 
18.9 
18.0 

1852 
1854 
1867 
1871 
1865 
1852 
1868 
1859 
1859 
1855 
1873 
1859 

0 

—2.7 
—3.0 
—3.  5 
—0.6 
+2.9 
+4.0 
+  6.5 
15.0 
12.3 
10.4 
2.6 
—  L5 

1870 
1862 
1861 
1860 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1878 
1876 
1876 
1869 
1858 

28 
34 
27 
5 

January  

February                ' 

March  /. 

April 

££".: 

June 

Jnlv      

August 

September 

November 

1 

The  differences  between  these  extremes  are  as  follows :  Between  the 
annual  averages,  31°. 60  •  between  the  greatest  extremes  in  ODO  year, 
1859,  35°.5 ;  between  the  least  in  one  year  27°.0, 1850  ;  between  greatest 
extremes  in  the  30  years,  37°.2  ;  highest  33°.7,  July  10,  1865 ;  lowest 
3°.5,  February  8,  1864. 

The  average  number  of  rainy  days  in  Nice  in  each  year  is  64.4.  The 
most  rainy  year,  1853,  gave  103;  the  least,  1871,  45  days. 

This  average  divides  itself  among  the  seasons  thus:  Winter,  16.1  j 
spring,  19  j  summer,  9.3;  autumn  19.8. 


9:24         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

The  average  rain-fall  for  ten  years  (1870~'T9)  was  79(Unnn.  The  maxi- 
mum (I87i»)  was  1,383.9""";  the  minimum,  4f>L'.i>uim  (1875).  The  most, 
frequent  rains  come  from  the  east  ami  the  southwest,  but  the  hardest 
rains  come  from  the  northeast  and  the  south.  Scarcely  any  rain  comes 
from  the  north  or  northwest. 

SOIL   AND  AGRICULTURE. 

The  country  has  generally  a  gravelly  limestone  soil.  Agriculture  is 
difficult  and  comparatively  insignificant.  The  farmer  has  a  continuous 
struggle  with  nature  for  a  living :  but  then  it  is  not  what  we  have  that 
makes  ns  happy,  but  what  we  need,  and  happily  for  him,  his  needs  are 
small. 

The  ground  is  solid  and  difficult  to  dig.  It  lies  usually  or  frequently 
in  narrow  terraces  on  the  mountain-side,  each  one  supported  by  the 
rough  stones  piled  up  perpendicularly  and  forming  the  lower  side  of  the 
terrace,  giving  to  the  whole  affair  the  appearance  of  an  extensive 
stair-case,  up  which  a  giant  might  climb  the  mountain.  The  tread  of 
the  steps  is  the  space  devoted  to  agriculture.  True,  they  cultivate  the 
valley  below,  but  it  is  also  divided  into  small  patches,  surrounded  by 
high  stone  walls,  with  espaliers  (trellises)  covered  with  roses,  geraniums, 
etc.,  and  sometimes  peaches  or  grapes.  In  all  this  there  is  small  chance 
for  a  plow,  first,  from  the  small  and  irregular  shapes,  and  second,  from 
the  groves  and  trees  of  lemons,  oranges,  olives,  and  figs,  which  occupy 
the  ground,  and  spread  their  roots  in  every  direction.  The  most  of  the 
work  of  turning  up  the  earth  preparatory  to  planting  must  be  done  with 
the  spade.  It  is  hard  labor,  and  shows  its  effects  in  the  dwarfed  and 
early-bowed  forms  and  the  brown  and  grizzled  faces  one  sees  in  the 
market  places. 

On  the  mountains  and  high  up  their  sides  one  can  find  numberless 
opportunities  for,  and  illustrations  of,  geology,  mineralogy,  and  some- 
times archaeology,  but  not  of  agriculture.  Rocks  and  stones  here 
abound,  but,  except  for  the  ass  and  goat,  there  is  scarcely  enough  vege- 
tation to  support  animal  life. 

The  culture  of  flowers  is  fast  becoming  the  more  serious  and  remu- 
nerative occupation.  They  are  used  for  the  essences  and  pomades  of 
commerce.  Extensive  establishments  for  these  purposes  fcbound 
throughout  the  neighborhood. 

The  principal  food  of  the  peasant  is  the/Arc  demarais,  a  sort  of  beau 
(frequently  made  with  other  vegetables  into  soup),  vegetables  dressed 
into  salad,  and  black  bread  made  of  flour  compounded  of  wheat  and 
rye,  or  wheat  and  oats.  Their  drink  is  the  common  wine  of  the  country. 

THE   OLIVE  AND  ITS  OIL. 

The  olive  tree  is  of  the  highest  antiquity.  It  appears  on  the  earliest 
page  of  written  history  in  the  leaf  which  the  dove  brought  to  Noah  in 
the  ark  as  evidence  of  the  receding  waters. 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    THE    ALPS    MARITIME.  925 

It  held  the  highest  rank  in  the  ancient  mythology.  -Minerva  taught 
tlio  Athenians  its  uses.  The  peoples  of  antiquity  held  it  in  great 
respect,  and  used  its  oil  in  their  various  religious  ceremonies..  It  wan 
at  once  the  .emblem  of  holiness  and  peace.  The  Romans  refused  to  burn 
the  wood,  even  on  their  altars. 

The  olive  was  brought  from  Egypt  to  Greece,  and  from  thence  spread 
over  the  countries  where  it  is  now  grown. 

It  flourishes  best  in  the  basin  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  between  35° 
and  43°  north  latitude,  though  this,  as  I  have  stated,  will,  owing  to  the 
difference  of  temperature  on  the  same  parallel,  be  but  an  uncertain 
guide  in  the  United  States.  The  oil  produced  on  the  African  shore  of 
the  Mediterranean  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  north  shore. 

Some  of  the  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago  and  the  Adriatic  pro- 
duce fine  oil,  but  the  center,  both  for  quantity  and  quality,  so  far  at  least 
as  concerns  commerce,  is  at  Nice  and  the  surrounding  country.  From 
St.  Tropez  to  Savone  generally,  but  chiefly  from  the  Var  to  the  Eoya, 
from  Cannes  to  Vintemille,  the  best  oil  is  produced. 

Here  the  trees  have  been  indigenous  since  before  the  Christian  era, 
and  here  they  grow  to  the  largest  size  and  the  greatest  age.  One  at 
Beaulieu,  in  full  vigor  and  bearing,  is  22  feet  in  circumference  and  is 
supposed  to  be  700  or  more  years  old. 

The  slower  the  fruit  ripens  the  better  oil  it  makes,  but  as  it  must  be 
fully  ripe  and  entirely  free  from  blemish  to  make  the  choicest  oil,  and 
as  it  requires  two  years  to  come  to  perfection  (the  crop  is  only  biennial), 
one  can  easily  comprehend  the  dangers  of  climate,  season,  malady,  and 
accident  which  must  be  avoided  and  the  difficulties  which  must  be  over- 
come in  order  to  obtain  final  success. 

To  accomplish  this  with  a  plant  so  tender  requires  a  climate  and  sit- 
uation of  peculiar  adaptation,  and  unless  that  is  secured  any  attempt 
at  its  cultivation  will  be  fruitless.  The  fruit  freezes  at  23°  Fahrenheit 
and  the  tree  at  16°.  Once  frozen,  no  remedy  exists;  the  tree  is  de- 
stroyed and  must  be  cut  down. 

It  speaks  volumes  for  the  climate  of  this  region  to  say  that  the  olive 
trees  have  here  grown  successfully  for  the  centuries  I  have  indicated. 

If  the  weather  be  too  warm  and  the  land  too  rich  the  fruit  ripens  too 
fast  and  its  good  taste  is  gone.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  it  should  become 
too  cold,  fruit  and  tree  are  both  destroyed.  Possibly  I  can  do  no  bet- 
ter than  answer  the  question  propounded  in  the  circular  to  which  this 
is  a  response. 

VARIETIES   OF  OLIVE  TREES. 

What  varieties  of  trees  produce  the  best  results  and  at  what  age  f 
There  are  sixteen  or  seventeen  different  kinds,  each  with  its  botanical 

name,  which  have  been  grown  in  this  region,  but  nearly  all  as  exotics. 

The  tree  in  common  use  is  the  European  olive,  and  all  the  information 

given  concerns  this.     It  gives  the  best  oil. 


926  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 

FRUIT -BEARING  AGE. 

The  tree  begins  to  bear  trait  at  ten  years  of  age,  but  it  does  not  coine 
to  maturity  until  from  thirty  to  fifty  years. 

For  the  olives  of  commerce — that  is,  to  eat,  either  fresh  or  pickled — the 
young  tree  produces  the  best  result ;  the  mature  trees  produce  the  best 
oil. 

MODES   OF  PLANTING  AND   CULTIVATION. 

What  is  the  process  of  planting  and  cultivation  ? 

The  reproduction  of  the  olive  tree  may  be  accomplished  by  all  the 
modes  known  for  trees.  The  best  mode — planting  the  seed  or  pit — is 
practiced  here  the  least.  The  people  prefer  plan  ting  the  sprouts  which 
come  up  from  the  roots  of  the  tree,  or  which  may  be  artificially  made  by 
bending  a  twig  and  covering  it  with  earth  until  it  has  taken  root.  At 
the  age  of  two  years  this  stock  may  be  grafted,  or  the  operation  is  more 
like  that  of  "  budding."  The  graft  is  cut  all  on  one  side  and  introduced 
under  the  bark,  then  bound  up  in  moist  earth  and  allowed  to  grow. 
The  stock  above  the  graft  is  cut  off. 

The  earth  around  and  between  the  trees  is  tilled  each  year,  and  a 
crop,  sometimes  of  wheat  or  beans  alternately,  planted  in  the  spring 
and  gathered  in  the  autumn.  The  earth  is  manured  every  two  years 
and  the  trees  are  pruned  every  four  years. 

THE  BEST   TREES. 

What  variety  of  tree  produces  the  best  olives  of  commerce  ?  Are  they 
the  selected  fruit  of  the  common  olive,  or  a  superior  variety  grown  from 
an  improved  tree? 

It  is  the  same  tree  and  the  same  fruit  for  oil  as  for  commerce.  But 
the  best  olives  for  commerce  grow  on  the  young  trees;  they  are  larger 
and  plumper,  and  by  selecting  the  fruit  they  obtain  the  finest  quality, 
which  are  then  preserved  for  commerce.  There  is  a  species  grown  at 
Nice  for  which  is  claimed  a  superiority  of  taste  and  fragrance.  It  is 
distinguished  by  a  small  black  spot  on  the  blossom  end  of  the  fruit. 
These  olives  are  eaten  in  the  country  when  ripe,  are  semi-dried  and 
slightly  seasoned  with  salt.  ^ 

TIME   OF  FRUIT   GATHERING. 

At  what  age  do  the  trees  come  to  full  bearing,  and  how  long  do  they 
remain  fruitful? 

The  trees  begin  to  bear  at  ten  years  of  age,  but  they  do  not  reach 
their  full  capability  or  maturity  until  from  thirty  to  fifty  years.  They 
continue  fruitful  for  two  and  a  half  or  three  centuries.  This  is  for  grafted 
fruit.  The  wild  olive  lives  and  bears  until  twice  that  age.  In  Provence 
and  other  countries  not  so  well  adapted  to  them,  they  commence  earlier 
and  also  die  earlier.  The  trees  are  smaller  and  the  fruit  can  be  picked 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    THE    ALPS    MARITIME.  927 

by  band.  There  the  crop  is  annual,  the  harvest  being  in  November 
and  December,  while  in  Nice  and  surrounding  country  the  harvest  is 
biennial.  Here  the  blossom  or  flower  comes  in  April  or  May,  and  the 
first  fruit,  consisting  of  the  smaller  and  inferior,  is  gathered  in  Novem- 
ber and  December,  the  better  in  January  and  February  and  March, 
while  the  best  (for  oil)  is  the  last,  in  April  and  May.  It  produces  the 
best  oil  when  it  ripens  slowly,  and  in  some  exceptionally  good  years  the 
harvest  is  continued  into  June  and  even  July.  The  tree  then  recuper- 
ates until  the  following  spring,  when  it  flowers  again.  An  olive  tree, 
even  here,  would  bear  a  crop  each  year  if  so  permitted,  but  the  "whip- 
ping'' necessary  to  gather  in  the  fruit  destroys  the  blossoms,  which  do 
not  come  again  until  the  next  spring. 

HOW  THE  TREES  ARE  PLANTED. 

At  what  distance  apart  are  the  trees  planted ;  how  many  to  the  acre  t 
From  10  to  15  yards  each  way.  The  larger  trees  require  larger  space 
and  the  larger  the  space  allowed  the  larger  the  trees  produced.  The 
trees  need  sun  and  air.  and  if  crowded  it  will  be  to  their  detriment. 
This  would  permit,  if  I  have  figured  aright,  forty  to  fifty  trees  to  1  acre. 
But  they  do  not  calculate  by  the  acre,  for  the  trees  are  planted  on  the 
hill -side,  usually  on  made  terraces  impossible  to  plow,  cultivated  with 
the  spade,  and  it  is  difficult  to  get  an  acre  of  olive  trees  together.  In 
poorer  soil  and  on  the  hill-side  the  trees  may  be  a  lesser  distance  apart, 
even  reducing  it  6  to  8  yards. 

OLIVE  YIELD. 

What  is  the  average  yield  of  mature  trees  in  fruit;  in  oil ;  and  how 
much  or  in  what  proportion  does  the  fruit  produce  the  oil  I 

The  difference  between  olive  trees  in  their  product  is  as  great  as  be- 
tween apple  trees.  But  the  average  production,  per  tree,  biennially, 
may  be  stated  thus  :  In  fruit,  from  60  to  120  liters  ;  in  oil,  from  8  to  12 
kilograms,  or  12  to  18  liters. 

The  production  of  oil  from  the  fruit  is  about  as  one  to  five ;  i.  e.,  some 
5  liters  of  the  best  olives  will  make  1  liter  of  oil ;  though  in  many  cases 
it  takes  7  liters  of  olives  to  make  1  liter  of  oil. 

PICKLED   OLIVES. 

The  prepared  olives  of  commerce  come  from  Marseilles  and  farther 
around  the  coast.  They  are  outside  my  district,  and  my  information 
might  not  be  reliable,  therefore,  I  shall  not  attempt  it.  Olives  for  the 
table  at  Nice  are  usually  eaten  ripe  and  fresh.  Sometimes  they  may  be 
pickled  green  and  preserved  in  salt  or  brine,  but  this  is  all  for  the  local 
use  and  does  not  enter  into  commerce. 

OLIVES  FOR  OIL. 

When  and  how  are  they  picked,  and  wh;it  is  the  process  of  extract- 
ing the  oil  ? 


928  FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN   COUNTRIES. 

I  have  already  indicated  that  the  harvest  was  only  biennial,  that  it 
commenced  in  November  and  lasted  until  May,  or  even  (as  in  this  year) 
until  June.  The  fruit  is  gathered  when  ripe,  or,  what  is  better,  just  be- 
fore it  comes  fully  so.  When  ripe  it  is  apt  to  become  damaged  by  de- 
cay and  by  attracting  bad  tastes.  For  these  reasons  it  can  not  be  al- 
lowed to  remain  on  the  tree  until  it  falls  from  its  ripeness.  The  tree  is 
too  slight  and  frail  to  be  climbed,  and  so  a  sheet  being  spread  on  the 
ground  to  receive  the  fruit,  it  is  whipped  off  with  long  switches. 

The  harvest  is  divided  into  three  periods,  of  about  two  months  each. 

The  first,  November  and  December,  produces  the  oil  ordinaire.  This 
is  greenish  in  color.  It  is  used  as  food  by  the  common  people,  while 
the  inferior  quality  may  be  used  for  lubricating  purposes. 

The  second  period,  January  and  February,  produces  oil  fine,  straw 
color,  and  is  the  oil  of  commerce. 

The  third  period  lasts  from  March  to  the  close  and  produces  the  oil 
sur  fine  or  sur  choix,  which  is  the  very  best,  with  only  a  tinge  of  yellow 
in  it. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  THE   OIL. 

* 

The  olives  gathered  in  either  of  these  periods  are  taken  to  the  mill 
where  they  are  ground  to  pulp ;  and  then  put  under  the  press  by  which 
the  oil  is  extracted  and  the  fruit  and  seed  .left  a  dry  mass. 
r  The  mill  consists  of  a  stone  about  the  size  and  shape  of  the  common 
millstone,  but  stood  on  edge,  is  made  to  thus  revolve  on  its  axis  around 
a  given  center  by  means  of  a  long  wooden  arm  operated  by  horse  or 
man  power,  its  weight  being  on  its  perimeter,  inside  a  large  tub  of 
stone  (mason  work)  with  a  stone  bottom.  Into  this  tub  the  olives  are 
thrown  and  the  revolving  stone  crushes  them  in  its  path. 

Much  care  and  experience  is  required  for  all  these  operations.  The 
olives  must  be  in  proper  condition  ;  they  must  have  no  bruises  or  de- 
cayed places,  no  unnatural  or  improper  taint  or  taste;  the  weight  of 
the  millstone  must  be  such  as  that  the  fruit  shall  be  macerated  but  the 
stone  or  pit  not  broken,  for  the  kernel  gives  the  oil  a  bitter  taste. 

The  ground  pulp  is  put  into  a  sort  of  sack  or  open-work  basket,  and 
our  or  five  of  these  are  placed  under  the  press.  The  oil  thus  extracted 
s  the  best  quality  for  that  period.  Afterwards  a  second  quality  is  ob- 
tained by  soaking  the  residuum  with  hot  water.  The  opera tionoT grind- 
ing and  pressing  may  follow  immediately  the  gathering,  but  if  the  fruit 
is  dry  and  in  good  order  it  will  keep  for  eight  or  ten  days  if  spread  out 
in  a  dry  place  to  a  depth  of  2  or  3  inches,  and  not  disturbed. 

HOW  BEST  RESULTS  ARE   OBTAINED. 

i 

Are  best  results  obtained  on  valley,  hillside,  or  table-land  ? 
On  hillside.     Not  only  is  the  fruit  better  and  more  abundant,  but  it 
makes  finer  oil. 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    THE    ALPS    MARITIME.  929 

SUITABLE  SOIL. 

What  character  of  soil  is  best  adapted  to  olive  trees  ? 

A  limestODe  soil ;  marl  and  clay  or  any  soil  wet  and  cold  are  not  good. 
It  will  flourish  in  almost  any  kind  of  soil  light  and  dry.  A  light  lime- 
stone, gravelly  soil  is  its  delight. 

IRRIGATION. 

None  is  needed  here  for  the  olive. 

SITUATION  OF   ORCHARDS. 

How  near  to  the  coast  are  the  olive  orchards  ? 

If  on  the  plain,  half  a  mile  distant;  if  on  the  hillside  and  protected 
from  the  cold  winds,  they  grow  and  flourish  within  20  yards  of  the  sea 

DISEASES. 

To  what  maladies  are  the  olives  subject ! 

The  principal  ones  are  the  cairon,  a  small  worm  (Musca  oleai),  and  the 
morphea,  an  almost  imperceptible  bug  (Cirnea  barbanus). 

The  slow  ripening  indispensable  to  the  production  of  the  best  fruit 
causes  sometimes  a  fermentation,  by  which  is  engendered  the  small 
worm,  cairon.  It  attacks  only  the  fruit,  and  gives  a  bad  taste.  Its 
effect  is  felt  most  seriously  in  the  next  harvest,  and  thus  is  produced 
the  succession  of  good  and  bad  harvests. 

The  morphia,  on  the  other  hand,  attacks  the  tree,  and  its  evil  effects 
are  greater,  paralyzing  the  vegetation,  rendering  the  tree  fruitless,  and 
frequently  causing  its  death.  It  flourishes  in  damp  seasons  and  places, 
and  propagates  itself  with  an  astonishing  rapidity.  It  operates  by 
spinning  or  weaving  a  sort  of  web,  resembling  in  some  degree  that  of  a 
spider.  This,  after  a  short  time,  becomes  black  and  dry  and  resolves 
itself  into  a  powder  which  covers  the  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit ;  this 
powder  is  corrosive  in  its  effect,  and  deadens  all  with  which  it  comes  in 
contact.  The  insect  flourishes  on  the  olive,  but  the  dust  spreads  and 
settles  on  everything  ;  so  a  country  thus  infested  presents  the  appear- 
ance of  a  field  of  death,  the  valley  of  the  legendary  upas  tree.  No  cure 
has  yet  been  employed  with  success.  It  runs  its  course,  and  of  the  trees 
the  fittest  only  survive. 

COSTS  AND  PROFITS. 

The  yield,  the  proceeds,  and  profit,  and  the  cost  of  cultivation. 

I  have  given  the  yield  per  tree  per  crop  biennial :  In  fruit,  60  to  120 
liters  ;  in  oil,  12  to  18  liters  or  8  to  12  kilograms. 

In  average  years,  and  at  average  prices,  the  fruit  of  a  single  tree  will 
sell  at  the  foot  of  the  tree  for,  say,  8  francs  ;  if  rendered  into  oil  it  will 
bring,  say,  from  10  to  15  francs.  According  to  quality  the  prices  are, 


930         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

of  olives,  from  3.50  to  5  francs  for  20  liters  (a  double  decaliter) ;  of  oil, 
from  I  to  2.50  francs  per  liter.  The  average  product  of  one  tree,  then, 
will  be,  biennially,  in  fruit,  from  8  to  10  francs  j  in  oil,  from  10  to  15 
francs. 

The  cost  of  cultivation  is  slight ;  manure  every  two  years  and  prun- 
ing every  four.  The  cost  of  harvesting  is  also  slight ;  whip  oft'  the  olives 
and  gather  them  up.  If  this  could  be  done  and  completed  in  one  opera- 
tion the  cost  would  be  much  reduced.  But  the  whole  cost  may  be  esti- 
mated at  from  4  to  5  francs  per  tree  biennially,  2  to  2J  francs  annually. 
This  applied  to  40  or  50  trees  will  make  the  cost  at  from  80  to  100  francs 
per  acre.  Stretched  out,  as  it  is,  over  a  long  period  of  time,  it  cannot 
all  be  done  by  the  peasant  with  his  regular  force,  and  is  not,  as  in  our 
American  harvests,  forced  into  a  few  weeks,  requiring  a  large  increase 
of  help,  and,  consequently,  of  expense.  So  the  profit  on  each  tree  may 
be  estimated  at  4  to  8  francs,  or  possibly  10,  each  two  years.  This  would 
give  from  $20  to  $40  per  acre  per  year. 

NO  MORE  OLIVE-TREE  PLANTING. 

I  am  informed,  however,  that  the  cultivation  of  olives  is  falling  into 
desuetude. 

Flowers  pay  better  than  fruit.  Olive  trees  are  not  being  cut  down 
or  destroyed  for  the  purpose  of  changing,  but  when  destroyed  they  are 
not  again  planted.  The  planting  of  olives  here  is  to  be  likened  to  plant- 
ing forest  trees  in  the  United  States  ;  and  though  by  every  method  of 
figuring  it  would  pay,  yet  the  benefits  are  postponed  for  so  long  time 
that  no  one  does  it. 

This  is  all  made  apparent  when  one  considers  that  the  olive  does  not 
arrive  at  maturity  for  thirty  to  fifty  years,  a  longer  period  than  the 
average  life  of  the  man  who  plants  it,  and  that  it  does  not  even  com- 
mence bearing  until  ten  years- old. 

So  the  planting  of  an  olive  tree  is,  or  may  be,  regarded  as  work  done 
for  posterity. 

ORANGES  AND  LEMONS. 

The  orange  flourishes  better  at  Nice  than  at  Meutone,  but  it  is  the 
reverse  with  the  lemon.  Men  tone  is  slightly  warmer  and  mtore  shel- 
tered. 

VARIETIES  AND   VALUE. 

At  what  age  do  they  come  into  fall  bearing  and  how  long  do  they 
remain  fruitful  I 

There  are  the  sweet  and  the  sour  or  bitter  oranges.  They  cultivate 
fourteen  different  varieties— Le  Portugal  or  Bergamottc,  Le  Chinois,  Le 
Mandarin.  The  lemon  has  also  its  varieties. 

The  sweet  orange  and  the  mandarin  are  the  most  esteemed  and  the 
most  cultivated.  They  furnish  the  fruits  for  the  market  and  for  com- 
merce. 


FRUIT    CULTLRK    IN    THE    ALPS    MARITIME.  931 

The  bitter  orange  is  cultivated  only  for  its  seed,  tbe  essence,  and  the 
flower.  It  is  not  eaten.  The  tree  begins  to  bear  fruit  in  two  or  three 
years  after  the  grafting,  but  it  does  not  arrive  at  full  maturity  until  ten 
years  of  ago.  They  last  for  two  or  three  hundred' years. 

PROPAGATION. 

Are  the  trees  seedlings,  grafted,  or  budded  ! 

All  three  practices  prevail.  The  bitter  orange  is  grown  from  the 
seed,  and  when  it  attains  the  thickness  of  1  inch  and  the  height  of  5  or 
(>  feet  it  is  grafted  or  budded  with  the  sweet  orange  of  whatever  variety 
desired. 

The  same  process  in  effect  is  pursued  with  the  lemon  trees. 

MALADIES. 

Frost,  or  freezing,  is  hardly  to  be  called  a  malady,  but  it  is  equally 
fatal,  and  the  tree  requires  care  and  protection  against  it. 

The  principal  malady  attacking  the  trees  here  is  that  called  La  Mousse. 
It  seems  to  be  a  blight,  but  whether  fungus  or  not  I  can  not  say.  It 
would  seem  to  be  produced  (I  don't  know  which  is  cause  and  which 
effect)  by  a  superabundance  of  water  in  the  trunk  of  the  tree  under 
the  bark.  The  symptoms  are  that  the  tree  withers  and  becomes  yellow, 
the  fruit,  flowers,  and  leaves  fall,  and  all  begin  to  decay  and  rot.  The 
disease  seems  to  be  contagious  or  infectious.  There  appears  to  be  no 
cure,  and  the  only  course  to  save  the  trees  or  gardens  adjacent  seeras 
to  be  the  immediate  destruction  of  the  diseased  trees. 

HOW  PLANTED. 

At  what  distance  are  the  trees  planted  ? 
Oranges  about  5  meters,  lemons  3  meters. 

SITUATION   OF  ORCHARDS. 

Are  orchards  inland  or  on  the  sea-coast,  hill-side,  valley,  or  upland  f 

Protected  from  the  cold,  the  orange  tree  will  grow  in  any  of  these  sit- 
uations, but  that  preferable  is  the  valley,  where  it  can  be  irrigated  when 
necessary.  The  lemon  tree  prefers  a  dry  soil,  and  not  having  absolute 
need  of  irrigation,  will  flourish  on  the  hill-side.  But  as  both  these  trees 
love  the  warmth,  they  can  not  be  here  transplanted  far  from  the  sea. 
They  (especially  the  lemon)  are  to  be  found  with  the  greatest  success 
on  an  espalier,  or  trellis,  on  the  protected  side  of  the  high  stone  walls 
which  are  the  common  garden-fence  in  this  country. 

How  near  to  the  sea-shore  are  the  orchards  f 

Within  100  meters  for  the  oranges  and  even  less  for  the  lemons. 

IRRIGATION. 

Irrigation  is  requisite  for  the  orange  in  this  country. 

I  have  given  the  rain-fall  (maximum  fall)  in  ten  years,  1870-79, 1,384 


932 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    FOREIGN    COUNTRIES. 


minimum,  453  millimeters.    Average  for  ten  years  (1870-'79),  796  milli- 
meters, divided  by  seasons  thus : 


Season. 

Average. 

Maximun 

i. 

Minim  un: 

i. 

Winter 

Millimeters. 
193 

Millimeters. 
409 

Year. 

1873 

Millimeters. 
33 

Year. 

1878 

215 

460 

1879 

81 

1871 

Summer  

80 

231 

1870 

3 

1873 

308 

484 

1872 

168 

1875 

Total 

796 

It  will  thus  be  perceived  that  the  rain-fall  may  be  very  slight  during 
the  summer,  so  slight  that  without  aid  from  irrigation  the  entire  crop, 
and  possibly  the  orchards,  would  or  might  be  so  parched  as  to  be  de- 
stroyed. 

The  town  of  Cannes  led  the  way  in  procuring  a  system  of  artifical 
supply  of  water.  It  brings  the  water  of  the  Soigne  in  a  canal  from 
St.  Cezaide,  a  distance  of  25  miles.  Nice  has  just  completed  a  similar 
system  by  means  of  which  waters  are  brought,  down  through  Quartier 
de  Cinsiez,  a  distance  of  10  or  15  miles,  and  at  a  height  of  several  hun- 
dred feet. 

The  town  of  Grasse  is  agitating  the  same  subject,  and  soon  the  val- 
leys along  this  coast  will  all  be  indulging  themselves  in  the  luxurious 
enjoyment  of  a  plentiful  supply  of  pure  water  fresh  from  the  mountain 
springs. 

HOW  THE  TREES  ARE  PLANTED. 

Is  the  ground  between  the  trees  cultivated  ? 

It  is  plowed  or  spaded  and  manured,  but  they  do  not  grow  anything 
except  some  flowers,  usually  violets. 

PRUNING. 

This  is  done  once  each  year,  giving  the  tree  the  form  of  a  parasol, 
that  it  may  have  sun  and  air  and  to  facilitate  the  gathering  of  the 
fruit. 

YIELD  AND   COST   OF  CULTIVATION. 

i 

Give  the  yield,  proceeds,  and  cost  of  cultivation  f 

The  gathering  or  harvest  of  the  fruit  is  biennial,  that  is,  if  the  drought, 
cold,  or  some  malady  does  not  interfere. 

The  product  of  the  lemon  consists  here  solely  of  the  fruit,  whilst  in 
other  places  the  flowers  are  a  source  ot  revenue. 

The  orange  is  different.  It  may  be  denominated  previous.  Its 
branches,  its  leaves,  its  flowers,  its  fruit,  and  even  the  skin  of  the  fruit, 
which  would  be  otherwise  valueless,  all  these  form  parts  of  the  regular 
harvest,  while  the  wood  o?  the  tree  is  in  great  request  as  making  the 
finest  marquetry. 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    THE    ALPS    MARITIME.  933 

The  proceeds  are  somewhat  difficult  to  calculate.  A  good  harvest 
will  produce  a  minimum  of  10  francs  per  tree ;  many  of  them  will  pro- 
duce 50  francs  each.  This  is  for  fruit  alone.  Leaves  and  flowers  may 
bring  this  up  to  15  or  1G  francs  per  tree. 

The  trees  begin  to  produce  at  ten  years  of  age ;  their  best  product  is 
during  their  growth,  until  their  maturity,  say  to  forty  or  fifty  years. 

The  cost  may  be  approximated  as  follows : 

The  grafted  stock  as  sold  by  the  nurserymen,  original  cost,  each,  1.25 
francs. 

Annual  cost: 

Francs. 

Irrigation,  each 50 

Cultivation  and  manure. 50 

Pruning  and  plowing 50 

Total 1.50 

FIGS. 

Indicate  the  kinds  of  trees  producing  the  figs  of  commerce. 

Among  the  67  species  of  figs  which  can  be  counted  at  Kice,  they  cul- 
tivate the  following:  ISAbicou  and  La  Cottignane  blanche.  These  are  to 
be  eaten  fresh  about  the  last  of  June.  Succeeding  them  in  point  of  time 
are  the  Bernissou  noir,  Bernissou  blanc,  LaBellone,  and  Le  Col  de  Dame, 
to  be  eaten  dried.  To  be  eaten  dried — Ly  Bellone  (can  be  eaten  either 
dried  or  fresh),  La  Sarrasine  noire,  La  Rollandine  blanche.  The  latter 
is  the  fig  of  Calabre.  • 

MODE  OF  CULTIVATION. 

Production  and  process  of  cultivation. 

The  fig  tree  grows  from  a  slip  or  cutting.  They  are  planted  at  about 
6  meters  distance;  the  warmer  and  more  sheltered  the  better.  Though 
they  will  grow  in  colder  climates,  yet  their  tendency  is  to  stunted  growth 
and  a  return  to  a  savage  state. 

The  rain  suffices  for  them  without  irrigation.  The  earth  should  be 
dug  and  manured  here  each  year  and  the  tree  trimmed.  The  cost  here 
is  about  40  francs  per  hundred  trees. 

The  production  in  the  best  years  at  good  prices  is  about  equivalent 
to  30  or  40  francs  per  tree. 

PROCESS  OF  DRYING  AND   CURING  THE  FIG. 

The  harvest  of  some  kinds  may  commence  in  June  or  July  and  it  will 
last  until  October  and  November. 

The  ripe  fruit  is  placed  on  a  trellis  or  basket  work  (1J  to  2  by  2  to  3 
meters)  in  a  thin  layer  and  exposed  to  the  sun  for  ten  or  twelve  days. 
They  are  then  removed  to  a  dry  place  under  cover,  and  by  keeping 
;them  stirred  they  will  not  damage  for  a  long  time,  when  at  one's  leisure 


934        FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

he  can  put  them  in  the  basket,  case,  or  hoop,  and,  decorated  with  peach 
or  laurel  leaves,  they  are  pressed  in  the  form  in  which  they  are  known 
to  commerce  over  the  world. 

RAISINS. 

None  are  raised  or  prepared  in  this  district.  There  are  vineyards, 
but  not  for  raisins.  They  are  situated  on  the  hill  or  mountain  sides. 

The  fruit  is  sold  in  the  markets  to  be  eaten  fresh,  though  they  keep 
them  fresh  for  a  long  time.  These  grapes  are  sweet  and  luscious  to  the 
taste.  They  are  thus  strongly  impressed  upon  my  recollection.  Those 
not  used  thus  are  made  into  wine,  of  which  that  from  Bellet  has  ac- 
quired a  local  celebrity. 

This  trade  is  not  sufficiently  extensive  in  comparison  with  other  parts 
of  France  to  justify  a  description. 

THOMAS  WILSON, 

Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE, 

Nice,  September  13,  1884. 


THE  MANGOSTEEN. 

REPORT  BY  OOMSUL  STUDER,  OF  SINGAPORE. 

[Republished  from  Consular  Reports,  No.  10.] 

TANNIC   QUALITIES. 

For  the  benefit  of  such  among  our  public  as  are  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  leather,  and  who  may  take  an  interest  in  what  I  am  about  to 
state,  I  have  the  honor  to  inform  the  Department  that  in  the  local  paper, 
the  Daily  Times,  of  the  3d  instant,  appeared  a  very  interesting  as  well 
as  important  article  (taken  from  a  Java  paper),  of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  a  true  copy  : 

Mr.  G-.  Naeff,  at  Lochun,  has  made  a  comparative  examination  of  rnangosteen  shells 
and  oak  bark  to  determine  the  value  of  the  former  as  tanning  material  in  leather 
making.  It  appeared  therefrom  that  the  mangosteen  shells  contain  one-sixth  more 
tannin  than  oak  bark,  and  that  the  value  of  the  f  >rmer  may,  therefore,  be  set  at  about 
7£  guilders  per  100  kilograms. 

I  think  it  was  well  that  this  comparison  between  mangosteen  shells 
and  oak  bark  was  made.  I  regard  this  new  discovery  as  very  important, 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  many  of  our  valuable  "  hard- wood  forests"  in 
the  Eastern  and  Middle  and,  in  a  great  measure,  our  Western  States, 
have  either  entirely  disappeared  or  become  denuded  of  oak  trees,  and 
this,  too,  near  or  around  leather  manufacturing  districts.  True,  many 
substitutes  for  oak  bark,  such  as  hemlock,  gambler,  and  other  materials, 
have  been  resorted  to,  but  none  of  these,  I  believe,  are  able  to  take  the 


FRUIT    CULTURE    IN    THE    ALPS    MARITIME.  935 

place  of  oak  bark,  ami  "  oak- tanned  leather  »  still  commands  the  highest 
price  in  the  market.  I  do  not  know  the  present  prices  of  oak  bark  in 
the  United  States — whether  100  kilograms  in  a  broken  state  ready  to  be 
ground,  and  bought  where  grown,  would  be^dear  at  7J  guilders  ($3) ; 
but  if  the  price  of  it  should  be  the  same  as  of  mangosteen  shells  bought 
out  here  for  the  same  price,  the  prices  of  both  the  same  there  and  here—- 
the mangosteen  shells  having  one-sixth  more  tannic  properties  would 
be  more  valuable — the  difference  would  more  than  pay  for  the  freight, 
besides  proving  a  valuable  article  of  freight  for  our  ships,  being  easily 
shipped,  and,  owing  to  the  hardness  of  the  shell,  not  liable  to  spoil  or 
to  suffer  from  sea- water,  except  after  long  submersion. 

That  mangosteen  shells  contain  much  tannin  and  are  a  very  strong 
astringent  I  knew  long  ago.  The  Malays  when  they  want  to  check 
bowel  complaints  of  serious  character  grate  or  cut  fine  the  shells,  make 
tea  of  the  same,  apd  use  it  with  good  results.  This  is  well  known  here. 
About  ten  years  ago  an  eminent  Austrian  naturalist  and  physician, 
sent  by  his  government  to  the  Indo-Malayan  Archipelago  on  a  scientific 
tour  of  exploration,  had  his  attention  drawn  to  the  shell  of  the  man- 
gosteen fruit  as  a  powerful  astringent,  and  its  common  use  among  the 
natives  as  an  antidote  against  the  diseases  mentioned.  It  would  seem 
that  after  his  return  to  Vienna  the  imperial  family  read  his  report,  and 
noted  the  medical  value  of  the  mangosteen  shell,  for  about  six  years 
ago,  when  cases  of  Asiatic  cholera  had  occurred  in  Austria,  the  Austrian 
consul  here,  who  was  then  my  near  neighbor,  was  written  to  by  request 
of  Her  Majesty  the  Empress  to  cause  a  quantity  of  mangosteen  shells 
to  be  procured,  and  to  ship  them  with  dispatch  to  Vienna,  where  it  was 
believed  they  would  answer  for  checking  cholera,  in  case  the  latter 
should  make  progress. 

To  order  mangosteen  shells  from  here  for  the  cure  of  cholera  was  a 
mistake ;  for  no  one  here  over  heard  that  they  had  been  used  for  that 
purpose.  Still,  as  a  remedy  for  dysentery,  if  taken  immediately  on 
being  attacked,  the  astringent  is  very  effective. 

THE  MANGOSTEEN  FRUITS. 

The  mangosteeu  is  beyond  any  doubt  the  choicest,  most  refreshing, 
and  wholesome  fruit  in  this  part  of  the  world,  and  is  found  throughout 
the  whole  Indo-Malayan  Archipelago,  and  in  New  Guinea,  say  between 
the  twelfth  degrees  north  and  south  latitudes.  Strange  to  say,  it  does 
not  thrive  well,  if  at  all,  in  other  tropical  countries  within  the  same  de- 
grees of  latitude.  In  Siam  and  in  French  Cochin  China  there  are  large 
orchards  of  it ;  also  on  the  Malayan  peninsula,  wherever  human  habita- 
tions are  found.  It  is  equally  at  home,  and  plenty,  on  the  large  and 
small  Sunda  Islands,  in  the  Moluccas,  and  a  naturalist  told  me  that  he 
found  them  growing  plentifully  in  the  forests  of  New  Guinea.  On  the 
peninsula  of  Malacca,  in  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  large  groves  of  them  in 
a  wild  state  can  be  found,  generally  near  the  banks  of  rivers  arid  creeks, 
15GA 35 


936         FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

My  opinion  is  that  they  were  originally  planted  by  Malays  who  lived 
there,  and  abandoned  their  settlements  owing  to  internecine  wars,  or  to 
change  lands.  The  Malays  are  more  or  less  of  a  nomadic  disposition. 
Their  abandoned  orchards,  indigenous  as  the  mangosteen  tree  is,  took 
care  of  themselves  like  other  forest  fruit  trees,  and  the  seeds  of  the 
fruits,  dropped  here  and  there  by  birds  and  monkeys,  rooted  easily. 

The  wild  mangosteen  fruit  is  just  as  good  as  the  cultivated,  only  a 
little  smaller.  My  experience  is  that  the  trees  yield  fruit,  generally 
very  abundantly,  about  three  times  in  two  years,  or,  to  be  very  safe,  four 
times  in  three  years. 

In  seasons  when  rain  squalls  and  fine  weather  alternate  regularly, 
with  a  slight  preponderance  for  rain,  they  bear  best.  The  tree,  in  ground 
and  atmosphere,  likes  much  moisture.  If  the  natives,  throughout  the 
maugosteen-producing  countries  and  islands  named,  should  once  become 
aware  that  they  can  sell  the  shell  of  the  fruit,  or  that  it  had  become  an 
article  of  export,  there  would  be  no  great  difficulty  in  securing  immense 
quantities  of  the  same,  and,  the  trade  once  inaugurated,  it  is  my  opinion 
they  might  be  had  for  less  than  $300  per- 100  kilos.  The  average  size  of 
the  fruit  is  about  the  same  as  medium-sized  apple, while  the  average  thick- 
ness of  a  shell  is  about  one-third  of  an  inch.  The  fact  is,  there  is 
"  more  shell  than  fruit."  I  firmly  believe  that  the  said  shells  would 
make  first-class  li  tanning  material,"  that  they  are  well  worth  a  trial  in 
our  tanneries,  and  it  is  my  opinion  they  might  prove  a  valuable  dye- 
stuff  as  well. 

A.  J.  STUDER, 

Consul. 

CONSULATE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

Singapore,  June  14,  1881. 


CULTIVATION  OF  TROPICAL  FRUITS. 

SAMOA. 

With  regard  to  the  circular  of  September  28,  inclosing  a  list  of  ques- 
tions about  different  tropical  fruits,  I  am  sorry  to  say  that  I  can  give 
no  information. 

Oranges  and  lemons  grow  wild  in  Samoa;  they  are  not  cultivated  at 
all.  There  are  no  figs  or  olives  grown  here, 

W.  BLACKLOCK, 

Vice- Consul. 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE-GENERAL, 

Apia,  Samoa,  December  (),  1889. 


CULTIVATION    OP    TROPICAL    FRUITS    IN    POLYNESIA.         937 

POLYNESIA. 

HAWAII. 

The  information  sought  can  not  be  obtained,  owing  to  the  fact  that 
no  system  of  cultivation  exists  in  the  orange  or  fig.  These  fruits 
grow  well  in  this  climate,  while  the  lemon  and  olive  are  scarcely  known. 

H.  W.  SEVERANCE, 

Consul-  General 
UNITED  STATES  CONSULATE- GENERAL, 

Honolulu,  December  3,  1889. 


INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS  VOL.  I. 


1.  COTTON  TEXTILES  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 

Page. 
British  Africa: 

Cape  Colony __. 5-7 

Sierra  Leone 8-10 

Egypt ___ 10 

Liberia 11 

Morocco 11 

Portuguese  Africa: 

Cape  Verde  Islands 12 

Maderia 12 

St.  Paul  de  Loando 13 

Zanzibar. 14 

CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 

British  North  America: 

Gray  cotton  manufactures  of  Canada . 15,16 

British  Columbia  ___ _. _ _ _ 17-19 

Ontario: 

Fort  Erie _ 19 

Nova  Scotia: 

Windsor 20,21 

Newfoundland: 

St  John's.. __ 22 

Quebec: 

Quebec 22,23 

Prince  Edward  Island 24-27 

Mexico : 

Guayamas 28,  29 

Talcahuano 29-31 

Central  America: 

Costa  Rica _ 31,  32 

Guatemala 33,  34 

Salvador . 34,  35 

South  America: 

Argentine  Republic 36-44 

1 


2  INDEX    TO    SPECIAL    CONSULAR    REPORTS. 

Page. 

South  America — Continued. 
Brazil: 

Babia _ 44-51 

Para 51 

Pernambuco 51,  52 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul 53-56 

British  Guiana. 56,57 

Dutch  Guiana 57 

Chili 58 

Peru 59 

Republic  of  Colombia: 

Barranquilla 59-62 

Carthagena 62-64 

Panama 65-67 

Venezuela: 

LaGuayra 67,68 

Puerto  Cabello 69-72 

West  Indies: 

British  West  Indies: 

Antigua — _ _ 73 

Anguilla 74 

Bahamas 75-77 

Bermuda 77 

Dominica 78 

Jamaica 78-81 

Danish  West  Indies 81,82 

French  West  Indies 83-85 

San  Domingo 85,86 

Spanish  West  Indies: 

Cienfuegos 86,87 

Santiago 88-95 

CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 

British  Asia: 

British  India: 

Calcutta 95-126 

Bombay 127-129 

Ceylon 129 

Hong-Kong 133 

China: 

Chin-Kiang ! 130 

Foo-Chow '. 130-133 

Ningpo 134-136 

Province  of  Kwang-Tung  (Canton) 136-141 

Shanghai 141-145 

Siam - - — 145,146 

Spanish  Asia: 

Philippine  Islands 146-152 

Turkey  in  Asia: 

Palestine _i _- --          153 

Syria.... — 154-159 


INDEX   TO   SPECIAL    CONSULAR   REPORTS.  3 

Page. 
AUSTRALASIA. 

Fiji _ _ __ 159,160 

New  Zealand.. 160-162 

New  South  Wales 163-168 

CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 

Austria-Hungary  (Trieste) _ 169,170 

Denmark. _ 171, 172 

Belgium  (Antwerp) _. __ 173-176 

France: 

Havre 176 

Marseilles ___ _ 176-179 

Germany: 

Hamburg 179-181 

Stettin... _ _._ _.  181,182 

Holland 183-185 

Italy  (Rome  and  all  Italy) 185-199 

Catania _ 199-202 

Florence 202-205 

Genoa 206-208 

Messina 208-211 

Naples... _ 211-218- 

Palermo _._  218,  219 

Venice 220 

Portugal : 

Azores — 221,  222 

Lisbon 223,  224 

Spain-. 224-231 

Switzerland 232-234 

United  Kingdom: 

London . 235 

Liverpooll ." ___ __          235 

Leith.- 236 

Gibraltar ___. 236 

2.  FILES  IN  SPANISH  AMERICA. 

English  vs.  American  files... 243-249 

Mexico: 

LaPaz._ __ 250 

Mazatlan 250 

Piedras  Negras 250 

Tuxpan 251 

Central  America: 

Nicaragua 251 

South  America: 

Argentine  Republic 252 

Brazil: 

Bahia. _ __.  253-255 

Perrambuco 255,  256 

Rio  de  Janeiro _ 257 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul  ..  257 


INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS. 


South  America — Continued. 

Chili: 

Coquimbo ...'"-'.  ~.~-.-I~~~~.  I--.  —  \. 258 

Talcahuuuo 259 

Dutch  Guiana 259 

Peru - 260 

Republic  of  Colombia: 

Barranquilla 261,  262 

Colon. 263 

Panama 264 

Venezuela: 

LaGuayral 265 

Maracaibo 265 

Puerto  Cabello 266 

3.  CARPET  MANUFACTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

Apprentices  and  piece-work  in  France . 277 

Employe's,  statistics  relating  to,  in — 

Austria- Hungary 272 

France 276 

St.  Etienne _ __ 280 

Germany  : 

Aix-la-Chapelle _ 281 

Barmen 1 284 

Great  Britain  : 

Leeds . 289 

Holland 301 

Italy: 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 305 

Rome __.  305 

Turkey  in  Asia  : 

Asia  Minor. _ 308 

Sivas 310 

Syria 311 

Feltings,  manufacture  of,  in  Leeds 293-297 

Hours  of  labor  in — 

Austria-Hungary 272 

France = 277 

St.  Etienne 4-  280 

Germany: 

Aix-la-Chapelle  __.. _ 281 

Gera _ _ 287 

Great  Britain: 

Leeds __ 291 

Holland _'_ 301 

Italy: 

Florence _ _ * ___  304 

Lombardy  __ 305 

Rome.-. 305 

Turkey  in  Asia: 

Asia  Minor 308 

Sivas-,  310 


INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  PEPORTS.  5 

Page. 
How  the  industry  is  conducted  in — 

Austria-Hungary 273 

France  (cheapening  labor) 379 

St.  Etienne 280 

Germany  : 

Aix-la-Chapelle 282 

Barmen 284 

Gera 288 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds 291 

Holland 302 

Italy  : 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 1 305 

Rome 306 

Turkey  in  Asia  : 

Asia  Minor 308 

Siv*s 310 

Syria 312 

How  the  work-people  live  in — 

Austria-Hungary 273 

France I 278- 

St.  Etienne _*. 280 

Germany  : 

Aix-la-Chapelle 282 

Gera 288 

Great  Britain : 

Leeds 291 

Holland 302 

Italy: 

Florence i 304 

Rome 305 

Turkey  in  Asia: 

Asia  Minor.. 308 

Sivas __  310 

Syria 312 

Grades  of  carpet  manufactured  in — 

Austria- Hungary 271 

France 276 

St.  Etienne 280 

Germany: 

Aix-la-Chapelle 281 

Barmen 283 

Gera 286 

Great  Britain: 

Leeds 289-291 

Holland 301,303 

Italy: 

Florence 304 

Lomhardy.-- 304 

Rome__  305 


6  INDEX   TO    SPECIAL    CONSULAR   REPORTS. 

Page. 

Grades  of  carpet  manufactured  in — Continued. 
Turkey  in  Asia: 

Asia  Minor _—  308 

Sivas 309 

Syria 311 

Imports  and  exports  of  carpet  into  and  from  Italy 306 

Looms,  number  and  kinds  in — 

Austria-Hungary 271 

France - 276 

St.Etienne -- 380 

Germany: 

Aix-la-Chapelle .._  281 

Barmen _.  283 

Gera 284 

Great  Britain: 

Leeds 289 

Holland 301,302 

•     Italy: 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 304 

Rome 305 

Turkey  in  Asia: 

Asia  Minor 307 

Sivas __  310 

Syria . 311 

Marketing  tbe  product  in — 

Austria-Hungary . 273 

France- 279 

St.  Etienne 280 

Germany: 

Aix-la-Chapelle 282 

Barmen 284 

Gera _ 288 

Great  Britain: 

Leeds ^ 291 

Holland 302 

Italy: 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 305 

Rome 306 

Turkey  in  Asia:  I 

Asia  Minor 309 

Sivas 310 

Syria 312 

Mill  machinery  in  Germany 287 

Mills  and  establishments  in — 

Austria-Hungary ._  261 

France 276 

St.  Etienne 280 

Germany: 

Aix-la-Chapelle. ._ _.  281 

Barmen 283 

Gera..  285 


INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS.  7 

Page. 
Mills  and  establishments  in — Continued. 

Great  Britain: 

Leeds. - 289 

Leith _ 297 

Holland ..301,303 

Italy: 

Florence 304 

Lombardy 304 

Rome.__ 305 

Turkey  in  Asia; 

Asia  Minor _ ._ - - 307 

Sivas 309 

Syria  __ __ 310 

Price-lists,  Hnddersfield _ 292 

Syria,  history  of  carpet- making  in 312 

carpet-weaving  by  the  Nomads 313 

Wages  in— 

Austria-Hungary 272 

France 276 

St.  Etienne 280 

Germany: 

Aix-la-Chapelle 281 

Barmen 284 

Gera — 287 

Great  Britain: 

Leeds 290 

Holland 301 

Italy: 

Florence 304 

Lombardy^ 305 

Rome 305 

Turkey  in  Asia: 

Asia  Minor 308 

Sivas - 310 

Where  the  product  finds  consumption — 

Austro-Hungarian 274 

British: 

Leeds 291 

Dutch  -_. -„ -. - 301 

French 279 

St.  Etienne 280 

German: 

Aix-la-Chapelle 282 

Barmen —  284 

Gera  — - 288 

Italian : 

Florence 304 

Lombardy ,-  305 

Rome — 306 

Turkish: 

Asia  Minor 309 

Sivas 310 

Syria - 312 


INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS. 


4.  MALT  AND  BEER  IN  SPANISH  AMERICA 

Page. 

Mexico 329 

LaPaz 333 

Mataruoras 334 

Paso  del  Norte —  335 

Piedras  Negras 335 

Saltillo 336 

Sonora 337 

Tuxpan.__ -'- 338 

Central  America: 

Costa  Rica _ — 339 

Honduras _ -  340 

Nicaragua 341 

Salvador - 342 

South  America: 

Argentine  Republic. __ 343 

Brazil: 

Bahia. . 350 

Para 353 

Pernambuco 354 

Rio  de  Janeiro , 355 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul —  356 

British  Guiana 357 

Chili: 

Iquique 358 

Talcahuano 359 

Ecuador 360 

Republic  of  Colombia: 

Barranquilla  ^ 362 

Colon 364 

Venezuela: 

La  Guayra 365 

Maracaibo 366 

Puerto  Cabello 369 

British  West  Indies: 

Antigua 370 

Bahamas _ 371 

Bermuda _._.  374 

Dominica 374 

Jamaica 375 

Montserrat 377 

Nevis I— 378 

Trinidad ___ 378 

Danish  West  Indies: 

St.  Thomas  .__ _ 379 

Dutch  West  Indies: 

Curacoa 380 

French  West  Indies: 

Guadaloupe 380 

Martinique 381 


INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAK  REPORTS.  9 

Page. 

Spanish  West  Indies: 

Cuba -___ _..  382 

Cienfuegos . __  383 

Havana ._ ,  384 

Sagua  la  Grande 385 

Santiago  de  Cuba 386 

San  Domingo: 

Puerto  Plata  .__ 388 

Supplement: 

Exports 389 

Imports 390 


5.  FRUIT  CULTURE  IN  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

Page. 

PART      I.    The  Orange  and  the  Lemon 399-585 

PART    II.    The  Olive 587-727 

PART  III.    The  Fig.. 729-769 

PART  IV.    The  Vine 771-867 

PAKT     V.    Supplement 809-937 

OBANGES  AND  LEMONS. 

Page. 

CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 

Cape  Colony  (Consul  Hollis) 399 

Oranges,  399— insect  pests,  399. 
Egypt  (Consul-General  Schuyler) 400 

Oranges,  400— lemons,  400. 

Morocco  (Consul  Mathews) _ 400-404 

Oranges,  400 — varieties,  400,  402 —  maturity,  400 — propagation,  400 — 
planting,  400 — insect  pests,  400 — situation,  401 — irrigation,  401 — 
cultivation,  401 — limes,  403 — lemons,  404 — citron,  404 — pruning, 
404. 

CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 
Mexico: 

Guerrero  (Consul  Sutter) _ __ „ 405,  406 

Oranges,  405 — varieties,  405 — limes,  405 — maturity,  405 — propaga- 
tion, 405 — insect  pests,  405 — planting,  405 — situation,  406 — irri- 
gation, 406— yield,  406. 

Sonora  (Consul  Williams) 406,  407 

Oranges,  407 — situation,  407 — irrigation, 4 07 — propagation,  407 — 
planting,  407 — yield,  407 — insect  pests,  407 — lemons,  407. 

Lower  California  (Consul  Viosca) 407-409 

Oranges,  407— varieties,  407— situation,  408— climate,  408— irri- 
1  gation,  408— cultivation,  408— fertilizers,  408— pruning,  408— 
picking,  408 — packing  and  shipping,  409 — planting,  409 — ma- 
turity, 409— insect  pests,  409. 
Central  America: 

Gautemala  (Consul-General  Hosmer) 409 

Oranges,  40U— lemons,  409— situation,  409— culture,  409. 


10          INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS. 

Page. 

CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA — Continued. 
South  America: 

Brazil  Bahia  (Consul  Burke) 410-412 

Oranges,  410— varieties,  410— cultivation,  410,  411— situation, 
410 — soil,  410— climate,  411 — irrigation,  411 — pruning,  411 — 
picking,  411 — planting,  411 — maturity,  411 — insect  pests,  411 — 
lemons,  411— varieties,  411 — limes,  411. 

British  Guiana  (Consul  Walthal) 412,  413 

Oranges,  412— varieties,  412— situation,  412— climate,  412— irri- 
gation, 413— fertilizers,  413— pruning,  413— planting,  413— 
maturity,  413 — insect  pests,  413 — lemons,  413 — limes,  413. 

Ecuador  (ConsuLGeneral  Sorsby) 413,  414 

Oranges,  413 — varieties,  413— situation,  413 — climate,  413 — culti- 
vation, 414 — fertilizers,  414 — pruning,  414 — picking,  414 — pack- 
ing and  shipping,  414 — planting,  414 — maturity,  414 — insect 
pests,  414 — lemons,  414 — picking,  414 — curing,  414 — yield,  414. 

Ecuador  (Consul  Beach) 414-416 

Oranges,  415 — varieties,  415 — maturity,  415 — propagation,  415 — 
planting,  415 — situation,  415 — irrigation,  416 — cultivation, 
416— yield,  416— lemons,  416— varieties,  416— maturity,  416— 
propagation,  416 — insect  pests,  416 — situation,  416— cultiva- 
tion, 416— irrigation,  416— yield,  416. 

Venezuela  (Consul  Bird) 416,417 

Oranges,  416 — variety,  416 — maturity,  416 — cultivation,  416 — 
propagation,  416 — fertilizers,  416 — pruning,  416 — insect  pests, 
417 — maturity,  417 — situation,  417 — lemons,  417 — limes,  417. 

Maracaibo  (Consul  Plumacher) 417 

Oranges,  417 — varieties,  417 — cultivation,  417 — lemons,  417 — va- 
rieties, 417 — cultivation,  417. 

Puerto  Cabello  (Consul  de  Blanc)  -_ 417 

Oranges,  417 — cultivation,  417 — lemons,  417 — cultivation,  417. 
British  West  Indies: 

Bermuda  (Consul  Beckwith) 418,419 

Oranges,  418 — situation,  418— soil,  418— climate,  418— cultiva- 
tion, 418 — pruning,  419 — picking,  419 — curing,  419 — planting, 
419— maturity,  419— insect  pests,  419. 

Dominica  (Consular-Agent  Stedman) .          420 

Oranges,  420 — varieties,  420 — cultivation,  420 —situation,  420 — 
lemons,  420 — situation,  420 — picking,  420 — situation,  420. 

Jamaica  (Consul  Haskinson) 420-424 

Oranges,  420 — varieties,  421 — propagation,  421 — pruning,  422—^ 
limes,  421 — citron,  421. 

Jamaica  (Consul  Hoskinson) 424-427 

Oranges,  424 — varieties,  424 — propagation,  424 — maturity,  425 — 
lemons,  425 — insect  pests,  425 — planting,  425 — situation,  426 — 
irrigation,  426— yield,  426. 

Trinidad  (Consul  Sawyer) 427,  428 

Oranges,  427— varieties,  428— situation,  428— climate,  428— irri- 
gation, 428 — cultivation,  428 — fertilizers,  428 — pruning,  428 — 
picking,  428 — curing,  428 — packing,  428 — planting,  428 — ma- 
turity, 428— insect  pests,  428— cuttings,  428. 

Dutch  West  Indies  (Consul  Smith) „ 428 

Oranges,  428— lemons,  428, 


INDEX    TO    SPECIAL    CONSULAR    REPORTS.  11 


CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA — Continued. 
French  West  Indies: 

Guadeloupe  (Consul  Barlett) — .          429 

Limes,  429 — oranges,  429 — varieties,  429 — insect  pests,  429— cul- 
tivation, 429 — fertilizers,  429 — pruning,  429 — propagation,  429— 
maturity,  429. 
Spanish  West  Indies: 

Cuba  (Consul-General  Williams) 430 

Oranges,  430— planting,  430— lemons,  430— planting,  430. 

Santiago  de  Cuba  (Consul  Reimer) 430,  431 

Oranges,  430 — varieties,  430 — situation,  431— climate,  431 — lem- 
ons, 431. 

Porto  Rico  (Consul  Conroy) 431-433 

Oranges,  431 — maturity,  432 — planting,  432 — cultivation,  432 — ir- 
rigation, 432 — climate,  432, 

Asia  Minor  (Consul  Emmett) 434,435 

Oranges,  434— situation,  434 — climate,  434 — irrigation,  434 — cul- 
tivation, 334 — fertilizers,  434 — pruning,  434 — picking  and  cur- 
ing, 435 — planting  and  propagation,  435 — maturity,  435. 

Mitylene  (Consular  Agent  Fottion) 435,436 

Oranges  and  lemons,  435 — varieties,  435 — maturity,  435 — propa- 
gation, 435 — insect  pests,  435 — situation,  435 — irrigation,  435, 
436— pruning,  435— fertilizers,  435— yield,  436. 

Palestine  (Consul  Gillman) 436-439 

Oranges  and  lemons,   436 — varieties,   436 — situation,   437 — soil, 
437 — diinate,  437 — irrigation,  437 — cultivation,  437 — fertilizers, 
438 — pruning,   438 — picking,  438 — planting  and  propagation. 
438— maturity,  438— insect  pests,  438. 
Syria: 

Beirut  (Consul  Bissinger) 439,440 

Oranges,  439 — varieties,  439 — soil,  439 — climate,  439 — irrigation, 
439 — cultivation,  439 — fertilizers,  439 — pruning,  439 — picking, 
439 — planting  and  propagation,  439 — maturity,  440— insect 
pests,  440 — lemons,  440 — varieties,  440 — propagation,  440. 

Beirut  (Consul  Robeson) 410,441 

Oranges,  440 — varieties,  440 — maturity,  440 — propagation,  440 — 
situation,  440 — irrigation,  440 — fertilizers,  440 — cultivation, 
440— yield,  441— lemons,  440— varieties,  440— insect  pests,  440— 
situation,  440— fertilizers,  440 — irrigation,  440 — cultivation,  440. 

Haifa  (Consular  Agent  Schumacher) 441,442 

Oranges,  441 — varieties,  441 — situation,  441 — climate,  441 — irri- 
gation, 441 — cultivation,  441 — fertilizers,  442 — pruning,  442 — 
picking,  442 — planting  and  propagation,  442 — maturity,  442 — 
insect  pests,  442. 

Haifa  (Consular  Agent  Schumacher) 442,  443 

Oranges  and  lemons,  442 — varieties,  442 — propagation,  442 — in- 
sect pests,  443 — planting,  443 — irrigation,  443 — cultivation,  443 — 
yield,  443. 

Mersina  (Consular  Agent  Dawson) 443,  444 

Oranges  and  lemons.  443 — varieties,  443,  situation,  443,  soil,  443 — 
climate,  443 — irrigation,  443 — pruning,4  44 — picking,  444,curing, 
444 — shipping,  444 — planting  and  propagation,  444 — maturity, 
444 — insect  pests,  444 — packing,  444. 


12  INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS. 

Paga 
CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA — Continued. 

Sidon  (Consul  Bissinger) 445 

Oranges,  445 — varieties,  445 —situation,  445 — soil,  445,  climate, 
445 — irrigation,  445,  cultivation,  445 — fertilizers.  445 — pruning, 
445 — picking,  445 — packing,  445 — planting  and  propagation,  445. 

Sidon  (Consular  Agent  Abela) ____ 445,  446 

Oranges  and  lemons,  445 — varieties,  445 — soil,  446 — insect  pests, 
446 — situation,  446 — irrigation,  446 — yield,  446. 

Tarsus  (Acting  Consular  Agent  Arania) 446,  447 

Oranges  and  lemons,  446 — varieties,  446 — propagation,  447— sit- 
uation, 447 — irrigation,  447 — yield,  447. 

Tripoli  and  vicinity  (Consul  Bissinger) j. 447,  448 

Oranges  and  lemons,  447 — varieties,  447 — situation,  447,  climate, 
447 — irrigation,  448 — cultivation,  448 — fertilizers,  448 — pruning, 
448 — picking,  448 — planting  and  propagation,  448 — maturity, 
448— insect  pests,  448. 

Aden  (Consul  Moore) 449 

Oranges  and  lemons,  449. 

India  (Vice-Consul  Bode) 449-454 

Oranges,  449 — varieties,  449 — situation,  450 — climate,  451 — irri- 
gation, 451 — cultivation,  452 — pruning,  452 — picking,  452  — 
curing,  452 — packing,  452 — planting  and  propagation,  452 — ma- 
turity, 453 — insect  pests,  453 — lemons,  453 — citron,  453— limes, 
453— climate,  454. 

Philippine  Islands  (Consul  Webb) 454-457 

Oranges  and  lemons,  454 — varieties,  454 — situation,  455 — climate, 

455 — irrigation,  456 — propagation,  456. 
AUSTRALASIA. 

New  South  Wales  (Commercial  Agent  Dawson) 457,458 

Oranges  and  lemons,  457 — varieties,  457 — irrigation,  457 — plant- 
ing and  propagation,  458 — insect  pests,  458. 

Australasia  (Consul  Griffin) .__ 458-475 

Oranges,  458 — variety,  460 — lemon,  463 — lime,  464 — soil,  464 — 
climate,  467 — planting,  470 — propagation,  470 — irrigation,  471 — 
pruning,  471 — picking  and  packing,  472 — curing,  472 — maturi- 
ties, 473 — insect  pests,  473. 

Fiji  (Commercial  Agent  St.  John) 476 

Oranges,  476 — lemons,  476. 
CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 

France  (Consul  Bradley) ; 477-488 

Oranges,  477 — varieties,  477 — lemons,  478 — varieties,  478 — fertil- 
izers, 479 — pruning,  480 — propagation,  481 — insect  pests,  481. 

Corsica  (Consular  Agent  Damiani) 488,489 

Oranges  and  lemons,  488 — situation,  488— cultivation,  488 — prun- 
ing, 488 — climate,  488 — insect  pests,  489 — maturity,  489 — vari- 
eties, 489. 

Marseilles  (Consul  Trail) _'  489,  490 

Oranges  and  lemons,  489. 

Mentone  (Consular  Agent  Clericy) '___  490,  491 

Oranges  and  lemons,  490 — varieties,  490 — situation,  490— soil, 
490 — climate,  490 — irrigation,  490 — cultivation,  490,  pruning, 
490 — picking  and  curing,  490 — planting  and  propagation,  490 — 
maturity,  490— insect  pests,  490— fertilizers,  491. 


INDEX    TO    .SPECIAL    CONfeULAK    KEPORTS.  13 

Page. 

CONTINENT  OF  EUEOPE— Continued. 
Italy: 

Carrara  (Consul  Kice) 491,  492 

Oranges  and  lemons,  491 — varieties,  491 — situation,  491— climate, 
491 — irrigation,  491 — fertilizers,  491 — pruning,  491 — picking, 
491 — propagation,  492 — maturity,  492 — insect  pests,  492. 

Genoa  (Consul  Fletcher)— 492-494 

Oranges  and  lemons,  492 — varieties,  492 — maturity,  492 — plant- 
ing, 493 — situation,  493 — cultivation,  493. 

Messina  (ConsulJones) 495-498 

Oranges  and  lemons,  495 — varieties,  495 — situation,  495— soil, 
495— climate,  495 — irrigation,  496 — cultivation,  496 — fertilizers, 
497— pruning,  497 — picking,  497 — planting,  497 — propagation, 
497 — varieties,  497 — maturity,  498 — insect  pests,  498 — picking 
and  curing,  498. 

Messina  (Consul  Jones) 499-507 

Oranges,  499 — packing  and  shipping,  499 — situation,  501 — soil, 
501 — lemons,  501 — varieties,  502 — essences,  502— raw  and  con- 
centrated lemon  juice,  504 — fruit  in  brine,  506. 

Naples  (Consul  Camphausen) 507, 508 

Oranges  and  lemons,  507 — varieties,  507 — situation,  507 — climate, 
508 — irrigation,  508 — cultivation,  508 — pruning,  508 — picking, 
508 — planting  and  propagation,  508 — maturity,  508 — insect 
pests,  508. 

Palermo  (Consul  Carroll) 508-516 

Oranges  and  lemons,  508 — varieties,  508 — planting  and  propaga- 
tion, 509 — maturity,  509 — insect  pests,  509— situation,  510 — 
soil,  511— climate,  511— irrigation,  512— fertilizers.  513— pick- 
ing and  curing,  514. 

Sicily  (Consul  Lamantia) 1___  516-521 

Oranges  and  lemons,  516 — varieties,  516 — situation,  517 — climate, 
517 — irrigation,  517 — cultivation,  517 — fertilizers,  518 — graft- 
ing, 518 — pruning,  518 — picking,  518 — planting  and  propaga- 
tion, 519 — maturity,  519 — insect  pests,  519 — gum  disease,  520 — 
replanting,  520. 

Sicily  (Consul  Jones) ; 521,522 

Lemons,  521 — soils,  522 — situation,  522 — fertilizers,  522, 

Sicily  (Consul  Woodcock) 522-526 

Oranges  and  lemons,  522 — varieties,  523 — insect  pests,  524 — soil, 
524 — irrigation,  525 — cultivation,  525 — picking,  525. 

Venetia  (Consul  Noyes) 526-529 

Lemons,  526 — cultivation,  527 — fertilizers,  527 — propagation,  527. 
Portugal : 

The  Azores  (Consular  Agent  Moreira) 529,530 

Oranges,  529 — varieties,  529 — situation,  529 — soil,  529— climate, 
529 — irrigation, 530 — cultivation,  530 — fertilizers,  530 — pruning, 
530 — picking,  530 — curing  and  packing,  530 — planting  and 
propagation,  530 — maturity.  530. 

The  Azores  (Consul  Dabney) 531,  532 

Oranges  and  lemons,  531 — varieties,  531 — cultivation,  531 — prop- 
agation, 531 — packing,  532 — soil,  532. 


14          INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS. 

Page. 
CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE — Continued. 

Spain  (Consul  Lowenstein) 532-564 

Oranges,  532 — cultivation,  532 — climate,  532 — soil,  534 — propa- 
gation, 536— nurseries,  537 — grafting,  540— transplanting,  544 — 
cultivation,  547 — fertilizers,  553 — diseases,  558 — climate,  558 — 
insect  pests,  559 — parasitic  plants,  562. 

Western  Andalusia  (Consul  Oppenheirn) 564-577 

Oranges,  564 — varieties  and  maturity,  565— planting,  565 — insect 
pests,  566 — fertilizers,  573 — yield,  576. 

Barcelona  (Consul  Scheuch) 577-581 

Oranges,  577 — varieties,  577 — situation,  578 — soil,  578 — cultiva- 
tion, 578 — yield,  579 — maturity,  581 — lemons,  581 — cultivation, 
581. 

Malaga  (Consul  Marston) 582,583 

Oranges  and  lemons,  582 — situation,  582 — climate,  582 — irriga- 
tion, 582 — cultivation,  582— fertilizers,  582 — pruning,  582 — pick- 
ing, 582— packing  and  shipping,  582 — planting  and  propaga- 
tion, 582— maturity,  582 — insect  pests,  582 — packing  and  cur- 
ing, 582. 

Turkey  (Consul-General  Heap) 583-585 

Oranges  and  lemons,  583 — varieties,  583 — propagation,  583 — in- 
sect pests,  583 — diseases,  584 — planting,  584 — situation,  584 — 
irrigation,  584 — yield,  584. 

OLIVES. 

CONTINENT  OP  AFRICA. 

Morocco  (Consul  Mathews)  589-594 

Varieties,  589 — cultivation  and  propagation,  590 — queen  olives, 
591 — maturity,  591 — yield,  planting,  picking,  packing,  and  oil, 
592 — situation  and  soil,  593 — irrigation,  climate,  and  pruning, 
594. 

CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 
Mexico: 

Lower  California  (Consul  Viosca) 595,596 

Varieties,  situation,  climate,  pruning,  maturity,  planting,  and 
insect 'pests,  595— soil,  596. 

Ecuador  (Consul  Beach) 596 

Production,  596. 

Venezuela  (Consul  Bird) 596 

Production,  596. 
West  Indies:  I 

Bermuda  (Consul  Beckwith) 596 

Production,  596. 

Trinidad  (Consul  Sawyer) 597 

Production,  597. 

Cuba  (Consul- General  Williams) 597 

Production,  597. 

Guadeloupe  (Consul  Bartlett) 597 

Production,  597. 


INDEX   TO    SPECIAL   CONSULAR   REPORTS.  15 

Page. 

CONTINENT  OF  AsrA. 

Asia  Miuor  (Consuls  Emmett  and  Stevens). 598-600 

Varieties,  situation,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  and  pruning, 
598 — pickling,  picking,  oil  manufacture,  maturity,  yield,  plant- 
ing and  propagating,  and  insect  pests,  599 — situation,  591) — cul- 
tivation, varieties,  picking,  and  expressing  oil,  600 

Palestine  (Consul  Gillman) 601-604 

Varieties,  climate,  irrigation,  and  cultivation,  601 — pruning,  pick- 
ing, pickling,  and  oil-making.  602 — maturity,  yield,  planting, 
and  propagating,  603— insect  pests,  604. 
Syria: 

Aleppo  (Consular  Agent  Poche)    . 604,605 

Varieties.  604 — cultivation,  605. 

Beirut  (Consul  Kissinger) 605,606 

Varieties,  695 — pruning,  picking,  maturity,  yield,  and  planting, 
606. 

Beirut  (Consul  Robeson) 606,607 

Varieties,  cultivation,  planting,  and  yield,  606— picking,  irriga- 
tion, and  climate,  607. 

Damascus  (Consular  Agent  Meshaka) 607,608 

Varieties,  situation,  climate,  607 — irrigation,  cultivation,  prun- 
ing, picking,  curing,  maturity,  yield,  planting  and  propagat- 
ing, and  insect  pests,  60B. 

Haifa  (Consular  Agent  Schumaker) 609,610 

Varieties,  situation,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  pruning, 
picking,  609— maturity,  yield,  planting  and  propagating,  and 
insect  pests,  610. 

Schwayfat  (Consul  Bissinger) __•_ 610-612 

Varieties,  situation,  soil,  climate,  and  irrigation,  610 — cultiva- 
tion, pruning,  picking,  curing,  oil,  pickling,  maturity,  and 
yield,  611 — plan  ting  and  propagation,  and  insect  pests,  612. 

Sidon  (Consul  Bissinger) 612 

Varieties,  situation,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  pruning, 
picking,  maturity,  yield,  planting,  and  insects,  612. 

Sidon  (Consular  Agent  Abela) 612,  613 

Varieties,  cultivation,  and  bearing,  613 — oil,  location,  613. 

Tripoli  (Consul  Bissinger) 613,  614 

Varieties,  soil,  manure,  situation,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation, 
pruning,  613 — pickling,  oil,  maturity,  yield,  planting,  and 
propagating,  614. 

Tripoli  (Consular  Agent  Yanni) 614-616 

Varieties,  orchards,  maturity,  614 — yield,  planting,  picking,  oil, 

soil,  616 — Irrigation,  situation,  616. 
ATPTRALASIA: 

Australasia  (Consul  Griffin) 616-613 

Varieties,  616 — planting,  soil,  situation,  manufacture  of  oil,  617. 

Fiji  (Commercial  Agent  St.  John)_ _ 618 

Production,  618. 
CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE: 

France  (Consul  Trail) 619-627 

Soil,  619 — varieties,  6'20 — cultivation,  and  fertilizing,  621 — pick- 
ing and  curing,  622 — oil  niaimtaeture,  624— prices,  adultera- 
tion, 625. 

346A 2 


16          INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS. 


CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE— Continued. 

Southern  France  (Vice-Consul  Martin) __ _.  627-630 

Varieties,  soil,  situation,  cultivation,  627 — pruning,  fertilizers,  ir- 
rigation planting,  628 — preparation,  629 — diseases,  insect  pests, 
630. 

Nice  (Consul  Hathaway) 630-638 

Varieties,  yield  of  oil,  situation,  631 — picking,  oil,  manufacture, 
632 — adulteration,  insect  pests,  633 — diseases,  costs,  profits, 
634 — cultivation,  soil,  situation,  635 — propagating,  nursery, 
636 — transplanting,  pruning,  637 — fertilizers,  grafting,  638. 

Italy  (Consul  Lamantia) 639-660 

Varieties,  639— vegetation,  640— climate,  641— situation,  642— 
soil,  fertilizing,  643 — propagation  by  seed,  644 — propagation. by 
ovoli  and  talee,  645 — propogation  by  polloni,  646 — propagating 
by  tronchi  vecchi  and  olivastrelli,  647 — grafting,  647 — treating 
plants  in  reservoir,  transplanting  for  final  stay,  649 — pruning, 
651 — insect  pests,  653 — diseases,  657. 

Italy  (Consul  General  Richmond) 661-689 

Varieties,  maturity,  green  and  dried  olives,  yield,  659 — planting, 
preserving,  extracting  the  oil,  soil,  climate,  irrigation,  locality, 
660. 

Italy(Consul  Grain) 659-665 

Culture  and  production,  661 — climate,  soil,  propagation,  662 — cul- 
tivation, pruning,  oil,  663 — prices,  664 — cotton-seed  oil,  664. 

Genoa  (Consul  Fletcher) 665-669 

Varieties,  seeding,  planting,  665 — olive  region,  616 — production, 
pickling,  666 — oil  extraction,  results,  soil,  climate,  667 — cost  of 
cultivation,  exports  and  imports  of  oil,  668. 

Lucca  (Consul  Rice) 669-671 

Varieties,  cultivation,  pruning,  669 — picking,  oil-making,  670 — 
propagation,  insect  pests,  671. 

Messina  (Consul  Jones) 671-673 

Varieties,  planting,  soil,  671 — climate,  irrigation,  cultivation, 
pruning,  picking,  curing,  672— pickling,  maturity,  yield,  plant- 
ing, insect  pests,  673. 

Naples  (Consul  Camphausen) 674 

Varieties,  climate,  cultivation,  pruning,  picking,  maturity,  yield, 
planting,  publications,  insect  pests,  674. 

Palermo  (Consul  Carroll) 675-680 

Varieties,    climate,   675 — soil,  676 — cultivation,    pruning,    677 — 
picking,  pickling,  manufacture  of  oil,  678 — maturity,   yield,* 
planting,  cultivation,  insect  pests,  680. 

Sicily  (Consul  Lamantia) 681-684 

/  Olive  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  681 — production  and  expor- 
tation, varieties,  682— situation,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation, 
pruning,  picking^  pickling,  683. 

Sicily  (Consul  Woodcock) 684-687 

Varieties,  soil,  684 — planting  and  propagating,  685 — pruning,  cul- 
tivation, oil,  picking,  686. 

Tuscany  (Consul  Welsh) 687-694 

Varieties,  688 — planting,  pruning,  689 — oil,  690 — picking,  yield, 
diseases,  culture,  682— climate,  export  of  oil.  693. 


INDEX    TO    SPECIAL,   CONSULAR   REPORTS.  17 

Page. 

CONTIXKXT  OF  Er ROPE— Continued. 
Italy — Continued. 

Venetia  (Consul  Noyes) 694-701 

Cultivation,  694 — varieties,  695 — culture,  manure,  protection  from 
cold,  696 — pruning,  yield,  gathering,  697 — oil-making,  698 — cli- 
mate, 700. 

Spain  (Consul  Oppenheim) 701-718 

Origin,  varieties,  701 — planting  and  propagating,  705 — cultivation, 
706 — pruning,  707 — climate,  situation,  708 — soil,  pests,  711 — 
picking,  pickling,  713 — oil  pressing,  714 — yield,  715 — exports, 
717. 

Malaga  (Consul  Marston) 718-721 

Varieties,  situation,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  pruning,  pick- 
ing, pickling,  718 — maturity,  yield,  planting,  insect  pests,  719 — 
varieties,  cultivation,  maturity,  yield,  planting,  pickling,  situa- 
tion, soil,  climate,  oil,  720. 

Turkey  (Consul-General  Heap) 721-725 

Varieties,  cultivation,  721 — maturity,  yield,  planting,  picking, 
pickling,  722 — oil  making,  723 — irrigation,  yield,  soil,  724 — 
climate,  725. 

Crete  (Consul-General  Heap) 725,726 

Harvest,  72.5— oil  yield,  export,  726. 

Dardanelles  (Consular  Agent  Calvert) . 726,727 

Varieties,  trees,  sit  Nation,  soil,  climate,  fertilizers,  cultivation, 
726 — pruning,  picking,  curing,  maturity,  planting,  insect  pests, 
727. 

FIGS. 

CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 

Morocco  (Consul  Mathews) 731-733 

Varieties,  731 — planting,  propagating,  fertilizing,  maturity,  yield, 

curing,  732. 

CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 
Mexico: 

La  Paz  (Consul  Viosca) 734 

Varieties,  watering,  pruning,  picking,  734. 

Ecuador  (Consul  Beach) 734 

Varieties,  cultivation,  734— yield,  735. 

Venezuela  (Consul  Bird) 735 

West  Indies: 

Bermuda  (Consul  Beckwith) ...          735 

Production,  insect  pests,  735. 

Trinidad  (Consul  Sawyer) 736 

Production,  pests,  736. 

Cuba  (Consul-General  Williams) 736 

Production,  736. 

Guadeloupe  (Consul  Bartlett) 736 

Insect  pests,  736. 
CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 

Asia  Minor  (Consul  Emmett) 737-739 

Varieties,  situation,  soil,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  fertilizers, 
pruning,  picking,  planting,  and  propagating,  738 — maturity,  in 
sect  peste,  739. 


18          INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS. 


CONTINENT  OF  ASIA — Continued. 

Palestine  (Consul  Gillman) -. „_ .  739-741 

Varieties,  situation,  climate,  739 — irrigation,  cultivation,  ferti- 
lizers, pruning,  picking,  planting,  maturity,  insect  pests,  cut- 
ting, 740. 
Syria: 

Beirut  and  vicinity  (Consul  Bissinger)  ._ 741-746 

Varieties,  situation,  irrigation,  cultivation,  fertilizing,  pruning, 
picking,  planting,  climate,  741 — irrigation,  cultivation,  ferti- 
lizers, pruning,  picking,  curing,  planting,  742 — cutting,  varie- 
ties, situation,  soil,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  743 — 
fertilizers,  pruning,  picking,  planting,  maturity,  insect  pests, 
slips.  Sidon:  varieties,  situation,  climate,  irrigation,  cultiva- 
tion, fertilizers,  pruning,  picking,  curing,  744 — planting,  ma- 
turity, insect  pests,  cuttings,  745.  Tripoli:  varieties,  situ- 
ation, climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  fertilizers,  pruning,  pick- 
ing, curing,  745 — planting,  maturity,  disease,  cuttings,  746. 

India  (Vice-Consul  Bode) ...  746-748 

Varieties,  situation,  746 — soil,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  fer- 
tilizers, pruning,  picking,  planting,  size  of  orchards,  maturity, 
747 — insect  pests,  cuttings,  publications,  748. 
AUSTRALASIA. 

Australasia  (Consul  Griffin) 748,749 

Cultivation,  cuttings,  varieties,  748 — situation,  climate,  caprifica- 
tion,  insect  pests,  749. 

Fiji  (Commercial  Agent  St.  John) 749 

Experiments,  blight,  749. 
CONTINENT  OP  EUROPE. 

France  (Consul  Trail) __ 750-753 

Varieties,  climate,  soil,  750 — situation,  climate,  planting,  ferti- 
lizers, pruning,  maturity,  picking,  751  — prices,  752 — insect  pests, 
reproduction,  753. 

Corsica  (Consular  Agent  Damiani) 753-755 

Varieties,  753 — situation,  climate,  cultivation,  planting,  picking, 
yield,  754. 

Southern  France  (Vice-Consul  Martin) 755 

Picking,  drying,  755. 

Italy  (Consul-General  Richmond) 756 

Varieties,  drying,  756. 

Catania  (Consul  Woodcock) 756-758 

Varieties,  756 — drying,  propagating,  757.  * 

Messina  (Consul  Jones) 758-760 

Varieties,  planting,  situation,  soil,  climate,  irrigation,  758 — cul- 
tivation, fertilizers,  pruning,  picking,  planting,  maturity,  759. 

Naples  (Consul  Camphausen) 760,761 

Varieties,  situation,  climate,  irrigation,  pruning,  picking,  and  cur- 
ing, 760 — planting,  maturity,  insect  pests,  cuttings,  761. 

Palermo  (Consul  Carroll) __  761,762 

Cultivation,  761 — propagation,  varieties,  762. 

Sicily  (Consul  Laraantia) 762-764 

Varieties,  situation,  762 — climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  ferti- 
lizers, pruning,  picking,  curing,  planting,  763 — maturity,  insect 
pests,  764. 


INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS.          19 

Page. 

CONTINENT  OF  ErK-u-K — Continued. 
Portugal: 

The  Azores  (Consul  Dabney) 765 

Production,  765. 
Spain: 

Malaga  (Consul  Marston) 765,766 

Varieties,  situation,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  fertilizers, 
pruning,  picking,  curim>,  and  packing,  765 — planting,  maturity, 
insect  pests,  cuttings,  766. 

Turkey  (Consul-General  Heap) 76G-768 

Production,  766 — yield,  767— curing,  768. 

Dardanelles  (Consular  Agent  Calvert) 768,  769 

Varieties,  trees,  768— soil,  climate,  irrigation,  cultivation,  fer- 
tilizers, pruning,  picking,  planting,  orchards,  maturity,  capri- 
fication,  insect  pests,  769. 

THE  VINE. 

CONTINENT  OF  AFRICA. 

Morocco  (Consul  Mathews) 773-775 

Cultivation,  planting,  pruning,  773 — propagating,  manures,  774 — 

phylloxera  congress,  775. 
CONTINENT  OF  AMERICA. 
South  America: 

Ecuador  (Consul  Beach)  .__. 776 

Methods  of  cultivation,  value  of  crop,  776. 
CONTINENT  OF  ASIA. 

Asia  Minor 777-779 

Climate,  777— situation,  varieties,  pruning,  planting,  cultivation, 
778 — maturity,  vintage,  cultivation,  exports,  779. 

Mitylene  (Consular  Agent  Fottion) 779,780 

Cultivation,  779 — pruning,  harvest,  irrigation,  yield,  780. 
Syria: 

Beirut  (Consul  Robeson) —  780,781 

Mildew,  soil,  780 — cultivation,  yield,  781. 

Aleppo  (Consular  Agent  Poche) 781 

Cultivation,  pruning,  diseases,  781. 

Haifa  (Consular  Agent  Schumacher) 782,  783 

Situation,  mildew,  782 — pruning,  783. 

Sidon  (Consular  Agent  Abela) 783,784 

Position,  pruning,  soil,  cultivation,  bearing,  irrigation,  783 — 
yield,  784. 

Tarsus  (Acting  Consular  Agent  Avania) 784,  785 

Situation,  yield,  784. 

Tripoli  (Acting  Consular  Agent  Yanni) 785,786 

Situation,  diseases,  planting,  785 — yield,  786. 
CONTINENT  OF  EUROPE. 

Austria- Hungary  (Consul-General  Weaver) 787-793 

Climate,  737 — industry,  soil,  pruning,  situation,  788 — yield,  pro- 
duction of  wine,  789 — phylloxera,  commerce  of  wine  and  argols, 
790 — duties,  791 — prices  and  consumption,  792. 
France: 

Southern  France  (Vice-Consul  Martin) 793,  800 

Climate,  soil,  varieties,  793— planting  Jand  culture,  795— ferti- 
lizers, 796— yield,  diseases,  797— wine  making,  799. 


20  INDEX    TO    SPECIAL    CONSULAR    REPORTS. 

Paga. 

CONTINENT  OF  EUKOPE — Continued. 
France —Continued. 

Champagne  (Consul  Frisbie) .— 800-809 

Cultivation,  801 — vineyards,  varieties,  802 — picking,  harvest, 
806— diseases,  807. 

Cognac  (Consul  Preston) 809-825 

Culture,  soil,  809 — report  of  Professor  Rivas,  810 — fields  of  demon- 
stration, 810 — reconstructing  vineyards  with  American  plants, 
811 — American  vines  in  calcareous  soils,  chlorosis  in  American 
vines,  813 — phylloxera,  825. 

Champagne,  phylloxera  in  (Consul  Preston,  Nice) 825,826 

Gironde  (Consul  Roosevelt) 826-836 

Soils,  826— sub-soils,  827— planting,  828— situation  and  care,  830— 
pruning,  833 — expenses  of  culture,  834. 

Italy  (Consul-General  Richmond) _ 836,837 

Cultivation,  836 — yield,  expenses,  837. 

Tuscany  (Consul  Welsh) 837,838 

Varieties,  837 — cultivation,  pruning,  soil,  838. 

Venetia  (Consul  Noyes)  ._ 839-846 

Climate  and  fruit  and  vine-growing,  839 — island  and  lagoon  vine- 
yards, 840 — vineyards  on  the  mainland,  841 — planting  and  cul- 
tivating, 842 — varieties,  843 — crop,  cultivation,  profits,  845. 

Russia  (Consul-General  Stanton) _ _ 846-851, 

Culture,  847 — yield,  848 — Caucasian  districts,   849 — Russian  vs. 

foreign  vines,  total  product,  850. 
Spain: 

Denia  ( Consul  Arquimbau) „ _ 851,852 

Production,  raisins,  851 — American  ships,  lumber,  852. 

Malaga  (Consul  Marston) 852-859 

Climate,  852 — situation,  pruning,  soil,  planting,  853 — cultivation, 
maturity,  irrigation,  yield,  picking,  854 — extent  of  cultivation, 
855. 

Turkey  in  Europe  (Consul-General  Heap) 859-866 

Situation,  859 — pruning,  soil,  cultivation,  860 — irrigation,  yield, 
863 — varieties,  864 — raisin-drying,  864 — packing,  865 — freights, 
866. 

Salonica  (Consular  Agent  Lazaro) 866,867 

Situation,  pruning,  soil,  cultivation,  maturity,  irrigation,  yield, 
866--climate,  867. 

SUPPLEMENT. 

CRYSTALLIZATION  OF  FRUIT. 

Marseilles  (Consul  Mason) : „ 871-876 

Supply  of  fruit,  process,  872 — uses  of  spent  syrup,  cost  and  market 
value,  874— industry  in  United  States,  875. 

Cognac  (Consul  Irish) _ ._  876-883 

Whitening    fruit,    877— sugaring    fruit,    878 — preparing    particular 
fruits,  879— iced  fruits,  881 — candied  fruits,  sugars,  882. 

Rheims  (Consul  Irish) 883-886 

Crystallized,  candied,  and  carameled  fruits,  884. 

Bordeaux  (Consul  Roosevelt) 886-888 

Apricots,  887 — cherries  and  chestnuts,  888. 


INDEX  TO  SPECIAL  CONSULAR  REPORTS.         21 

Page. 
CBYSTALIZATION  OF  FEUIT — Continued. 

Nice  (Consul  Hathaway) - 888-890 

Process  of  crystallizing  fruit,  Beauine"  barometer,  889 — production  and 
cost,  890. 

Clermont  Ferrand  (Consul  Dufais) 890,891 

Processes,  890. 
THE  DATE  PALM. 

Persia  (Minister  Pratt) 891,892 

Situation,  propagation,  planting,  fecundating,  891. 

ALMOND  TREE. 

Tangier  (Consul  Matthews) _ 892-894 

Cultivation,    soil,  varieties,  892 — propagation,  fertilizing,  maturity, 

yield,  893. 
GRAPE-VINE  FERTILIZER. 

St.  Etienne  (Commercial  Agent  Malmros) 894,895 

Recipe,  894. 
CITBOX  OF  COMMERCE. 

Rome  (Consul-General  Alden) 895,896 

Situation,  crop,  fruit,  895 — yield,  cost  of  production,  imports  and  ex- 
ports, process  of  preparation,  market  prices,  896. 

Leghorn  (Consul  Sartori) . 897,898 

Cultivation,  candying,  897. 

Messina  (Consul  Jones) _. 893-900 

Description  of  tree,  propagation,  898 — diseases,  shipment,  prices,  and 
exports,  899. 

Naples  (Consul  Camphausen) __. 900-902 

Cultivation,  900 — packing  and  preserving,  901. 

Sicily  (Consul  Woodcock) 902-906 

Location,  orchards,  902 — propagation,  orchards,  903 — gathering  and 
boxing,  904— diseases,  exports,  905. 

Cuba  (Consul  Pierce) _ _  906.907 

Cultivation,  uses,  906. 

Madeira  (Acting  Consul  Hutchinson) 907 

Cultivation,  prices,  and  shipments,  907. 

Mexico,  (Consul  Viosca) 907 

Cultivation,  exports,  907. 
FRUIT-TREE  CULTURE. 

Cognac  (Consul  Earle) _ _ _ _..  907-911 

Dwarfing,  907— method  of  planting,  909— shapes,  910. 
FRUIT  CULTURE. 

Mentone  (Consular  Agent  Viale) 911-916 

Lemon,  912 — diseases,  oranges,  913 — grape-vine,  propagation,  pruning, 
wine,  varieties,  914 — diseases,  olive-tree,  propagation,  yield,  insect 
pests,  cultivation,  916— miscellaneous  fruits,  perfumery,  916. 

Zante  (Consular  Agent  Crowe) 916-922 

Currant-grape  vineyards,  916 — planting  and  cultivation,  917 — irriga- 
tion, yield,  918— oranges  and  lemons,  919— olives,  920 — figs,  921. 

Alps,  Maritime  (Consul  Wilson) _ _ 922-924 

Palms,  cocoa,  cactus,  and  aloe,  922 — temperature,  climate,  923 — soil, 
agriculture,  olives,  oil,  924— varieties,  925 — age  of  bearing,  modes  of 
planting  and  cultivation,  best  trees,  time  of  gathering,  926 — how 


22  INDEX    TO    SPECIAL    CONSULAR   REPORTS. 

Page, 

FRUIT  CULTURE — Continued. 
Alps,  Maritime — Continued. 

planted,  olive  yield,  pickled  olives,  oil,  927 — oil  manufacture,  928 — 
irrigation,  situation,  diseases,  cost  and  profits,  929 — no  more  plant- 
ing of  olive  trees;  oranges,  and  lemons,  varieties,  and  value,  930 — 
propagation,  maladies,  situation,  irrigation,  931 — planting,  pruning, 
yield,  and  cost  of  cultivation,  932 — figs,  cultivation,  drying,  and 
curing  figs,  933 — raisins,  934. 
THE  MANGOSTEEN. 

Singapore  (Consul  Studer) _ _ _ 934-936 

Tannic  qualities,  934— fruits,  935. 
CULTIVATION  OP  TROPICAL  FRUITS. 

Samoa  (Vice-Consul  Blacklock) _ 936 

Oranges,  lemons,  figs,  and  olives,  936. 

Havraii  (Consul-General  Severance) 937 

Oranges,  figs,  937. 


573594 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CAUFORNIA  LIBRARY 


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